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All content following this page was uploaded by Karin Hediger on 08 December 2015.
Direct correspondence to: Dr. Karin Hediger, Human and Animal Health Unit, Department of
Epidemiology and Public Health, Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, Socinstrasse 57,
4002 Basel, Switzerland.
Email: karin.hediger@unibas.ch
1: Human and Animal Health Unit, Department of Epidemiology and Public Health, Swiss
Tropical and Public Health Institute, Socinstrasse 57, 4002 Basel, Switzerland
2: University of Basel, Petersplatz 1, 4001 Basel, Switzerland
3: IEMT Switzerland, Institute for interdisciplinary research on the human-animal relationship,
c/o Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, Socinstrasse 57, 4002 Basel, Switzerland
4: Institute for applied Ethology and Animal Psychology (I.E.A.P.), Seestrasse 254, 8810
Horgen, Switzerland
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Petermann, 2007). In this subtest, children numbers of right answers (hits), false
listen to a sequence of numbers and repeat positive and negative alarms, and reaction
them (forward in the first part of the task, time. The indicators of performance in the
and backwards in the second part). The test three subtests show satisfactory internal
requires recording and recalling consistency and validity (Candit, 2001).
information, as well as processes of Stimuli were presented on a 17'' screen,
attention and working memory. The test about 80 centimetres in front of the face of
has been broadly used and has satisfactory the child sitting in a chair. Either the
internal consistency and validity. computer mouse or two buttons
(highlighted red and green) could be used
Attention and concentration to provide answers.
We used a standardized neuropsycho-
logical test to assess attention and Correlate of frontal brain activity
concentration performance. Candit We used passive infrared
(http://www.candit.com) developed the hemoencephalography (PIR HEG) to
computer-based test, in cooperation with assess a correlate of frontal brain activity.
the Institute of Neuropsychology at the Activity in the prefrontal cortex is a neural
University of Zurich, Switzerland. We correlate of executive functions like
used three subtests. In the first, attention processes (Cubillo et al., 2012;
("Cancellation Screen"), subjects had to Dickstein et al., 2006). To measure
cancel certain stimuli (distinguishing attention and concentration processes,
apricots and pears from other fruit) for brain activity in this brain region must be
eight minutes. This subtest measured captured. PIR HEG is a technique that
unbroken concentration while completing a indirectly measures brain activity via
monotonous task. We computed the mean thermal emission from the forehead
of right answers, omissions, and errors to (Carmen, 2004). The hypothesis
assess attention performance. In the second underlying the technique is that changes in
subtest ("Continuous Performance Test"), thermal emission reflect changes in
subjects monitored sequences of visual neuronal activity: the higher the emitted
pictures at a predetermined tempo for five heat, the higher the activation of the brain
minutes. The task was to react only to a cells. The method was designed to train
certain combination of pictures that people to control cerebrovascular activity
appears periodically. This test measured via thermal biofeedback and was intended
the extent of impulse or behaviour control, to increase their prefrontal cortical brain
as well as attention. As indicators of activity. The PIR HEG signal reflects a
performance, we calculated the number of combination of thermal activity generated
right answers and answers that were given by brain cell activity, vascular supply, and
too soon or supplemented. The third vascular return. The method is free from
subtest ("Divided Attention Bimodal") eye roll and surface electromyogram
measured shared attention. Subjects artefacts. Emitted heat is measured via
reacted to visual and auditory stimuli three infrared sensors in a frontlet that is
simultaneously for 3.5 minutes. As fixed on the forehead. The system captures
indicators of performance, we calculated infrared radiation within the 7-14 micron
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band, has a thermal resolution of .01 blinded to the aim of the study. We used
degrees Fahrenheit, and a data sampling the following cover story to explain the
rate of 60 times per second (Carmen, process to the children: A person had to
2004). supervise the experimenter. This person
needed to bring her dog to the session
Mood because it was afraid of staying alone at
Children's mood was assessed by self- home. We asked the children if they
report via a "visual analogue scale" (VAS). wanted to play with the dog while they
We assessed the dimensions 'calmness,' waited for the tests to start.
