Learning Building

Defects via Visual Novel

Approach
Anyone should be able to Identify, Predict and Prevent building defects with this book

Hadi Akbar Adi Irfan Ahmad Sairi

Learning Building Defects via Visual
Novel Approach

Visual Interpreter
(BC0002815-A)
 Cetakan 2015
Hakcipta / Copyright Kumpulan Penyelidikan Pembangunan Fizikal Lestari (LPhyD)
Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia

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Fizikal Lestari (LPhyD), Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia

All right reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any
means, electronics ormechanical including photocopy, recording, or any information storage and retrieval
system, without prior permission in writing fromthe Lestari Physical Development (LPhyD) Research
Group, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia

Diterbitkan di Malaysia oleh / Published in Malaysia by

KUMPULAN PENYELIDIKAN PEMBANGUNAN FIZIKAL LESTARI
Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia
43600 Bangi, Selangor, MALAYSIA

Dicetak di Malaysia oleh / Printed in Malaysia by

TABLE OF CONTENT

INTRODUCTION ...................................................................................................5

FUNDAMENTAL OF BUILDING SURVEY ........................................................................6

INTERMISSION:THE FIRST BUILDING CODE ...................................................................... 18

DAMPNESS .............................................................................................................. 19
INTERMISSION:THE LIVING BRIDGE OF CHERRAPUNJI ......................................................... 37

ROOF ....................................................................................................................... 38
INTERMISSION:BAM-I-DUNIAH .................................................................................... 56

WALL ..................................................................................................................... 57
INTERMISSION:THE WALL THAT SEPARATE A NATION ........................................................ 73

FLOOR ..................................................................................................................... 74
INTERMISSION:STANDING ON WATER ............................................................................ 87

INTERPRETING CRACKS ............................................................................................ 88

INTERMISSION:THE GREAT MOSQUE OF DJENNÉ.............................................................. 96

PROTECTING YOURSELF............................................................................................ 97
INTERMISSION:RIPLEY’S BUILDING DEFECT?............................................................ 108

FIELD TEST ............................................................................................................. 109

EPILOGUE .............................................................................................................. 116

CONCLUSION ......................................................................................................... 132

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT .................................................................................... 133

BIBLIOGRAPHY ................................................................................................. 134

ABOUT THE AUTHOR .............................................................................................. 134

Foreword
We are all in constant touch with the built environment. We live, work
and study in buildings. How the buildings look and function can affect
our way of life and the extent to which we enjoy the quality of our
surroundings. When properly designed, buildings should be free from
defects. Nevertheless, over time, due to wear and tear, some building
defects may start to surface. We can choose to ignore such defects and
continue to live in an environment that is progressively deteriorating
or we can choose to take ownership of the problems and rectify them
before the defects become worse. The former is certainly not an
option because building defects, if not rectified in a timely manner,
may give rise to serious health problems to the occupants and in
extreme cases can be life-threatening when there is progressive failure
and the building collapses. Public health and safety cannot and must
not be compromised.

However, what exactly is a building defect to the man on the street?

Even if a building defect is spotted, no matter how small or
inconspicuous to the untrained eye, how would the man on the street
know where and when to start the defect rectification process? He
can, of course, engage the professional services of a building surveyor
to conduct an inspection of the property, make a diagnosis of the
building defects, and recommend appropriate rectification works. A
more viable alternative for a start is for him to educate himself by
learning what common building defects are, why they occur and what
need to be done immediately.

This book is therefore a timely and valuable resource for the man on
the street to learn and identify common building defects. It is written
in a very reader-friendly manner and is easy for a layman to
understand. The explanation of various building defects is supported
by generous illustrations, sketches, photographs and tongue-in-check,
thought-provoking observations. This book identifies the common
building defects to include dampness and cracks as well as defects
commonly seen in roofs, walls and floors. In addition, this book
incorporates a field test that allows readers to conduct a simple
inspection to determine if similar building defects are also present on

1
their properties. Likewise, the epilogue provides useful step-by-step
guidance for the property owner to progress from defect identification
to rectification works through the use of helpful photographs showing
clear building details. Some useful advices relating to regulatory
controls of building defects and the recourse available to property
owners are also provided in this book.

This is certainly a very useful reference book for a layman that

explains building defects in a simple, easy to understand manner. I
would like to congratulate Mr Hadi Akbar Dahlan, Associate
Professor Sr Dr. Adi Irfan Che-Ani and Sr Dr. Ahmad Sairi for
authoring this book which is a valuable resource for the Malaysian
building industry. This book should go a long way in ensuring public
health and safety is not compromised and at the same time,
maintaining and enhancing property values for the building owners.

