Human behaviors in an organization
Ronnel Fernando | Semi-Finals
CHAPTER 11: Traditional leadership
approaches
- THE NATURE OF LEADERSHIP:
 Leadership - both a process and a property
- involves the use of noncoercive influence
- the set of characteristics attributed to those who
are perceived to use such influence successfully
 Influence - the ability to affect the perceptions, beliefs,
attitudes, motivation, and/or behaviors of others.
LEADERSHIP VS. MANAGEMENT:
 Influence - the ability to affect the perceptions, beliefs,
attitudes, motivation, and/or behaviors of others.
- EARLY APPROACHES TO LEADERSHIP:
 Trait Approach - identifying leadership traits,
developing methods for measuring them, and using the
methods to select leaders.
BEHAVIORAL APPROACHES TO LEADERSHIP:
 Behavioral Approach - determine what behaviors are
associated with effective leadership.
 Michigan Leadership Studies - The goal of this work
was to determine the pattern of leadership behaviors
that results in effective group performance
- a program of research conducted at the
University of Michigan.
* Two Basic Forms of Leader Behavior
 Job-Centered leader behavior - pays close attention to
the work of subordinates, explains work procedures,
and is mainly interested in performance.
 Employee-centered leader behavior - attempts to build
effective work groups with high-performance goals.
- The leader’s main concern is with high performance, but
that is to be achieved by paying attention to the human
aspects of the group.
 Ohio State Leadership Studies - Defined leader
consideration and initiating-structure behaviors as
independent dimensions of leadership
- conducted in the late 1940s and early 1950s
*2 most common leader behaviors:
1. Consideration Behavior - the leader is concerned with
the subordinates’ feelings and respects subordinates’ ideas.
2. Initiating-Structure Behavior - the leader clearly defines
the leader–subordinate roles so that subordinates know
what is expected of them.
 Leadership Grid (previously known as Managerial
Grid) - provides a means for evaluating leadership
styles and then training managers to move toward an
ideal style of behavior.
- THE EMERGENCE OF SITUATIONAL LEADERSHIP
MODELS:
 Situational Models - assume that appropriate leader
behavior varies from one situation to another.
 Managerial Characteristics - include the manager’s
value system, confidence in subordinates, personal
inclinations, and feelings of security
 Subordinate Characteristics - include the
subordinates’ need for independence, readiness to
assume responsibility, tolerance for ambiguity, interest
in the problem, understanding of goals, knowledge,
experience, and expectations
THREE WIDELY ACCEPTED SITUATIONAL
THEORIES:
1. LPC theory of leadership (originally called “contingency
theory of leadership”) - explain and reconcile both the
leader’s personality and the complexities of the situation
LPC: “least-preferred coworker,” - Scale presumed to
measure a leader’s motivation
- some leaders may be effective in one situation or
organization but not in another.
 Leader-Member Relations - refer to the personal
relationship that exists between subordinates and their
leader.
- the extent to which subordinates trust, respect, and have
confidence in their leader
 Task Structure - the second most important
determinant of situational favorableness.
- The LPC theory presumes that structured tasks are more
favorable because
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 the leader need not be closely involved in defining
activities and can devote time to other matters
 Leader Position Power - the power inherent in the
leader’s role itself.
2. Path-Goal Theory of Leadership - suggests that effective
leaders clarify the paths (behaviors) that will lead to desired
rewards (goals)
- subordinates are motivated by their leader to the extent
that the behaviors of that leader influence their
expectancies.
- also suggests that a leader may behave in different ways
in different situations.
FOUR KINDS OF LEADER BEHAVIOR:
- Directive Leadership: the leader lets subordinates know
what is expected of them, gives specific guidance as to how
to accomplish tasks, schedules work to be done, and
maintains definitive standards of performance for
subordinates
- Supportive Leadership: is friendly and shows concern for
subordinates’ status, well-being, and needs.
- Participative Leadership: the leader consults with
subordinates about issues and takes their suggestions into
account before making a decision.
- Achievement-Oriented Leadership: involves setting
challenging goals, expecting subordinates to perform at
their highest level, and showing strong confidence that
subordinates will put forth effort and accomplish the goals.
3. Vroom’s Decision Tree Approach - Attempts to
prescribe how much participation subordinates should be
allowed in making decisions
- Victor Vroom and Philip Yetton
FIVE DECISION STYLES:
- Decide: The manager makes the decision alone and then
announces or “sells” it to the group.
