Mathematics in the Modern World Mathematical Language and Symbols | Chapter 2

Sets
Definition of a Set
A set is a collection of well – defined distinct objects called elements.

Some Example of Sets

• A set of all positive integers
• A set of all the planets in the solar system
• A set of all regions in the Philippines
• A set of all teachers in Saint Louis College

A set is represented by a capital letter and can be written explicitly by listing its
elements using braces while its elements are represented by lowercase letters.

Notation:
• If x is a member or element of the set A, we write x ∈ A.
• If x is not an element of A, we write x ∉ A.
Example:
Let A be the set of all positive integers.
➢ A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, . . .}
➢ 1 ∈ A but 0 ∉ A

Representation of a Set
Sets can be represented in two ways − Roster or Tabular Method and the Rule
Method using the Set Builder Notation.

Roster or Tabular Method

This is a method of representing a set which is done by listing or
enumerating all the elements comprising it. The elements are enclosed within
braces and separated by commas.

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Examples:
1. set of vowels in the English alphabet, A = {a, e, i, o, u}
2. set of multiples of 4 less than 20, B = {4, 8, 12, 16}

Rule Method
This is a method of representing a set which is done by describing the elements
of it. The set is defined by specifying a property that elements of the set have in
common. It is written using the Set Builder Notation.
A = {x|x is a(an) . . . }
Examples:
1. set of vowels in the English alphabet, A = {x|x is a vowel in the English
alphabet }
2. set of multiples of 4 less than 20, B = { x|x is a multiple of 4 less than 20}

List of some important sets

N − the set of all natural numbers = {1,2,3,4,.....}
Z − the set of all integers = {.....,−3,−2,−1,0,1,2,3,.....}
Z+ − the set of all positive integers
Q − the set of all rational numbers
R − the set of all real numbers
W − the set of all whole numbers

Cardinality of a Set
The cardinality of a set A, denoted by n(A), is the number of elements of the set.
The number is also referred as the cardinal number. If a set has an infinite number of
elements, its cardinality is ∞.
Examples:
1. Let A be the set of all positive integers, i.e., A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, . . .}. The
cardinality of set A is ∞, denoted as n(A) = ∞.
2. Let B be the set of vowels in the English alphabet, i.e., B = {a, e, i, o, u}. The
cardinality of set B is 5, denoted as n(B) = 5

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Types of Sets
1. Finite Set
A finite set is a set which contains a definite or a countable number of
elements.
Examples:
a. set of vowels in the English alphabet
b. set of continents in the world
c. set of planets in the solar system
d. set of universities in the Philippines

2. Infinite Set
An infinite set is a set which contains an unlimited or uncountable number
of elements.
Examples: set of real numbers

3. Empty Set or Null Set

An empty or null set is a set that contains no elements. It is denoted by ∅.
The cardinality of empty set or null set is zero.
Examples:
a. set of all even numbers that are also odd
b. set of all whole numbers less than zero

4. Singleton Set or Unit Set

A singleton set or a unit set is a set that contains only one element.
Examples:
a. set of all numbers that are neither positive nor negative
b. set of all numbers that are neither prime nor composite

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5. Universal Set
A universal set is a collection of all elements in a particular context or
application. All the sets in that context or application are essentially subsets of this
universal set. Universal sets are represented as U.
Examples:
a. Let U be the set of all animals on earth
b. Let U be the set of all students in SLC

6. Subset

A set A is a subset of set B if every element of A is an element of set B.

Examples:
a. Let U be the set of all animals on earth
• set of all mammals is a subset of U
• set of all fishes is a subset of U
• set of all insects is a subset of U, and so on.
b. Let U be the set of all students in SLC
• set of all Elementary students in SLC is a subset of U
• set of all Senior High School students in SLC is a subset of U
• set of all Education students in SLC is a subset of U

Proper Subset
The term “proper subset” can be defined as “subset of but not equal to”. A
set A is a proper subset of set B if every element of A is an element of set B
and n(A) < n(B). It is denoted by ⊂.
Examples:
a. Let A = {1,2,3,4,5,6} and B = {1,2}. Here set B ⊂ A since all elements
in B are contained in A too and set A has at least one element more than
set B.

