Degree in Sound and Image In Telecommunication Engineering

Department of Physics, System Engineering and Signal Theory

ACOUSTICS
SESSIONS 3 & 4: LONGITUDINAL VIBRATIONS IN BARS
1. OBJECTIVES

● Analysis of longitudinal vibrations in bars.

● Determination of the Young’s modulus for the material from which the different bars
are made.

2. MATERIAL

A set of type 304 stainless steel bars of different length, a tape measure, a scale, a
hammer, a microphone, a preamplifier and an oscilloscope.

3. THEORY

Assuming a bar with length L and constant section S and considering a small portion dx
in x (see Figure 1).

Figure 1: Compression forces analysis for an element dx in a bar.

If we focus on the behaviour of an element dx in the bar subjected to a perturbation 𝜉,

its position and size will be modified as shown in Figure 1. The variation in size is equal to the
perturbation itself:

𝑑 𝑥 + 𝜉 − 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑑𝜉 (1)

Now we can calculate the relative deformation:

𝑑 𝑥+𝜉 −𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝜉
= 𝑑𝑥 =  (2)
𝑑𝑥

In the specific case of a bar subjected to compression, elastic forces start to act in the bar
cross section holding it together. The tension is defined as the force per unit area:

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F
 (3)
S

For most materials, if deformation is small, there exists a linear relationship between
tension and deformation. This relationship is called Hooke's law for elastic solids:

  E  (4)

where E is the Young’s modulus or modulus of elasticity. This parameter is characteristic

of each material and increases as the material stiffness does. Figure 2 shows values of Young’s
modulus for different materials:

MORE
RESISTANCE TO
DEFORMATION

Figure 2: Young’s moduli for some materials (1 GN=0.0647989 g).

In the linear range, there is direct proportionality between tension (stress) and relative
deformation (strain). If deformation increases beyond the linear range, solid stops deforming
proportionally to the tension and may reach the breaking point, where the material loses all its
elastic properties and finally breaks.

Following Hooke's law (   E  ), we can obtain a relationship between force and

deformation:

F d
E (5)
S dx
d
F ES (6)
dx

Therefore, if we focus on the tension at each end of the dx element shown in Figures 1
and 3, we can obtain the following expressions:

F1
 ( x)  (7)
S
F
 ( x  dx)  2 (8)
S

If we consider that the variation in tension can be estimated at the central point of the dx
differential element:

F2  F1 dF
 (9)
S S

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Figure 3: Compression forces analysis for an element dx in a bar with a deformation ξ.


x  dx  x (10)
 ( x  dx )   ( x) 
x
F2  F1 
 dx (11)
S x

Taking into account Hooke’s law (Equation 4):

( E )
F2  F1  S dx (12)
x

dF  S E dx (13)
x

If we apply Equation 2 and Newton’s second law, we can get to Equation 16:

 2
dF  S E dx (14)
x 2
2 x
dF  dm a  dm 2 (15)
t
2
2 x
S E 2 dx  dm 2 (16)
x t

If we express the mass in terms of the volume mass density of the bar (, in kg m-3):

𝑑𝑚 = 𝜌 𝑆 𝑑𝑥 (17)

and considering that deformation ξ is proportional to x (and so their second order

derivatives), we obtain Equation 18:

 2 x  2

t 2 t 2
 2  2  2 E  2
SE 2 S 2  2  (18)
x t t  x 2

This is the equation of motion for longitudinal vibrations (ξ) in a bar with length L,
constant section S and volume mass density . Phase velocity (velocity of propagation) is
therefore:
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𝐸
𝑐= (19)
𝜌

It is possible to establish an analogy between transverse vibrations in strings and

longitudinal vibrations in bars, where E ≡ T and ρ ≡ µ. Therefore, we can consider the same type
of solutions for the differential equation of the deformation ξ than the ones used in the case of the
vibrating string:
𝜉 = 𝐴𝑒 𝑗 (𝜔𝑡 −𝑘𝑥 ) + 𝐵𝑒 𝑗 (𝜔𝑡 +𝑘𝑥 ) (20)

where A and B are complex constants determined by means of the initial and boundary
conditions. The wave number is defined as k = ω/c. As in the case of the string, solution has a
factor depending on time and other one that depends on the position: the motion along the bar
changes as a function of time and position.

