RESPIRATORY SYSTEM  NOSE

 only externally visible part

 ORGANS o nostrils (nares) – route through which
 Nose air enters the nose
 Pharynx o nasal cavity – inferior of the nose
 Larynx o nasal septum – divides nasal cavity
 Trachea
 Bronchi
 Lungs (alveoli) “. . . any area open to the outside of the body is
lined with mucous membrane (mucosa) . . .”

 olfactory receptors – located in the mucosa

(superior surface)
 rest of the cavity is lined with respiratory
mucosa
o moistens
o traps incoming foreign particle
o enzymes destroy bacteria chemically
 conchae – projections from lateral walls
o increase surface area
o increase air turbulence within nasal
cavity
 FUNCTIONAL ANATOMY o increased trapping of inhaled particles
 Gas exchange  palate – separates nasal cavity from oral
o between blood and external cavity
environment o hard palate – anterior, supported by
o occur only in the alveoli of the lungs bone
 Upper Respiratory Tract o soft palate – posterior, unsupported
o passageways from nose to larynx  paranasal sinuses
 Lower RT o cavities within frontal, sphenoid,
o passageways from trachea to alveoli ethmoid, and maxillary bones
o purify, humidify, and warm incoming air surrounding nasal cavity
o sinuses
 lighten skull
 act as resonance chambers for
speech
 produce mucus
 PHARYNX
 commonly called throat
 muscular passageway from nasal cavity to
larynx
o continuous with posterior nasal
aperture
 three regions
1. nasopharynx – superior region behind
nasal cavity
 2. oropharynx – middle region behind
mouth
3. laryngopharynx – inferior region
attached to larynx
 oro & laryngopharynx – serve as common
passageway for air and food
o epiglottis routes food into esophagus
(posterior tube)
 pharyngotympanic tubes open into
nasopharynx
o drain middle ear
 tonsils – clusters of lymphatic tissue (play a
role in protecting body from infection)
o pharyngeal tonsil (adenoid) – single
tonsil, located in the nasopharynx
o palatine tonsils (2) – located in
oropharynx, end of the soft palate
o lingual tonsils (2) – found at the base of
the tongue
 LARYNX
 commonly called voice box
 functions
o routes air and food into proper channels
o plays a role in speech
 located inferior to pharynx
 made of 8 rigid hyaline cartilages
o largest – thyroid cartilage (Adam’s
apple)
 epiglottis
o spoon-shaped flap of elastic cartilage
o protects superior opening of larynx
o routes food to posteriorly situated
esophagus and routes air toward
trachea
o during swallowing, it rises and forms a
lid over the opening of larynx
 vocal folds (true vocal cords)
o vibrate with expelled air
o allow us to speak
 glottis includes vocal cords and opening
between vocal cords
 TRACHEA
 commonly called windpipe
 4-inch-long tube that connects to larynx
 walls – reinforced with C-shaped rings of
hyaline cartilage (keep the trachea patent)
 lined with ciliated mucosa
o cilia beat continuously in opposite
direction of incoming air
o expel mucus loaded with dust and other
debris away from lungs
 MAIN BRONCHI
 formed by division of the trachea
 each bronchus enters the lung at the hilum
(medial depression)
 right bronchus – wider, shorter, and
straighter than left
 bronchi subdivide into smaller and smaller
branches
 LUNGS
 occupy entire thoracic cavity except for
central mediastinum
 apex (superior) of each lung is near the
clavicle
 base rests on the diaphragm
 each lung – divided into lobes by fissures
o left – 2 lobes
o right – 3 lobes

