May the Force be With You

A force is a push, pull or twist

-What forces can do:
● Forces can make objects move faster
● Forces can make objects start moving
● Forces can make objects slow down
● Forces can make objects stop
● Forces can make objects change shape

-Types of Forces
● Applied Force: is a force that is applied to an object. It can be applied directly
(push or twist) or indirectly (pull) e.g. applying force on your keyboard while
typing
● Normal Force: the force that a surface exerts on an object it is in contact with. It is
always perpendicular to the surface. E.g. pulling a ball down when dropping it in
the air
● Friction Force: is the force that opposes motion between two surfaces. e.g. while
applying brakes on the car the brakes create friction with the road to stop the
vehicle
● Tension Force: is the force exerted by a stretched spring, rope or string. It acts in
the opposite direction to the pulling force. e.g. plucking a guitar string
● Magnetism: is the force that surrounds a magnet. e.g magnets stuck on a fridge
● Electrostatic Force: is the force caused by the attraction or repulsion of different
particles and materials based on their electrical changes. e.g. getting zapped
● Air Resistance: is a force caused by air molecules as they oppose the movement of
an object through the air. This is a type of friction which is also called drag.
● Gravity: is an attractive force between 2 objects due to their masses. Also
referred to as the weight force. e.g an apple falling from a tree
-The unit to measure forces are newtons (N)
-Forces can be divided into 2 groups
Contact Forces Non Contact Forces

A force that can change motion by A force that results when 2 objects are
touching it (Frictional, tension, air not in contact, yet can exert a push or pull
resistance) (Gravity, Magnetism, Normal,
Electrostatic)

Balanced VS Unbalanced Forces

-When opposing forces are equal in size Imagnitude) we call the forces balanced
-When forces are balanced, there is no movement
-If forces are balanced it doesn’t always mean the object isn't moving. It can also be the
object is moving at a constant speed.
-When opposing forces are not equal in size (magnitude), we called the forces
unbalanced
-When forces are unbalanced, then an object will change its movement.
-Net Force is the total force acting upon an object
-If the net force is zero, the motion of the object won't change
-If the net force is not zero, the motion of the object will change in the direction of the
force
-If the forces are in the same direction, add them and if they are in opposite directions,
subtract them.

Why Measure Forces?

-Force is a quantity on which many other physical quantities depend upon
-Accurate force measurements are required in many applications.
-These include the determination of
● Strength of materials
● Quality control during production
● Weighing
● Consumer Safety
Friction
- Force is a quantity on which many other physical quantities. Accurate force
measurements are required in many applications. These include the determination of
the strength of materials, quality control during production, weighing and consumer
safety
- Friction (contact force) is the force that opposes motion between 2 surfaces
- Useful friction: without friction, you cannot walk, run, ride a bike, travel or pick things
up.
- Helpful friction: People often use friction to slow things down. The brake blocks use
friction to slow down the bike wheel and when the skydiver opens the parachute, air
resistance slows him down
- Air resistance is a form of friction that happens in the air
- Factors that affect friction: Roughness of surfaces in contact, weight force of the object
being moved, the shape of the moving object

Factors that Affect Friction

The main factors that determine the strength of frictional force:
● The roughness of the materials that are in contact
● The force pressing the materials in contact together

-Friction occurs due to the roughness of two objects rubbing against each other
-This produces a resistive force
-So the more strongly the objects are pressed together, the more resistance they feel
when rubbing.
-For an object on the ground, the force pressing them together is the weight of the
object and its normal force
-So the heavier the object, the greater the frictional force
-For example, a car is less heavy compared to a truck. Since the truck is heavier, it
produces more frictional force.
The Problem of Friction
-Friction can have useful applications for us. However, there are two universal problems
whenever friction is involved
● Friction will wear down the objects in contact
● Friction will produce heat
-Friction can generate excessive heat and wear, leading to damage
-Friction can wear down the sole of your shoe, using sandpaper to smooth a surface,
tyre treads after constant use, aging leads to the loss of smooth cartilage between
bones, damaging their ends.
-Examples of friction-producing heat
● Braking produces heat which can further damage the wheels and braking system
● Hard drive disks heat up when in use – this is why computers have fans
-2kg: of glass floor, 2kg: of wood floorboards, 150 kg: of wood floorboards, 150 kg: of
concrete, 2000 kg: of concrete floor
DAEBC