Professor Dr Low Sui Pheng

DSc, PhD, MSc(Eng), BSc(Bldg)(Hons), DipBldg, FCIOB,
HonFSIET
Director, Centre for Project Management and Construction Law
Department of Building
National University of Singapore

2
Foreword

This book is principally planned to help both academicians and

university students. This book intended to help the teachers to teach
basic concepts of building survey, while the interesting and self-
explanatory sketches would also catch the attention of other building
professionals. In order to address the various readers, the authors
have divided the book into two parts. The first half of the book briefs
about the various aspects of building survey, whereas the second half
of the book delivers knowledge of common building defects in
succinct manner.

This book incarnate, an album of common building design defects in

tropical areas particularly Malaysia. It seems that authors have
carefully evaluated the relevant curriculum material and probed the
application of various possibilities of contemporary building
technology. The authors have also provided the relevant images and
sketches, as well as described the ways of analyzing the building
defects in rational and simple means. Both professionals and university
students should follow the examples and methods shown in book as it
would help them in a typical professional development.

This book provides many applications for professional building

surveying and there are many ideas for the professional reader
particularly architects, civil engineers, technologist and construction
managers to discover.

Dr. Afaq Hyder Chohan

PhD. (Architecture) MSc (Building) B.Arch.
ACIAT, Intl ARIAC
Assistant Professor of Architecture
Ajman University of Science and Technology
United Arab Emirates

3
Foreword

Building is one of necessary things in life. It acts as a shelter, where we

enjoy our life and perform basic needs such as eat, pray and love. The
well-being of the shelter affects the quality of our life. If the shelter
falls, so does the person who lives within. That is what we all are
trying to prevent. A building does not tumble down in an
instantaneous reaction; it tumbles down slowly, like a ticking bomb.
Building defects slowly erode the quality of life. This book is about
building defects in its raw essence. The reader-friendly approach of the
book can make people become more aware of their surroundings. The
book is intelligently divided into sections of building such as roof,
floor and etc. Readers could read through selected sections and
understand them even when they haven’t read the entire book.

The creation of this little book can meet the demand of the market
which in my opinion, has limited manuscripts related to the field of
building defects especially from the local perspective. I believe that
this book which uses more practical and illustrative approaches rather
than theory-based, can be used by lecturers, researchers, students and
practitioners in relation to the growing of thought and mind in line
with the challenges of globalization. As an introduction to building
surveying field, this book will suffice to pique interest of the readers
about building safety. I give my compliment to the authors group for
successfully producing this reference book on building defects, which
is really informative and timely. I will assure that this book will
definitely worth the people time. Let this book become a start toward
a new level of awareness in building maintenance and safety.

Professor Sr Dr. Azlan Shah Ali

PhD FRISM FCIOB MRICS
Chartered Building Surveyor
Professor in Building Maintenance
Faculty of Built Environment
University of Malaya, Malaysia

4
INTRODUCTION

Building Defects: Visual Novel Approach is a visual-oriented

book aims to teach readers on the type of building defects
and their effects. This is an important knowledge that most
people fail to learn since this topic is rarely discussed, unless
you’re a construction contractor or an academician. With this
book, we hope that more readers will know more about their
home and show more concern about their surroundings.

The way this book is presented is based on pictorial text

book. It is as if you’re reading graphic comic. However, we
term this style of presentation “Visual Novel”. It is based on
Japanese Manganime culture, where it is used to portray their
novel story with interactive drawings for the readers to
imagine and immerse. We hope that we managed to bring
that essence in this book and the readers enjoy it as much as
we enjoy writng this book.

This book is based on Surveying Building by Malcolm

Hollis, a textbook used in surveyor’s program syllabus in
United Kingdom. In Malaysia, this book is relatively
unknown, the same as the field itself. It is a niche among niche.

We want to break that wall and introduce the public to the

building defects. No more niche expertise. This book is
written specifically for young adults such as university-level
students and young workers. It contains critical information
for them since they are at the stage where they are searching
for place to stay after leaving their parent’s home. The
information in this book can be used in looking for a place to
take roots for their future.

5
 Chapter

Fundamental of Building Survey

6
WHAT IS A BUILDING SURVEY?
A building survey is the inspection & investigation of the
construction & service of a property in sufficient detail to enable
a surveyor to advice what impact the condition & the
circumstances of that property will have on the client.
…SO, IN OTHER WORDS:

Survey = Inspection + Investigation

There are several buildings that I want Sure,
to buy. Do you mind take a look at it? No
Problem

INSPECTION:
1. An act of viewing
This building is in bad
shape, there’s much to be
carefully and critically
repaired!