- Delegate: The manager allows the group to define for
itself the exact nature and parameters of the problem and
then develop a solution.
- Consult (Individually): The manager presents the program
to group members individually, obtains their suggestions,
and then makes the decision.
- Consult (Group): The manager presents the problem to
group members at a meeting, gets their suggestions, and
then makes the decision.
- Facilitate: The manager presents the problem to the group
at a meeting, defines the problem and its boundaries, and
then facilitates group member discussion as members make
the decision.
CHAPTER 12: Contemporary views of
leadership in organizations
- CONTEMPORARY SITUATIONAL THEORIES:
 Leader-Member exchange model (LMX) - stresses
the importance of variable relationships between
supervisors and each of their subordinates.
 Vertical-dyad - the superior-subordinate pair
 In-group - small number of trusted subordinates
- often receives special duties requiring more
responsibility
 Out-group - Subordinates who are not a part of this
group
- they receive less of the supervisor’s time
and attention.
 Hersey and Blanchard Model - appropriate leader
behavior depends on the “readiness” of the leader’s
followers.
 Readiness - subordinate’s degree of motivation,
competence, experience, and interest in accepting
responsibility.
- LEADERSHIP THROUGH THE EYES OF FOLLOWERS:
THREE PRIMARY APPROACHES TO
LEADERSHIP:
 Transformational Leader - focuses on the basic
distinction between leading for change and leading for
stability
 Transactional Leader - Leadership focused on routine,
regimented activities
 Charismatic Leadership - accordingly a type of
influence based on the leader’s personal charisma
- Charisma: a form of interpersonal attraction that inspires
support and acceptance.
 Attribution Perspective on Leadership - when
behaviors are observed in a context associated with
leadership, different people may attribute varying
levels of leadership ability or power to the person
displaying those behaviors.
- ALTERNATIVES TO LEADERSHIP:
 Leadership Substitutes - are individual, task, and
organizational characteristics that tend to outweigh the
leader’s ability to affect subordinates’ satisfaction and
performance
 Leadership Neutralizers - Factors that render
ineffective a leader’s attempts to engage in various
leadership behaviors
- THE CHANGING NATURE OF LEADERSHIP:
 Mentor - role of helping a less experienced person
learn the ropes to better prepare himself or herself to
advance within the organization.
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 - EMERGING ISSUES IN LEADERSHIP:
 Strategic Leadership - the capability to understand the
complexities of both the organization and its
environment and to lead change in the organization so
as to achieve and maintain a superior alignment
between the organization and its environment.
 Ethical Leadership - the process of leading based on
consistent principles of ethical conduct.
 Virtual Leadership - leadership via various forms of
distance technologies.
CHAPTER 13: POWER, INFLUENCE, AND
POLITICS
- POWER IN ORGANIZATIONS:
 Power - a person’s or group’s potential to influence
another person or group to do something that would
not otherwise have been done.
 Need for Power - the desire to control and influence
others or to be responsible for others
 Leadership Motive Pattern - a high need for power
and a low need for affiliation.
 Position Power - power based on one’s position in the
organization
 Legitimate Power - a form of position power based on
a person’s holding a managerial position rather than
anything the manager is or does as a person.
- the formal authority the firm gives a manager to hire new
employees, assign work, monitor employees’ work, and
enforce organizational rules.
 Reward Power - position power that involves the use
of both tangible and intangible rewards to influence
and motivate followers.
 Coercive Power - A position power based on fear or a
desire to avoid punishment
 Personal Power - based on the characteristics of that
individual and stays with the individual regardless of
where that person works.
 Expert Power - based on an individual’s expertise in
some area.
 Informational Power - Power derived from control
over information
 Referent Power - another type of personal power
based on a manager’s charisma or attractiveness to
others.
 Persuasive Power - due to the ability to use logic and
facts to persuade others to adopt one’s ideas or
perspectives.