Now, if we focus on a bar whose both ends are free, no elastic internal forces can be
considered at those ends and so boundary conditions become (see Equation 6):

d d
FES 0  0 (21)
dx dx

Applying these conditions to both ends of the bar:

d d
= = 0 (22)
dx 𝑥=0
dx 𝑥=𝐿

For x=0:

d
→ −𝑗𝑘𝐴𝑒 𝑗𝜔𝑡 + 𝑗𝑘𝐵𝑒 𝑗𝜔𝑡 = 0 → 𝑗𝑘𝑒 𝑗𝜔𝑡 −𝐴 + 𝐵 = 0 → 𝐴 = 𝐵 (23)
dx 𝑥=0

Introducing this relationship in the general solution (Equation 20):

𝜉 = 𝐴𝑒 𝑗 (𝜔𝑡 −𝑘𝑥 ) + 𝐴𝑒 𝑗 (𝜔𝑡 +𝑘𝑥 ) = 2𝐴𝑒 𝑗𝜔𝑡 𝑒 −𝑗𝑘𝑥 + 𝑒 𝑗𝑘𝑥 = 𝐴𝑒 𝑗𝜔𝑡 cos⁡
(𝑘𝑥) (24)

Now, for x=L:

d
→ −𝑘𝐴𝑒 𝑗𝜔𝑡 sin 𝑘𝐿 = 0 → sin 𝑘𝐿 = 0 (25)
dx 𝑥=𝐿

Similarly to the case of the string with both fixed ends, the frequencies of the vibration
modes allowed are:

𝑘𝑛 𝐿 = 𝑛𝜋 (26)
𝜋𝑐
𝜔𝑛 = 𝑛 (27)
𝐿
𝑐
𝑓𝑛 = 2 𝐿 𝑛 (28)

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where n=1,2,3... Therefore, the complex displacement corresponding to the nth mode of
vibration is:
ξ n x, t   2 jAn exp jnt coskn x(29)
ξn x, t   An cosnt   Bn sin nt coskn x (30)

where real amplitude constants An and Bn are defined by 2An = Bn + jAn. The complete
solution is the addition of all the separate harmonic solutions:


ξ x, t    A cos t   B
n 0
n n n sin nt coskn x  (31)

Similarly to the case of the string, if the initial conditions of displacement and velocity of
the bar are known, Fourier’s theorem can be used to evaluate An and Bn. Unlike fixed-fixed bar,
having nodes at both ends, the free-free bar has antinodes at the ends due to the term cos(knx)
instead of sin(knx). However, the frequencies of the natural modes of the free-free bar are
identical to the frequencies of the fixed-fixed bar.

4. PROCEDURE

In the laboratory there are several bars with different lengths. The first step will be to
measure the length (L) of each one of the bars using a tape measure. To determine the volume
mass density of the material () we must know first the mass (m) and the volume (V). We will
use the scale provided so as to estimate the mass of each bar. As for the volume, that can be
calculated using the length L and the diameter d, we will consider that the diameter of all the
bars is the same and therefore it will only be necessary to measure it for one of them. From these
measurements we can estimate the value of the volume mass density of the bars ().

To measure the frequencies corresponding to the longitudinal fundamental mode of

vibration of the bars we have to assemble the circuit shown in Figure 4.

oscilloscope

microphone

preamplifier
Figure 4: Experimental setup used for the determination of the resonance frequency of the bars.

When impacting with the hammer in one of the ends of the bars (longitudinally), if we
place the microphone next to it, the stationary state of the sound produced by the bar will be
captured on the oscilloscope and we will be able to measure the fundamental frequency of
vibration. The procedure so as to excite the longitudinal mode on the bar is as simple as holding
it with our hands in the central zone and then hitting with the hammer at one of its ends. This
procedure will be performed three times for each bar. All measurements should be presented
with their corresponding errors.

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5. RESULTS

1) Measure the length (L), the diameter (d) and the mass (m) of each of the available bars. All
quantities should be presented with their corresponding errors.

2) Determine the value of the volume mass density ρ of the material from which the different bars
are made, with its associated error. Compare this result with the expected value (literature data).

3) Determine the frequency of the fundamental mode of vibration for each one of bars with its
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associated error. Make a graphical representation of these frequencies as a function of 𝐿 , being L
the length of each bar.

4) Perform a least squares fitting so as to obtain the values of phase velocity of the longitudinal
vibrations and Young’s modulus for type 304 stainless steel with their associated errors.
Compare the values obtained with the the expected ones (literature data).

6. QUESTIONS

A) From a radiation point of view, what is the zone of the bar that produces more sound
pressure? Why? Give a reasoned answer.

B) Taking into account that the first transverse vibration mode shows nodes at 1/4 L from both
ends, how could we see transverse modes in a practical way for the longest bar available in the
laboratory?