 serosa covers outer surface of lungs
o pulmonary (visceral) pleura covers lung
surface
o parietal pleura lines walls of thoracic
cavity
 pleural fluid fills the area between layers
o allows lungs to glide over the thorax
o decreases friction during breathing
 pleural space (between layers) – more of a
potential space
 bronchial tree
o main bronchi subdivide into smaller and
smaller branches
o bronchial tree – network of branching
passageways
 all but the smallest passageways
have reinforcing cartilage in the
walls
 conduits to and from the respiratory
zone
 bronchioles – smallest conducting
passageways
 RESPIRATORY ZONE STRUCTURES AND THE
RESPIRATORY MEMBRANE
 terminal bronchioles lead into respiratory
zone structures and terminate in alveoli
 respiratory zone includes:
o respiratory bronchioles
o alveolar ducts
o alveolar sacs
o alveoli (air sacs – only site of gas
exchange)
 conducting zone structures include all other
passageways
 alveoli
o simple squamous epithelial cells largely
compose the walls
o alveolar pores connect neighboring air
sacs
 pulmonary capillaries cover external
surfaces of alveoli
 respiratory membrane (air-blood barrier)
o on one side of the membrane is air, and
on the other side is blood flowing past
o formed by alveolar and capillary walls
 gas crosses the respiratory membrane by
diffusion
o oxygen enters the blood
o carbon dioxide enters the alveoli
 alveolar macrophages (dust cells)
o add protection by picking up bacteria,
carbon particles, and other debris
 surfactant (lipid molecule)
o coats gas-exposed alveolar surfaces
 o secreted by cuboidal surfactant-
secreting cells

 2 phases of pulmonary ventilation

o inspiration – inhalation
 flow of air into lungs
 diaphragm and external intercostal
muscles contract
 intrapulmonary volume increases
 gas pressure decreases
 air flows into the lungs until
intrapulmonary pressure equals
atmospheric pressure
 RESPIRATORY PHYSIOLOGY
 functions of RS
o supply the body with O2
o dispose of CO2
 respiration includes four distinct events
(discussed next)
o pulmonary ventilation
o external respiration
o respiratory gas transport
o internal respiration
 4 events of respiration
1. pulmonary ventilation – moving air into
and out of the lungs (breathing)
2. external respiration – gas exchange
between pulmonary blood and alveoli
 O2 – loaded into blood
 CO2 – unloaded from the blood
3. respiratory gas transport – transport of
O2 and CO2 via blood stream
4. internal respiration – gas exchange
between blood and tissue cells in
systemic capillaries
 MECHANICS OF BREATHING
 Pulmonary ventilation o expiration – exhalation
o mechanical processes – depends on  air leaving lungs
volume changes in thoracic cavity  largely a passive process that
o volume changes lead to pressure depends on natural lung elasticity
changes – lead to flow of gases to  intrapulmonary volume decreases
equalize pressure  gas pressure increases
 gases passively flow out to equalize
the pressure
  forced expiration can occur mostly
by contraction of internal intercostal
muscles to depress the rib cage
 Intrapleural pressure
o pressure within the pleural space –
always negative
o major factor preventing lung collapse
o if intrapleural pressure = atmospheric
pressure, the lungs recoil and collapse
 RESPIRATORY VOLUMES AND CAPACITIES
 factors affecting respiratory capacity
o size
o sex
o age
o physical condition
 Tidal Volume (TV)
o normal quiet breathing
o 500 mL of air – moved in/out of lungs
with each breath
 Inspiratory Reserve Volume (IRV)
o amount of air that can be taken in
forcibly over the TV
o usually around 3100 mL
 Expiratory Reserve Volume (ERV)
o amount of air that can be forcibly
exhaled after a tidal expiration
o approximately 1200 mL
 Residual volume
o air remaining in lung after expiration
o cannot be voluntarily exhaled
o allows gas exchange to go on
continuously, even between breaths,
and helps keep alveoli open (inflated)
o about 1200 mL
 Vital capacity
o total amount of exchangeable air
o VC = TV + IRV + ERV
o 4,800 mL in men; 3,100 mL in women
 Dead space volume
o air that remains in conducting zone and
never reaches alveoli
o about 150 mL
 Functional volume
o air that actually reaches the respiratory
zone
o usually about 350 mL
 Respiratory capacities are measured with a
spirometer
 NONRESPIRATORY AIR MOVEMENTS
 can be caused by reflexes or voluntary
actions
 examples
o cough and sneeze – clears lungs of
debris
o crying – emotionally induced
mechanism
o laughing – similar to crying
o hiccup – sudden inspirations
o yawn – very deep inspiration