INVESTIGATION:
1. A detail examination of
something

7
 CHANGE OF OWNERSHIP
Used by company to assess the assets of
another company prior to the sale or VALUATION
acquisition of the company. Usually done in Inquired by seller for valuation
secrecy, which makes it difficult to conduct purposes. Without the
proper investigation and inspection. Surveyor report, any value
made is not trustworthy.
SALE OF PROPERTY
A report that summarizes the condition of the MAINTENANCE MANAGEMENT
building which includes the quotation for repairs A report that evaluates the propert so
to eliminate the fear of the problem, with the that essential repairs can be done with
inquirer financial situation in mind. In this case, planned budgets that incorporate an
the Inquirer would be a prospective purchaser or annual maintenance cost. Usually
even the Seller of the property. made by building landlord (A vigilant
landlord)

REPAIR OF FAILURES TYPES AUDITS

An aftermath report of a
building defect that already OF
cause damages and ways to
repair them. SURVEY
DIAGNOSTIC
REPORT
A survey report that sets
out to determine the
probability of a defect; its
causes and its eventual
damage liability.
A survey of a building in order to
advise on what parts of the
building is unsafe or would
become defect due to natural or
artificial causes.
DILAPIDATION
An inspection report that gives the time of
when a building defect had occurred; mostly in
property lease fraud, where the defect occurred
after the sale was made.

8
However, you don’t have to be an expert or a
certified surveyor to identify simple building
defects.

This is because you already have the most

important tools in surveyor’s profession:

VISION

9
 HOW DO WE USE OUR VISION
SENSES?

As an analogy to the complicated psychology

views, we can easily summarize how we use our
vision into 3 levels:

Our Vision System is based on Looking and Seeing:

Looking/ lu’k / (noun): 2. To search for something or someone

See / si: / (verb) : 4. To understand something

5. To consider something in a particular way
6. To imagine something or someone
7. To find something out

This is the definition of seeing and looking from Dictionary;

they actually connotes different meaning!

Level 1 vision primarily uses only “looking” as a premise

Level 2 & 3 uses Seeing and Looking as a premise

As Vision level rises, the ability of giving attention to detail rises.

10
 Level 1: Where
A level 1 vision only uses “looking”. The obtained message
only conveys the position of an object. The details of the
object were not of concern.

This level of vision was used when we are in motion (driving,

walking, etc.) and reposition ourselves in areas that are full of
objects.

In actuality, by God Design, the image of an object is actually

inverted with light’s refraction. This means that by default,
our eye sees everything upside down, but our eye’s lenses
corrected the image. In doing so, it conjured up images which
interpret the location of an object. This gives the fundamental
ability of looking and positioning. This answers the question
“where”.

11
 Level 2: What
At this vision level, we are starting to “see” as well as “look”.
When we see, we start by defining “what”. One good
example of this vision level is when we answer the questions
in exam. The action of reading the exam question is a perfect
example of level 2 vision. We can look at the question, but we
may not understand the question. Only when we see (we
focus, give more attention to the question) then we can know
what the questions want.

In surveying for building defects, we can look for

irregularities, but we may not know what that is. Only when
we see, we can ponder what is wrong with the irregularities.

However, at this level, we’re just defining the problem, not

yet solving. To do that, it requires another high level of
vision.

12
 Level 3: How, Why, Where, & When

At this vision level, we begin to question what we’re seeing:

How did it become like that? Why did it become like that?
Where is the source that did that? When did this start?

However, this level of vision may not provide full answers,

because it uses our knowledge. This requires extra effort, and
that is learning. The answer to the questions may be beyond
general knowledge, and sometimes requires certain degree of
experiences. Combination of knowledge can help what kind
of question to ask and what kind of answer that suits best.

13
Look closely at the stairs below,
What did you see?
What can you deduce from it?

14
 Well, we hope that you have noticed something is different.
People when using vision, they gradually change from level 1 to
level 3. They never start or skip a level. Here’s how:

Level 1 answer:
It’s a picture of stairs

Level 2 answer:
That stairs lead to somewhere

Level 3 answer:
Wait, is that stairs going
up or down?

(Starting to question more right after defining)

This stairs is in Palindrome.

*Palindrome is a sequence that can be viewed in the same way
in either forward or reverse direction

15
This book aims to help readers to identify simple building
defects. However, this book does not recommend the readers
to instantly call for repairs when they found one. Sometimes,
obtaining second opinion is better, and these people will
definitely give good advice.

Readers can use the knowledge in the book when surveying

for any type of property. Be it when starting to invest in real
estate or to look for safe home to rent.

Ultimately, we hope the book can open up your mind to your

surroundings and to appreciate structural building
aesthetically and systematically.

Readers can contact Building Surveyors from:

Royal Institution of Surveyors Malaysia
3rd Floor, Bangunan Juruukur,
64-66, Jalan 52/4,
46200 Petaling Jaya,
Selangor Darul Ehsan,
Malaysia.