'attention,' 'alertness,' 'strength,' 'slowness,'
'satisfaction,' and 'interest' using semantic Day 1
differentials as in Turner and colleagues In the first session, the children filled
(2003). Children were asked to put a cross out the first of three VASs. Then they
on a line between two antonyms to waited for 15 minutes, during which time
represent their mood. they could interact either with the dog or
AIBO, depending on the condition to
Additional questionnaire which they were assigned. Next, the PIR
The children filled out an additional 9- HEG was placed on the children's
item questionnaire designed for this study foreheads and they filled out the second
to assess subjectively perceived support, VAS for the three-minute waiting phase in
and their preference for one of the two which the sensors of the PIR HEG were
conditions. The questionnaire also controls evened out. Then the children completed
for animal contact at home and the child's the memory task and the three
attitude towards dogs. Items were neuropsychological attention tests.
answered with 'exactly true', 'true', 'a bit Afterwards, the PIR HEG was
true', 'not true', or 'not at all true'. The removed and the children filled out the
questionnaire yielded scores of 0-5, with third VAS. The whole session lasted about
higher agreement on lower scores. an hour.
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opposite order of condition. PIR HEG data each of the two groups with different
were analysed within phases during which condition orders (see table 1). There was
the attention tests were actually carried out, only a significant increase in performance
for each subtest separately. First, data was if the dog was present during the second
smoothed using the Hodrick-Prescott filter. session (t(11) = 2.68, p = .021, d = 0.51).
Second, beta coefficients were computed No performance gain was found when
using ordinary least square regression AIBO was present in the second session
estimates. Finally, we used linear mixed (t(11) = -1.94, p = .078, d = 0.33).
effect models to estimate the impact of the
presence of the dog on thermal emission. Attention and concentration
Time was included as categorical fixed
effect and individuals as random effect to Cancellation Screen
account for the dependency among the For the subtest "Cancellation Screen",
repeated observations within participants. we found that the presence of the dog or
AIBO did not influence the mean of
Results correct answers or errors. However, there
was a significant overall learning effect for
Memory the omission rate (t(20) = -3.12, p = .005, d
= 1.33). The estimated effect reveals that,
We found no general effect of the in the second session, the children omitted
presence or absence of the dog or AIBO 0.13 fewer items than in the first session,
for memory performance, but a significant independent of the presence of the dog or
learning effect (t(22) = 3.29, p = .003, d = AIBO. We performed independent t-tests
1.34) in the subtest "Digit Span" from the to investigate the dog-specific influence of
intelligence test HAWIK. In the second the learning effect. The presence of the dog
session, children performed better and in the second session reduced the omission
remembered 2.9 items more, independent rate significantly (t(10) = -2.73, p = .021, d
of the presence of the dog or AIBO. To = 1.13). In contrast, children who
look more deeply into the data, a t-test for interacted with the dog in the first session
independent samples was performed for did not have a significantly reduced
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34.25
Emitted heat (°C)
34.2
Dog
34.15 Dog smoothed
AIBO
34.1
AIBO smoothe
34.05
34
Time
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34.35
Emitted heat (°C)
34.3
Dog
34.25 Dog smoothed
AIBO
34.2
AIBO smoothed
34.15
34.1
Time
34.3
Emitted heat (°C)
34.25 Dog
Dog smoothed
34.2 AIBO
AIBO smoothed
34.15
34.1
Time
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Table 4. Children's answers to the questions "the dog supported me" and "AIBO supported me."
Answer Subjective felt support
Dog AIBO
Exactly true 16.7% 16.7%
True 50.0% 20.8%
A bit true 29.2% 54.2%
Not true 4.2% 8.3%
Not at all true - -
Total 100% 100%
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when the dog lay at the children's feet enhancing effect of interacting with a dog
while they completed the tests, even at school.
though the dog sometimes moved a little, It is not clear why we found an
or snored loudly. Other studies have also increased learning effect only in the
found that quality of performance across a memory task, and the first of the three
broad variety of tasks did not decrease in neuropsychological attention tests.
the presence of a dog (Allen, 2003; Allen, Performing well on the tasks in the study
Blascovich, Tomaka, & Kelsey, 1991; Gee required using different kinds of attention
et al., 2010a; Gee et al., 2010b; Gee et al., processes, which increased in complexity.