 RESPIRATORY SOUNDS
 sounds are monitored with a stethoscope
 2 recognizable sounds can be heard with a
stethoscope:
o bronchial sounds – produced by air
rushing through large passageways
(trachea and bronchi)
o vesicular breathing sounds – soft sounds
of air filling alveoli
 EXTERNAL RESPIRATION, GAS TRANSPORT,  EXTERNAL RESPIRATION
AND INTERNAL RESPIRATION  O2 – loaded into blood
 gas exchanges occur as a result of diffusion
o diffuses from the oxygen-rich air of the
o external respiration is an exchange of
gases occurring between the alveoli and alveoli to the oxygen-poor blood of the
pulmonary blood (pulmonary gas pulmonary capillaries
exchange)  CO2 – unloaded out of the blood
o internal respiration – exchange of gases o diffuses from the blood of the
occurring between the blood and tissue pulmonary capillaries to the alveoli
cells (systemic capillary gas exchange)
 movement of the gas is toward the area of
lower concentration

 GAS TRANSPORT IN BLOOD
 O2 transport in blood
o most O2 travels attached to hemoglobin
and forms oxyhemoglobin (HbO2)
o small dissolved amount – carried in
 CONTROL OF RESPIRATION
plasma
 CO2 transport in blood
o most CO2 – transported in plasma as
bicarbonate ion (HCO3–)
o small amount – carried inside RBCs on
Hbg, but at different binding sites from
those of oxygen
“. . . blood pH should remain between 7.35 and
7.45; buffers, such as HCO3-, minimize changes in
pH to maintain homeostasis . . .”
 for CO2 to diffuse out of blood into alveoli, it
must be released from its bicarbonate form
o HCO3- enter RBC
o combine with H+
o for carbonic acid (H2CO3)
o H2CO3 splits to form H2O + CO2
o CO2 diffuses from blood into alveoli
 INTERNAL RESPIRATION
 exchange of gases between blood and
tissue cells
 opposite reaction from what occurs in the
lungs
o loading – CO2 diffuses out of tissue cells
to blood
o unloading – O2 diffuses from blood into
tissue
 CONTROL OF RESPIRATION
 neural regulation – setting the basic rhythm
o activity of respiratory muscles –
transmitted to and from brain by
phrenic and intercostal nerves
o neural centers that control rate and
depth – located in the medulla and pons
 medulla – sets basic rhythm of
breathing and contains ventral
respiratory group (VRG –
pacemaker; self-exciting inspiratory
center)
 pons – smooths out respiratory rate
 Normal respiratory rate (eupnea) – 12 to 15
respirations per minute
 Hyperpnea – increases respiratory rate
(often due to extra oxygen needs)
 non-neural factors influencing respiratory
rate and depth
o physical – increased BT, exercise,
talking, coughing
o volition (conscious control)
o emotional factors (fear, anger,
excitement)
o chemical factors – CO2 levels
 body’s need to rid itself of CO2 –
most important stimulus for
breathing
 increased levels of CO2 (thus, a
decreased or acidic pH) in blood
 increase the rate and depth of
breathing
 changes in CO2 act directly on the
medulla oblongata
o chemical factors – O2 levels
 changes in O2 concentration in blood
– detected by chemoreceptors in the
aorta and common carotid artery
 information is sent to the medulla
 O2 – stimulus for those whose
systems have become accustomed
to high levels of CO2 as a result of
disease
o chemical factors – hyperventilation
 rising levels of CO2 in blood
(acidosis) result in faster, deeper
breathing
 exhale more CO2 to elevate blood pH
 may result in apnea and dizziness
and lead to alkalosis
o chemical factors – hypoventilation
 results when blood becomes alkaline
(alkalosis)
 extremely slow or shallow breathing
 allows CO2 to accumulate in blood