Tel: 603-79548358
Email: bsdiv@rism.org.my
Web: http://www.rism.org.my
BS members’ directory:
http://rism.org.my/Lists/BsMemberList/search_the_bs_me
mbers_by_state.aspx
Further information about BS:
http://ifolio.ukm.my/user/21/adi-irfan-bin-che-
ani/folio/322/rism

16
SUMMARY
• A survey is the inspection and investigation of a
building. The surveyors can give consultation about the
condition of a building as well as requirements for repair
with fee.

• There are several types of inspection beside the

common inspection, the surveyors can be asked to
survey for specific reasons.

• However, we can also do a basic survey to the

building’s ourselves; we already have the main tool: Our
Vision.

• Our vision is based on looking and seeing, but to

utilize them to the fullest potential, it needs training and
understanding.

• There are 3 levels of vision; Level 1 for “Where”,

Level 2 for “What” and Level 3 for “How, Why, When”

But in the end, knowing vision is not enough. To be able

to use it requires knowledge and understanding as well.
If it is beyond our reach, we should reach for help.

17
INTERMISSION

The First Building Code

“If a builder has built a house for a man, and has not made it
sound, and the house falls and causes the death of its owner,
that builder shall be put to death. If it is the owner’s son that
is killed, the builder’s son shall be put to death. If it is the
slave of the owner that is killed, the builder shall give slave
for a slave to the owner of the house. If it ruins goods, the
builder shall make compensation for all that has been ruined,
and shall re-erect the house from his own means. If a builder
builds a house, even though he has not yet completed it; if
then the walls seem toppling, the builder must make the walls
solid from his own means.”

-The Code of Hammurabi

By king Hammurabi of Babylonia
1792-1750 BC

18
 Chapter

2
DAMPNESS

DAMPNESS

19
Sometimes, when we move
to a new house or work in
a new office, we may get
sick.

Most people would assume

that it’s due to the stress
building up inside.

But what if, you’re not

having (too much) stress
but it just that the
“building” is causing your
sickness?

It is plausible, since the

home or the office we’re
living is an environment.

Meaning, you’re not alone

in that building.

20
 The organism in the
building may already exist
even before the tenant
came.

Sometimes, the tenant may

accidentally produce an
environment that made the
“organism” flourishes.

The organism will grow

larger and larger.

This organism may not

affect the tenant health, but
it will leave an ugly sight on
the surface where it grows.

Both of these organisms are

present due to water. In the
building, the water is in one
form; Dampness.

21
Everywhere around us, there’s a microorganisms that is invisible
to our eyes. These microbes can affect our live as well as our
building. Below are pictures taken from a University
Microbiology Lab.

On the right is a
picture of a
Staphyloccocus Aureus
(S.Aureus), a microbe
that lives in water.
The presence of this
microbe means water
contamination. The
S.aureus in the picture
was taken from a
café’s tap water.

On the left is a
mold that is
taken from a
wooden table.
The mold is a
fungus that
flourished on
damp surface.

Both microbes would flourish in damp surface; floor, walls,

woods, furniture. But the question is, how does Dampness
occur?

22
 DAMPNESS

Cause of building Source of Life

deterioration

Facilitate degeneration Mold and Bacteria Chemical Changes

  
  
Rust Metal Spread disease Erosion of building structure
Affect timber Ugly mold Transmit electrical current

A building that had been

ravaged by heavy rain for a long
time would have an impact to
its wall. The paint will
deteriorate and water seepage
can occur.

At the floor of the building, mold

flourished from the wall to floor. Note
that the mold grows near the PVC pipe
line, but not on the pipe line. The
surface type is also an important factor.

23
How does water moves in buildings?
 Adhesion and Cohesion
Cohesion; water is attracted to other water.
Adhesion; water is attracted to other material.

Surface Tension
The cohesive forces between liquid molecules are responsible
for “surface tension”. An illustrative example:
My fingers are wet, and the
excess water flow through my
fingers, but does not drop due
to “some water” on my fingers
“refuse to let them go”.

The same can be said for water

droplets on sink or basin. The water
will drop due to accumulating volume,
but the surface tension of the water
from the sink, delays the fall.

Now, does the image on the

right familiar? Try to
imagine and remember
where else can you see
something like this in a
building?

24
Capillary Action

Capillary action depends on the availability of other material

near the water molecule. An illustrative definition:

The water “climbs up” the

straw. In this context, the
water molecules are attracted
to the straw molecule (other
material). Pressure is also
involved here, when you suck
the straw, the “air” in the
straw will be sucked as well.
When there’s no air left, then
the water will flow. The water
molecule is able to go into
your mouth due to capillary
action (move along the straw).