- USING POWER:
 Abuse of Power - using any type of power to demean,
exploit, or take advantage of another or influencing
someone to do something the person later regrets
 Empowerment - The degree to which power is shared
in an organization and employees have the authority to
make and implement at least some decisions
- INFLUENCE IN ORGANIZATIONS:
 Influence Tactics - How people translate their power
to affect the behavior of others
 Coalition Tactics - Engaging the help of others to
persuade someone to do something;
 Consultation - Requesting someone’s advice to solve
a problem or mutually setting goals to increase a
follower’s commitment to the leader’s decision
 Exchange - Offering to exchange something of value
now or in the future for someone’s cooperation
 Ingratiation - Flattering or praising people to put them
in a good mood or to make them more likely to want
to help
 Inspirational Appeals - Appealing to someone’s
aspirations, values, and ideals to gain his or her
commitment, or increasing people’s confidence
 Legitimating Tactics - Enhancing one’s formal
authority to make a certain request by referring to
rules, precedents, or official documents
 Personal Appeals - Asking someone to do something
“because we’re friends” or asking for a personal favor
 Pressure - Using coercion or persistent follow-up or
reminders to gain influence
 Rational Persuasion (or reason) - Using logic and facts
to persuade someone
RESPONSES TO INFLUENCE ATTEMPTS:
 Commitment - Endorsing and becoming an actively
involved participant as a result of the influence
attempt
 Compliance - Going along with what the influencer
wants without being personally committed
 Passive Resistance - Rejecting the influence attempt
but not getting in the way of what the influencer is
trying to do.
 Active Resistance - Rejecting the influence attempt
and actively trying to stop the influencer from doing
what he or she is trying to do
 Upward-Influence Styles - Combinations of upward
influence tactics that tend to be used together
 Upward-Influence - Influencing superiors
FOUR UPWARD INFLUENCE STYLES:
1. Shotgun - uses the most influence and emphasizes
assertiveness and bargaining.
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2. Tactician - uses an average amount of influence and - the core of what coordinates, controls, and motivates
emphasizes reason. employees to cooperate toward the attainment of
3. Bystander - uses little influence with superiors. organizational goals.
4. Ingratiator - uses a friendliness strategy but also uses the  Organizational Chart - Diagram of the chain of
other influence strategies to some extent. command and reporting relationships in a company
- ORGANIZATIONAL POLITICS: CHARACTERISTICS OF ORGANIZATIONAL
STRUCTURE:
 Organizational Politics - are social influence attempts
 Division of Labor - reflects the degree to which
directed at people who can provide rewards that will
employees specialize or perform a variety of tasks as
help promote or protect the self-interests of the actor.
generalists.
COMMON POLITICAL TACTICS IN
 Span of Control - The number of people reporting
ORGANIZATIONS:
directly to an individual
1. Controlling information: restricting information to
 Hierarchy - outlines supervision relationships by
certain people
giving some employees authority over others.
2. Controlling lines of communication: establishing
 Formalization - reflects the extent to which
gatekeepers to restrict access to information
organizational rules, procedures, and communications
3. Using outside experts: outside consultants may seem
are written down.
neutral, but are paid and directed by management to “do
 Centralized Organizations - Concentrate power and
their bidding”
decision-making authority at higher levels of the
4. Controlling the agenda: to ensure only certain topics are
organization
discussed
 Decentralized Organizations - give lower levels more
5. Game playing: leaking information, getting only friends
authority and autonomy for making decisions
to provide feedback, and so on
6. Image building: enlisting “spin doctors” to project a
 Mechanistic Organizations - rigid, traditional
desirable image
bureaucracies with centralized power and hierarchical
7. Building coalitions: befriending powerful others or
communications.
starting small subgroups to promote specific aims
 Organic Organizations - flexible, decentralized
8. Controlling decision parameters: trying to influence
organizations with unclear lines of authority
decisions before they are made
9. Eliminating political rivals: this may even mean getting - DETERMINANTS OF ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURE:
them promoted to get them out of the way
- IMPRESSION MANAGEMENT:
 Impression Management - the process of portraying a
desired image or attitude to control the impression
others form of us.
 Self-Monitoring - having a high concern with others’
perceptions of us and adjusting our behavior to fit the
situation
CHAPTER 14: organizational structure
and design
- ELEMENTS OF ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURE:
 Organizational Design - the process of selecting and
managing aspects of organizational structure and  Unit Production - it produces in small batches or
culture to enable the organization to achieve its goals. makes one-of-a kind custom products
 Organizational Structure - the formal system of task,  Mass Production - it makes large volumes of identical
power, and reporting relationships. products, typically using assembly lines and machines.