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b. Let C = {a,b,c,d,e,f,g,h,i,j} and D = {b,c,d,f,g,h,j}. Here set D ⊂ C since all

elements in D are contained in C too and set C has at least one element
more than set D.
Improper Subset
An improper subset is a subset which contains all the elements of the
original set. A set A is an improper subset of set B if every element of A is an
element of set B and n(A) = n(B). Basically, the improper set includes the null set
and the original set itself. It is denoted by ⊆.
Examples:
a. Let A = {1,2,3,4,5,6} and B = {6,4,2,5,3,1}. Here set B ⊆ A since all
elements in B are contained in A too and set B has the same cardinality
as set A.
b. Let C = {p,e,a,r} and D = {r,e,a,p}. Here set D ⊆ C since all elements
in D are contained in C too and set D has the same number of elements
as set C.

7. Equal Set
If two sets, A and B, have the same elements they are said to be equal. In
symbols we write A = B.
Example:
If A = {a,r,c} and B = {c,a,r}, they are equal because every element of set A
is an element of set B and every element of set B is also an element of set A. In
symbols, A = B.

8. Equivalent Set
If the two sets, A and B, have the same cardinalities, then the two sets are
said to be equivalent sets. In symbols we write A ≡ B.~
Example:
If M = {a,r,c} and J = {c,a,r}, they are equivalent because the sets have the
same number of elements. Hence, M ≡ J

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9. Joint or Overlapping Set

Joint or overlapping sets are sets that have at least one common element.
Examples:
a. Let A = {a,b,c} and B = {a,e,i,o,u}. The common element is ‘a’, hence
these sets are overlapping.
b. Let C = {1,2,3,4,5} and D = {2,4,6,8,10}. The two sets have common
elements which are 2 and 4, therefore the sets are joint.

10. Disjoint Set

Disjoint sets are sets that do not have common element or elements.
Example: Let A = {b,c,d,f,g,h,j} and B = {a,e,i,o,u}. There is no common element,
hence these sets are disjoint.

Venn Diagram

Venn diagram is an illustration showing the relationship between sets. This

diagram was invented in 1880 by John Venn.

Examples:

A B U U U

A B A B C
C

Set Operations
Set Operations include Union, Intersection, Difference, Complement, and
Cartesian Product.

1. Union of Sets

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Let A and B be the two given sets. The union of sets A and B, denoted by
A ∪ B, is the set of elements which are in A, in B, or in both sets. Hence,
A ∪ B = {x | x ∈ A OR x ∈ B}.
Example: A B
If A = {0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9} and
B= {1,3,5,7,9,11,13,15},
then
A ∪ B = {0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,11,13,15}. U

2. Intersection of Sets
Let A and B be the two given sets. The intersection of sets A and B,
denoted by A∩B, is the set of elements which are in both A and B. That is,
A∩B = {x | x ∈ A AND x ∈ B}
Example: If A = {0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9} and A B
B = {1,3,5,7,9,11,13,15}, then
A ∩ B = {1,3,5,7,9}. U
3. Difference between Sets
Let A and B be the two given sets. The difference of sets A and B, denoted
by A – B, is the set that contains elements of set A that are not found in B.
Hence, A – B = {x | x ∈ A AND x ∉ B}.
Examples: A B
If A = {0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9} and
B = {1,3,5,7,9,11,13,15}, then
B – A = {11,13,15}. U
A – B = {0,2,4,6,8}
4. Complement of a Set
Let A and B be the two given sets. The complement of a set A, denoted
by A′, is the set that contains the elements which are not in set A. Hence, A′ = {x
| x ∉ A}. More specifically, A′ = (U − A) where U is a universal set which contains
all objects.