Adhesive Force (stick to wall of straw)

25
How does water moves in buildings?
 Gravity

All things are attracted to central gravity inside the earth.

Everything must fall down, including water. That’s why rain
pours water down to earth. There’s no rainwater flowing
upwards.
In building, any crevice or cracks can be a passage of water flow.
Here’s an illustrative view of what has been said:

Water
Above the wall picture
here, there must be a
Wall collection of water.
However, there’s a tiny
hole on the wall, leading
to a point in between the
paint and the wall. As
you can see, there is a
flow of water down the
wall. Creating a heavy
sigh from the owner of
the house (Read: Me).

26
Effect of Dampness
There are many effect of dampness, but for simplicity,
we will focus on bacteria and mold. The “cracked” effect
due to dampness will be revisited at the final chapter.
 Bacteria Breeding Ground
The irony of bacterial ground is that it is located on place
that you think is the cleanest, or the place you use to
clean yourself.
Here we show you some of the breeding ground that
could be in your house…

The corner of a bathroom floor

27
In The beginning… Dirt starts to accumulate… After a while…

28
 Mold Growth

The above picture shows the outline of the

structure below. After observation, the cause of
the mold flourishing on the ceiling is the line
crevice. The flow of rain drops through it and the
presence of moisture along the line gives the
mold and environment to flourish.

29
The Crevice line here provides a way for water to flow through.
Firstly, the living mold will grow inside the crevice.

The cause of crevice line is unknown, but it is a building defect.

…and if it’s a defect, there would be an effect; the living mold
will multiply and the colony will presumably become larger.

Unless the visitor is an environmentalist, the view through this

oath will not be pleasant

30
For this structure, there is a
pipe inside the column. Maybe
due to leaking pipe or the rain
hole above column and the
pipe becomes larger (hidden
crevice or improper material
for the condition), there is a
water flow through the
column. This can be seen by
the area where the mold grows
at the column, mainly near the
side where the pipe is placed.

31
 The source of water flow came from this
crevice; mold mainly grows and seems to
disperse from here.

This outline
drawing is a
hypothetical
drawing on how
the mold on the
column grew

Mold does not

grow on the pipe
surface because
the pipe’s material
does not support
biofilm, a “slime”
that will be the However, the wall of
mold’s growing the column can
spot. support biofilm; this
causes the mold to
grow everywhere at
the column, but not
the pipes.

32
Characteristics for causes of Dampness
Below are the causes of dampness, picture example is on next page

Rising  Dampness occurs at low level (from your hip level

to your feet)

Dampness
Discoloration occurs at decoration
 The ground near the dampness is also wet.
 Check the outer wall also, usually, when the inner
wall is damp, so does the outer wall.
 There is a water pipe in vicinity of dampness

Pipe Fault
The pipe is old and in need of fix
 Pipe is connected to material that may rust or
corrode
 The dampness occurs even at sunny or hot day
 The “pipe” in this context includes washing
machine, dishwasher, pipe’s connections.
 Damp patch is at the ceiling or near ceiling

Descending
Dampness There’s drainage on the roof, roof junctions,
parapet walls enclosure or a storage water tank.
 Damp patch occurs after rain; there’s a leak at the
roof and a cavity through the wall and spreads
along the inner wall.
Penetrating  The damp patch is isolated from other sources of
dampness.

Dampness
There is a “bulging broken paint”
 There is possible cavity on the wall (like
descending dampness) but isolated
 Dampness is not uniform to room

Condensation
Mold grows on wall or near window
 Dampness occurs at area limited of air circulation;
no openable windows, one-way air flow; door.
 Dampness worsens on rainy days.
 A shower above the dampness

Dampness
Agent Bath towels placed near the walls (the walls absorb
the moisture)
 Animal pet urination (disgusting)
 Spilt water to the wall (may be due to watering
plants or near sink)

33
 Rising Dampness

Penetrating Dampness

Descending Dampness

34
 Diagnosing cause of Dampness

Rising Pipe
Circumstances Condensation Penetration
Damp Leaks
Possible- Possible-
Water on wall Possible- if there’s Depends on depend on
Unlikely
when touch no air ventilation extent of extent of
penetration water escape
Possible- Possible-
Very Likely – if
Depends on pipe water is
Mold Growth Unlikely there’s no air
extent of rife with life
ventilation
penetration forms
Possible-
most pipes
Possible- does
Possible- are located
depend on the
Moisture Depends on at floor
Possible - conditions of the
above 1 meter extent of level, so
room & the source
penetration there’s
of water supply
possibility of
seepage.
Can be If water
Moisture in Possible – Requires special equipment;
seen pipes being
timber contact your local surveyor.
visually at low level.
When open the
wall, the damp is
Can be
Moisture more at the face of Isolated damp Spilt water
seen
within plaster the wall, but decline patches from piping
visually
as going inside the
wall

Face of wall Inner wall

Front view of a wall Mid-section of wall

35
Summary

 Water moves via liquid characteristics; surface

tension, capillary action, and gravity

 Water is the source of mold and bacteria

growth

 Each dampness occurrence has its

characteristic that can be used for defect
diagnosis

 4 possible cases in each diagnosed dampness;

rising damp, condensation, penetration and
pipe leaks.