Collisions and Impact Forces

-A collision occurs whenever two objects (including you) make contact
-All collisions involve energy and forces
-The greater the energy, the greater the forces and the more dangerous the collision is
-Energy is transferred into objects to exert a force
-When a collision occurs, energy from the colliding objects is transferred between them
-Factors that affect collision force
● Speed of the colliding objects: Faster objects have greater kinetic energy. Thus,
two objects colliding with greater speed will lead to a greater collision force
● Mass of the colliding objects: Mass also increases kinetic energy. Thus, a heavier
object will exert greater force in a collision.
● Material of the colliding objects: Cushioning materials can absorb energy and
disperse it to lessen the force directly felt. This is why styrofoam is used as
packaging material to protect goods

-Technologies for safety

● Many vehicles and sports have safety features to protect against collisions
● One major feature is the helmet
 ● Without a helmet, a collision with the head can seriously damage the brain
internally

Magnetism
-Magnets are objects that can push or pull most metals
-This they are able to exert forces
● Pulling magnetic force= attraction
● Pushing magnetic force = repulsion

-Examples of Magnetic and Non-Magnetic Metals

● Magnetic: Iron, nickel, cobalt and steel
● Non-magnetic Metals: aluminium, copper, lead and brass
-In society, magnets are used in things like credit cards, compasses, fridge accessories,
maglev trains etc.

-Magnetism in Reality
-Magnets have polarity, meaning they have two opposing poles: a north pole and a
south pole
-Like poles repel, unlike poles attract

How Do Magnets Work

-Magnetic materials are made of tiny components called magnetic domains
-Each domain has a small north and south pole
-In a material that is not magnetised the magnetic domains point is random directions
-In magnetised materials, all or most of the magnetic domains are arranged in the same
direction
-Some metal materials can be made magnetic by ‘brushing them’ with another magnet
to align the magnetic domains
-Other materials stop being magnetic quickly due to having unstable domains
-Permanent magnets are always magnetic, while temporary magnets lose their
magnetism
Magnetic Fields
-Magnetic force doesn't need a direct touch, so there must be some invisible area
around a magnet where the force can act
-We call this area a magnetic field
-Magnetic fields are represented using lines that ALWAYS from north pole to south pole
-Magnetic fields are strongest at the poles
-The closer the magnetic field lines are together, the stronger the magnetic forc
-Bar magnets, Horseshoe magnets, Neodymium magnets
-The Earth also has an enormous magnetic field that repels dangerous charged particles
and radiation from the sub
-It exists due to the movement of iron and nickel in the Earths core
-This means the Earths magnetic field changes over time

Electromagnets
-Electromagnets are magnets created using a current of electricity
-A coil of wire is the most common type of electromagnet
-When electriciy passes through, it creates a magnetic fields
-A solenoid is a type of electromagnet
-Electromagents help build powerful cranes

Advantages of Electromagnets
● Electromagnets can be turned on and off since they rely on electricity
● Magnetic field strength and polarity can be controlled by changing the current,
the coils or adding an iron core
● Can be made from any conductive material

Disadvantages of Electromagnets
● Electromagnets rely on electricity, so need a continuous power supply
● They generate high amounts of heat very quickly and can short circuit
dangerously
● Requires many coils for stronger magnetic fields
Gravity + Mass & Weight
-Gravity is a non-contact force that acts between objects with mass
-Gravity is an attractive force
-The greater the mass of the object, the stronger the gravitational force
-Objects fall because the Earth’s gravity pulls them down

Mass and Weight

-It is important to distinguish between mass and weight
● Mass: measure of matter. Given in grams, kilograms, etc.
● Weight: a measure of force due to gravity. Given in Newtons
-We often use ‘weight’ to mean ‘mass’ because of how it is measured, even though mass is
more relevant to us
-Gravity acts between any two objects with mass. It is felt by BOTH.