- One of the most important outcomes of organizational  Continuous Production - machines constantly make
design the product and employees monitor the machines and
plan changes.

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 - TYPES OF ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURES:
 Prebureaucratic Structure - Smaller organizations
with low standardization, total centralization, and
mostly one-on-one communication
 Bureaucratic structure - An organizational structure
with formal division of labor, hierarchy, and
standardization of work procedures
SIX COMMON BASES FOR GROUPING
EMPLOYEES:
1. Employee knowledge and skills: Employees are
grouped by what they know
2. Business function: Employees are grouped by business
function; for example, many organizations have
departments of human resources, marketing, and research
and development.
3. Work process: Employees are grouped based on the
activities they do; for example, a retailer may have different
retail store and online departments reflecting two different
sales processes.
4. Output: Employees are grouped based on the products
or services they work on; for example, Colgate-Palmolive
has two business divisions: One division includes oral,
personal, and home-care products and the other focuses on
pet nutrition.
5. Client: Employees are grouped based on the type of
clients they serve; for example, Dell Computer has
different departments supporting home, medium and small
business, the public sector, and large business customers.
6. Location: Employees are grouped based on the
geographical areas they serve; for example, many retailers
including Lowe’s Home Improvement divide employees by
regions.
 Functional Structure - groups people with the same
skills, or who use similar tools or work processes,
together into departments.
 Division - a collection of functions organized around
a particular geographic area, product or service, or
market
 Matrix Structure - Employees report to both a project
or product team and to a functional manager
 Team-Based Structure - create horizontal or vertical
teams that can define part or all of the organization.
- do not report to a second functional manager.
 Lattice Structure - cross-functional and cross-level
sub teams are formed and dissolved as necessary to
complete specific projects and tasks.
- common in consulting organizations.
 Network Organization - a collection of autonomous
units or firms that act as a single larger entity, using
social mechanisms for coordination and control.
- CONTEMPORARY ISSUES IN ORGANIZATIONAL
STRUCTURES:
 Virtual Organization - one that contracts out almost
all of its functions except for the company name and
managing the coordination among the contractors.
 Direct Contact - Managers from different units
informally work together to coordinate or to identify
and solve shared problems
 Liaison Role - A manager or team member is held
formally accountable for communicating and
coordinating with other groups
 Task Force - A temporary committee formed to
address a specific project or problem
 Cross-functional team - A permanent task force
created to address specific problems or recurring
needs
 Communities of Practice - Groups of people whose
shared expertise and interest in a joint enterprise
informally bind them together
CHAPTER 15: organizational culture
 Organizational Culture - A system of shared values,
norms, and assumptions that guide members’ attitudes
and behaviors
- THE MEANING AND DETERMINANTS OF
ORGANIZATIONAL CULTURE:
 Artifacts - physical manifestations of the culture
including the myths and stories told about the
organization or its founder, awards, ceremonies and
rituals, decorations, office space allocations, the dress
code, etc.
 Espoused values and norms - those that are explicitly
stated by the organization.
 Enacted values and norms - those that employees
exhibit based on their observations of what actually
goes on in the organization.
 Assumptions - those organizational values that have
become so taken for granted over time that they
become the core of the company’s culture.
- CULTURES OF CONFLICT AND CULTURES
OF INCLUSION:
 Conflict Culture - Shared norms for managing
conflict
 Active conflict management norms - Resolve conflict
openly
 Passive conflict management norms - Avoid
addressing conflict
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 Agreeable conflict management norms - Resolve
conflict in a cooperative manner
 Disagreeable conflict management norms - Resolve
conflict competitively

 Culture of Inclusion - The extent to which majority

members value efforts to increase minority
representation, and whether the qualifications and
abilities of minority members are questioned
 Innovation - The process of creating and doing new
things that are introduced into the marketplace as
products, processes, or services
 radical innovation (disruptive innovation) - A major
breakthrough that changes or creates whole industries
 systems innovation - Creates a new functionality by
assembling parts in new ways
 incremental innovation - Continues the technical
improvement and extends the applications of radical
and systems innovations
 Intrapreneurship - Entrepreneurial activity that takes
place within the context of a large organization
 Socialization - The process through which individuals
become social beings
 Organizational Socialization - the process through
which employees learn about their organization’s
culture and pass their knowledge and understanding
on to others.