36
INTERMISSION

The living bridge of Cherrapunji

This is an example of a sustainable structure. It takes generations

of families to build this living bridge. There is no building defect
since it is made entirely by natural resources. This bridge is one
of the examples of human ingenuity in integrating natural world
and human world.

37
 Chapter

3
Roof

38
 ROOF

Roof is the most fundamental as well as the most

exposed elements in building.

There are 2 types of roof in buildings;

Pitched Roof

The conventional roof of

house. In the old days, leaves
were stacked on each other to
provide cover from weather for
its tenants.

Early 19th century, the rood

were fitted with asbestos, tiles,
and then slates.
Flat Roof

Flat rood is a modern roof which

comes with the achievement of
constructing 20 levels or more
buildings.

The inspection of this kind of

roof requires more effort than
the pitched roof because it
cannot be viewed with regular
binoculars.

roof
39
 PONDING
In problematic flat roofs, there must be a settlement of
water. This pool of waters occurs due to the errors in the
originalroof
constructions, such as incorrect treatment of
asphalt with sand during installation.

Even if there’s no
pool of water
around, some kind
of mold, or
“drying-water”
effect can occur on
the location.

This picture on the

rights shows such
“drying-water”
effect on a ponding
flat roof.

40
Rain had poured on the flat roof and formed small pond
of water. However, depending on sun’s surface ray, some
water may not dry completely, like the picture below.

41
Crack or fracture on the
flat roofs are common
breakdown. This is due to
failure in material used.
The most common
material used for these
roofs is asphalt. The
asphalt will then be
covered with bitumen, or
cement. This is actually to
prevent water penetration
into the asphalt.

However, the prevention

is not total. Some may
penetrate and deep inside,
the trapped water expand
(due to drying) and push
the asphalt cover; creating
a void. These voids are the
ones causing the fracture
and cracks.
Above: The cement was applied to
repair previous fault, but still
failed.
42
Sometimes, crack occurs due to movement within the structure of the roof.
This may due to movement or absence of expansion joints in the original
constructions. Added with strain or burden of extension skirting or
installation of air condition unit, the crack will further deteriorate the
building.

Below is a picture of an entry to a balcony. The crack was coated with a

cement, but the crack still occurs.

43
 roof

Our earth is actually in constant motion. This causes

building to be “moving”. However, this very small
motion cannot be seen by naked eye. But its effect can
be seen through building cracks.

44
Some pressure may have been building in the
structure. In this case, there’s a pressure
building at the center of the roof.

After a period of time, a crack would occur. A

crack may range from cosmetic to detrimental.
This is the principle of crack formation.

45
 roof

In any construction, asphalt layer is never

smooth, thus it is almost common practice to
cover with another layer; bitumen (a.k.a cement)

Through the tiny crevice, water can pour down

and fill the gap between the cement layer and
asphalt layer. These water would fill the entire
gap

46
 After a period of time, the water settlement
would dry. The only means of drying is through
the tiny crevice. As water dried into air, pressure
increase around the crevice. This develops
stress on the cement.

The stress would then develop into larger crevice.

However, it does not develop on its own.
Structural expansion and contraction due to solar
radiation also play a role. The radiation also causes
oxidization (deterioration, just like rust on metal)
47
The defect in pitched roof usually involve the
installed tiles or slates. However, the structural
framework of the roof must be considered first
before any repair can be done. The structural
framework’s condition is the main point of
determining the type of replacement tiles or slates.

Above is one of many basic structure framework of

pitched roof without tiles or slates. It is usually
made from woods, which is then coated or
reinforced with concrete.

48
 The function of the previous beam was to support
the placement of tiles or slates.

Below is the side view of the structural framework

Depending on the Slate/tile can be placed

structural on these beams
framework, a
desired tiles or
slates can be
installed as long as
it fitted the
required
dimensions.

However, an aging
structural
framework may not
be able to hold
heavy replacement
tiles or slates.

49
 Roof tiles or slates are not forever, after a long
time, the material will deteriorate and break.

As in this picture, the roof tiles are dislocated. This

could lead to water entry during rain.

Another point to
remember, to conduct
a survey for roof
faults is difficult
because it is located in
high place.