Falling Objects
-Gravity accelerates all objects towards the Earth at the same rate
-Acceleration downwards = 9.8 m/ s squared
-Air resistance can make some objects fall slower than others - think air friction

Gravitational force
-Gravitational force can be measured with the formula: F=mg
-F is the force in Newtons
-m in the mass in kg
-g is the acceleration due to gravity in m/s squared
-So gravitational force is 9.8 times the mass of an object
-Acceleration downwards = 9.8 m/ s squared
-A brick with a mass of 2.5 kg
2.5 x 9.8= 24.5 N

1. 24.5 N
2. 31360 N
3. 2793000 N

-Weight scales are calibrated to show our mass after measuring our weight
-If the weight shown is 392 N, the mass that caused this is:
F=m x g
392=m x 9.8
392/9.8
=40 kg

-Gravity is an attractive force that acts between all objects with mass. Since people and the
Earth both have mass, there is a gravitational force that pulls both towards each other. However,
the strength of gravity increases with higher mass. Therefore, the Earth has a much larger
gravitational force than a person, who would appear to be pulled towards the Earth which stays
still. In reality, the Earth is also being pulled towards the person, but this force is too weak to be
visible.
-Mass is not the only factor that affects gravitational force
-The greater the distance from an object's centre of mass, the weaker the gravitational force

Electrostatic Forces
-Charges in materials are due to the structure of atoms
-Recall that atoms make up all matter, and are themselves made of smaller particles
● Protons = positive charge
● Electrons = negative charge
● Neutrons =neutral/no charge
-When the number of protons to electrons changes, the overall charge of the material changes
too
-When two objects with unbalanced charges are brought together, the experience an
electrostatic force
-Similar to magnets like charges repel while unlike charges attract
-The force is carried by an invisible electric field around the charged object

-How do objects gain an imbalanced charge?

-Electrons can move between atoms, but protons cannot
-When two surfaces rub against each other, electrons can jump from one surface to the other
-This leaves uneven numbers of electrons

-Once the electrons have moved, they stay there until there is a chance to move back
-This is why we also call an imbalance charge a ‘static electricity’.
Applications of an electrostatic force
-Inkjet printers
● Inkjet printer nozzles release tiny ink drops that are given an electric charge
● This allows a pair of charged plates to direct the ink drops onto paper with high precision

Lightening
-Tiny particles with positive and negative charges
-Negative chrarges move from cloud to grow
-Positive charges are from the ground to upwards
-Bursts of light in lightening is purely electricity
-Occurs in the downdrafts and updrafts of thunderstorms
-Takes nearly 100 lives per year on average in the US
-Lighter particles moves towards the top of the clouds and gets positively charged
-Heavier particles move towaeds the bottom of the clouds and get negatively charged

Lightening refers to giant sparks of electricity between clouds, the air and the ground. Lightening
occurs in the downdrafts and updrafts of thunderstorms. Lightening is released when positive
and negative charges in a cloud grow large enough. Most of the lightening

Pronumeral
Variable
Algebraic term
Term
Like terms
Unlike terms
Coefficient
Constant
Lhs
Rhs
Equation
Expression
Values that make up an equation are solutions
Distributive law
Rational numbers
Irrational numbers
Quadratic equation a squared term with no higher power
2 types of solutions for quadratic equations either positive or negative
Surds are square roots that cannot be reduced to whole numbers and are left inn the exact form
If x squared=c and c is equal to 0 their are no possible solutions