2007; Gee et al., 2009; Prothmann, 2008). Dogs may influence different kinds of
Second, interacting with a dog, and the attention processes in different ways, so
presence of a dog, can increase children's the effect may be seen only in select
attention and concentration performance attention processes. We have, as yet, no
on tests, as well as physiologically. These data to support this hypothesis, and suggest
results are consistent with previous it be tested in future studies. The presence
research. We mentioned in the introduction of a dog may also have a time-limited
studies that addressed the indirect effect. The dog may affect attention and
attention-enhancing effects of companion concentration processes only when it is
dogs (Gee et al., 2010a; Gee et al., 2010b; still a novelty, or when children do not face
Gee et al., 2007; Gee et al., 2009; the challenge of concentrating beyond 15
Kotrschal & Ortbauer, 2003; Limond et al., minutes of exhausting tasks.
1997). The results of the PIR HEG, however,
These findings have implications for suggest that the attention-enhancing effect
school dog projects. Together with endures over time. Under both conditions,
previous findings, they show that the frontal brain activity of the children
integrating a dog into lessons can enhance increased at first. But in the presence of
children's attention and concentration. The AIBO, their frontal brain activity declined
children may then be better able to in the last and most challenging task. In
concentrate on learning, instead of contrast, in the presence of the dog the
focusing on paying attention. These data children's frontal activity remained stable.
suggest that a dog in a classroom will not This indicates that the dog has a continued
distract students. effect on attention and concentration
We tested healthy children without processes for at least up to 50 minutes after
known learning problems, so it can be the interaction phase, and also has an effect
argued that animal-assisted interventions on more complex processes. Regardless of
with school dogs may be helpful for a the development of the frontal brain
majority of children, and not only for activity during the attention tests, the
children with special needs. It may not be amount of emitted heat was constantly
necessary to own a dog, or to already have higher in the presence of the dog. This
a relationship to a dog, to profit from a indicates that interacting with, and the
dog's presence in the classroom. School- presence of a dog influences both the
aged children who do not have a dog at intensity and the changes of attention
home can benefit from the attention- processes over time.
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10 and 14, so our results cannot be Moreover, there are preliminary results
generalized to other populations. from studies with near infrared
We were further limited by potential hemoencephalography, a related method
reliability problems in the error indices in (Coben & Padolsky, 2008; Mihara et al.,
the attention tests. The tasks are relatively 2013; Serra-Sala, Tomoneda-Gallart, &
simple, and errors are rare even when the Pérez-Àlvarez, 2012). Our PIR HEG
test-taker is pressed for time (Büttner & results are very promising, but should be
Schmidt-Atzert, 2004). If a child makes a interpreted with caution.
lot of errors, it is hard to discern the
reasons, and this level of error does not Strengths
necessary reoccur when the test is
repeated. Therefore, we cannot be certain We tested a non-clinical sample in this
that the improvement in error scores was study. The results are therefore relevant for
only caused by the presence of the dog. a majority of school-aged children and
Moreover, performance in attention and "school dog" projects in classes with
concentration tests depends strongly on the normally developing children. We see this
participant's motivation (Büttner & as a clear strength of this study. We
Schmidt-Atzert, 2004) and, given our study excluded children who owned a dog at
design, it is impossible to distinguish home to control for the fact that some
motivational effects from other children have constant contact with dogs
mechanisms like physiological effects. and others don't. However, it remains
This may not be the disadvantage it first unclear if a dog at home leads to an
appears, however, since we can conclude enhanced effect, or if the presence of a dog
that the different conditions influence the e.g. at school or in a therapeutic setting
children's motivation in different ways. may therefore have an effect ceiling. We
Given the stated theory, the dog seems to found that it is not necessary to have a
have improved the children's motivation. previous or existing relationship with the
But the effect of interacting with the dog dog, although familiar dogs may have a
before completing the tasks, and the effect stronger effect, at least with respect to
of the mere presence of the dog while stress-buffering (Baun, Bergstrom,
children completed the tasks cannot be Langston, & Thoma, 1984).
separated because we did not address each We systematically controlled for many
question separately. factors, such as daytime effects and room
Finally, relatively few controlled temperature. The high comparability of the
studies use PIR HEG. Its application is two conditions we tested is a further
based on the hypothesis that changes in strength. AIBO was a most comparable
thermal emission reflect changes in interaction partner to a live dog, and
neuronal activity. No studies confirm these allowed us to distinguish between the
underlying neuronal mechanisms, although effect of a living animal with warm fur and
some early clinical studies show PIR HEG free will and the effect of a simulacrum.
can be used to successfully treat patients Our study was also strengthened by
(Carmen, 2004; Mize, 2004; Stokes & the combination of different techniques of
Lappin, 2010; Toomin & Carmen, 1999). measurement. It is unique in combining an
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