This picture was

taken on top of a hill

Water droplets can leak through broken tiles and

fall onto the head of its tenants. This is another way
on how to know there’s a problem on the roof.

50
The roof of this bus stop
has broken tiles.

This could lead to injury to

pedestrian if it falls. Also,
cosmetically, this will taint
the location image.

To solve the problem, it is

better to replace the whole
roof rather than just the
broken tiles. By doing only
the latter, it still does not
improve the image.

51
The roof of this bus stop at a village, has a hole due to
broken tiles. It is impossible to miss this damage. The
only replacement method for this is to replace the
whole roof since it is a connected tile.

52
When further inspected,
there are several holes on
the roof top. There’s
evidence of rain water
dripping through the
hole.

If not treated, the hole

may become larger and
there will be wet, angry
pedestrian under it.

53
Well, there’s nothing wrong with replacing only the
broken tiles, but the image wouldn’t be nice. Below
is an example.

Above is a roof top with various condition of slates.

There’s rusty slates, as well as blue and red colour
slates.

In this case, the owner of this building prioritize

functionality over the image.

54
SUMMARY

 There are 2 type of roofs; Flat roof and

Pitched roof.

 Ponding occurs when there’s a defect during

installation; the de-elevation enables water
collection.

 Flat roof defect can occur depending on how

much stress it can cope as well as how much
the contractors compress the materials. The
latter can cause crack much easier in a
“shaky” situation.

 Pitched roof is built on pattern of tiles of

slates, depending on the structural
framework. However, after a while, these tiles
or slates can be damaged. Depending on
financial or functionality, it can be changed
partly or entirely. The latter can cost quite a
sum while the other is not “visual friendly”.

55
INTERMISSION

Bam-i-Duniah

Roof of the World is a metaphoric description of the highest

region in the world, also known as "High Asia", the
mountainous interior of Asia. Bam-i-duniah is the native
expression of the Pamir mountains; the highest mountain range
on earth.

56
 Chapter

4
WALL

WALL

57
 What is the function of the wall?
Wall had been used since millennia ago; its existence had been
so long that the question of “why we need a wall?” seems
stupid. However, how stupid the question be, most of us are
silent when asked about the condition of the wall in our
buildings. We recognize the importance of the wall, but we
cannot sense when the wall is deteriorating. Before we go to
recognizing wall defects, we need to re-understand the
function of the wall which is:

Structure
The main function of the wall is
as the structural support of the
building, or its components

Barrier
It could also be a barrier from
weather, sound and heat

Partition
The wall can become a boundary,
marking a territory.

Protection
It can also become a barrier against
intrusion or even escape.
(For prisoners or troubled kids)
58
Form of Wall Construction
Another thing before we go to building defects, we need to
know the form of the wall in order to predict the source of
defect. There are 4 forms:

 Solid Construction

A stone (usually) wall is

where the mass of the wall
supports the building’s roof
and internal floors. It is
similar to cavity
construction, but different
in component arrangement.

 Cavity Construction
Almost similar to Solid
Construction, but it is built
into 2 parallel supports; one
for structure purpose, and the
other for barrier purpose. The
gap in between the 2 acts as
internal gutter to take away
any water that may penetrate
through the external face.

59
 Frame

Frame is a wall that can

be said as “bare bone”
wall because it is usually
made from timber or
metal iron and filled with
several components as
infill between the
frames.

Timber OSB sheeting

Vapor Control Layer

 Combination
It is a combination of
frame and solid
construction. This type
of wall is usually built as
a solid foundation of a
building that can
withstand very heavy
load. Most buildings use
this kind of construction.

60
 Cracks on wall column

The above picture shows cracks on column near a window.

The crack had formed on 1 of the window edges. Cracks
almost always form near rectangular window. These cracks
can become dangerous as it can continue to crack deeper
when there’s a building movement. The picture below shows
the full extent of the crack.

61
The above picture shows a window. A rectangular window
has four corners, but it actually creates and focuses stress on
those 4 corners. A circle window (below) does not have
corners and so, it does not prone to crack. However, the
problem is that it is quite costly to build one and the
rectangular window has become a standard. It is hard to
change the way of standard building construction even if it is
faulty.

62
What can we deduce from building cracks?
The full explanation will be on final chapter, but for now, we
can know how and which direction the building “move”
based on the pattern of crack. (This does not apply to
horizontal or vertical cracks, only to the “zig-zag” ones.)

Let’s imagine a building (left picture), with a crack already

formed in one of its wall (right picture):

There’s a slight building movement to the left, which causes

the crack to continue to rise up, against the supposed flow (to
the right). Remember, the building movement is a minute
vibration. We cannot feel it.