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Example:
If U = {x | x is a letter in the English alphabet}
A
A = {x | x is a vowel}
A’
A′ = { x | x is a consonant}

5. Cartesian Product / Cross Product

Let A and B be the two given sets. The Cartesian product of n number of
sets A1, A2,…, An denoted as A1 × A2 ⋯ × An can be defined as all possible ordered
pairs (x1, x2, …, xn) where x1 ∈ A1, x2 ∈ A2,…, xn ∈ An
Example:
Let A = {a, b} and B = {1, 2}.
• A × B = {(a,1), (a,2), (b,1), (b,2)}
• B × A = {(1,a), (1,b), (2,a), (2,b)}

Relations and Functions

What can you conclude based on the following facts?
• Our expenditure largely depends on our income
• The price of oil is highly affected by the dollar-peso rate
• The price of finished products depends on the price of raw materials used
• The area of a circle depends on its diameter
• The volume of a cube depends on the size of its edge
• The distance traveled by a car depends on the car’s speed and time spent
traveling
This brings us the idea that one variable is sometimes related to another variable.
Now, let us look into the following observations.
• 1. AA∪B
Suppose we are given two nonempty sets, say and B, where 6. (A∩B)’
A = {a, b, c} and B = {1, 2, 3} 2. B – A 7. (A∪B)’
• 3. B’set B. One possible
Suppose we pair the elements of set A with those 8. A’ pair
∩B can be
recorded as (a, 1), (b, 2), (c, 3). 4. (A−B)’ 9. U
5. A∩B 10. A – B’

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a 1
b 2
c 3

These new objects (a, 1), (b, 2), (c, 3) are called “ordered pairs” The word “ordered”
means that in the pairing process, the order of writing the element is important.
For example, the ordered pair (a, 1) will generally be different from the ordered
pair (1, a). The elements composing an ordered pair are called components. In an ordered
pair (a, 1), a is the first component and 1 is the second component
Let us now recall the definition of a cross product. We let A and B be two,
nonempty sets. The cross product of A and B, denoted by A x B is given as A x B = {(x,
y) | x є A and y є B}. This means that the cross product of A and B or A x B is the collection
of all ordered pairs such that the first component belongs to set A and the second
component belongs to set B.

Example: Suppose C = {0, 2, 4} and D = {x, y}. Then,

1. C x C = {(0, 0), (0, 2), (0,4),(2, 0), (2, 2), (2, 4),(4,0),(4,2),(4,4)}
2. C x D = {(0, x), (0, y), (2, x), (2, y), (4, x), (4, y)}
3. D x C = {(x, 0), (y, 0), (x, 2), (y, 2), (x, 4), (y, 4)}

Definition (Relation)
A relation, say R, from A to B is any nonempty subset of the cross product A x B.
In our previous example, suppose C = {0, 2, 4}, D = {x, y}, then we can say that R
= {(0, x), (0,y)} is a relation of C x D. We also say that S = {(2, y), (4, y)} is another relation
of C x D.

Definition (Domain; Range)

Suppose R is a relation from set A to B. Then, the domain of R (dom R) is the set
of all first components of all ordered pairs found in R.

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dom R = {x | (x,y)є R}

The range of R (rng R) is the set of all second components of all ordered pairs
belonging to R.
rng R = {y | (x,y) є R}

Examples:
1. Consider the relation R from the set of integers, Z to Z such that
R = {(x, y) |x, y є Z and y =2x}. Then, we say the following:
dom R = “the set of Integers” or Z
. rng R = “the set of even integers” or 2Z

2. Consider the sets

F = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} and G = {0, 1, 2, 3} and the relation T from F to G, where
T = {(x, y) | x є F, y є G and x² + y² = 25}. Then,
T = {(4, 3), (5, 0)}; hence, dom T = {4, 5} and rng T = {3, 0}

Definition (Function)
Let A and B be nonempty sets. A function f from A to B is a relation from A to B
such that the following conditions hold:
1. Dom f = A
2. No two ordered pairs in f must have the same first component. That is, if
(x, y) є f and (x, w) є f, then y = w.

Remark: For a function, there must be a unique value y for each value of x in the domain
of the function.

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The vertical line test states that the graph of a function can be intersected by a
vertical line in at most one point. R={(B,1),(C,2),(D,4),(F,3)}

Can you determine which of the following figures illustrate a function?

B 1 B 1 B 1 B 1
C 2 C 2 C 2 C 2
D 3 D 3 D 3 D 3
E 4 E 4 E 4 E

Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4

Note that figure 1 and figure 2 both satisfy the two conditions for a function.
However, in figure 3, one component or element in the domain is mapped to two
components or elements in the co-domain, hence not a function, while in figure 4, not all
elements in the domain were mapped, and so is also not a function.

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