63
And then, there’s a movement to the right, causing the crack
to go to downward right. The building movement’s effect in
this context is not the same with every building. But from
this, you can get the idea of how the building movement
affects crack, right? Now, you can try to imagine what the
building movement is and how frequent the movements
cause this length of crack? What long term effect can you
think of?

64
 Water Seepage Effect

A wall is a structure that

needs to be protected, even
from above. In this case, the
possible explanation is the
rain water was allowed to
flow through the face of the
wall. The rain water also
deteriorates the paint on the
metal grill, causing
discoloration to the yellow
wall. If the metal starts to
rust, we’ll be seeing rust
color soon on the wall.

The illustration picture on the

right shows the possible view of
the wall in the beginning.

65
 The rain water flows
through the face of the wall.

After a while, the rain water

brings along dissolve paint or
dust from above. The rain water
then condensates, leaving a visual
“scar” on the wall.

66
 Horizontal Wall Crack

The above picture shows a horizontal crack. This is an

example of internal crack. Factors of this kind of crack
include building movement, brickwork or block work shrunk
or expanded, metal works inside or onto the wall expand or
contract (like the science fact; metal expands when heated,
and contracts when cooled). If it expands/contracts inside a
structure (filled with cement/brick etc.) it can cause quite an
effect.
Identify any metal works
made onto the wall

67
BRICKWORK AND BLOCKWORK

A brick is usually brown-red

color and had no hollow hole in
the middle. It is just a solid
stone brick.

A block is cement made.

Most blocks have 2 hollow
holes inside that could be
fitted with a rod and filled
with cement for reinforced
structure. Blocks that do
not have the hole cannot be
fitted with a rod.

Both are construction materials that can become solid or

cavity construction. However, cement block can be fitted
with metal rod through the middle hole on it and filled with
cement, making it more reinforce.

68
 Metal Rod

Above are examples of metal rod fitted into the block

arrangement. Note that there’s a difference of using brick and
blocks. A brickwork weakness is the quality of the brick,
deterioration rate of the brick, climate, and workmanship (not
all people involve in construction know how to handle brick
well; the brick may already damage due to handling even
before being used). A block work weakness is that it does not
insulate sound, requires more space for expand/shrinkage
than bricks, and lesser wet retention capability (depend on the
quality)

Cement to make the face of the wall

69
 Wall Cement problems
Most cement has
Calcium Carbonate in
its hydrated lime. The
Calcium carbonate can
seep through the wall
via water seeping and
react with carbon
dioxide to form the
“thing” on the left
picture. It can also
form a kind of
stalactite if it is
dangling on the upper
wall.

The way to solve this

problem is to find the
water source or water
leak. This problem can
be seen in most ablution
room in any mosque.

70
 Mold growth

This defect had been

discussed in chapter 2.
Can you identify the
source of the mold
growth? (Hint: the pipe
seems a bit odd, don’t
you think?)

However, there’s another

case in this context. The
mold grows on naked
wall (broken paint). This
seems to imply that the
paint does its job in
protecting the wall.

If the wall is still coated with

the paint, then the mold would
not possibly grow on it.

71
SUMMARY

 The 4 function of wall are for Structure,

Barrier, Partition and Protection.

 The 4 forms of wall are Solid Construction,

Cavity Construction, Frame and Combination

 Building crack pattern can tell us the way the

building move.

 There’s a different between brickwork to

block work; from type of material used to
ways of reinforcing them.

72
INTERMISSION

The Wall that Separate a Nation

In 1961 the country of Germany was divided into two. On

the west side of Germany, people lived in freedom. On the
east side of Germany, people were not free. People on the
east side of Germany were leaving East Germany to live in
West Germany.

The leaders of the government of East Germany did not like

this, so they built a wall to separate East Germany from West
Germany. The Wall was made out of concrete and barbed
wire and was watched over in many areas by guards with
guns. East German citizens who tried to escape from East
Germany to West Germany could be shot without warning.

In 1989, the Berlin Wall was taken down in Alexanderplatz

demonstration and families who were kept apart were able to
see each other. Today, Germany is a united and free country.

73
 Chapter

5
Floor

FLOOR

74
 Why do we need Floors?
Wasn’t earth natural land soil good enough?

The question above may be pondered by some people, but to

some of us, it may be an unthinkable question. Throughout
our life, we already accepted the notion of floors, but we fail
to question why? I think, only when the question arose in this
page, does the readers question why we need floors. Because
of this, floors are often neglected, including their defects.
Little did anybody know, a floor is one of the important
pieces in a building. These are the functions of a floor:

 To carry the loads imposed

A floor requires an adequate deck that can transfer the loads
evenly or to the beams support (of it is on upper levels). A
floor needs to deal with weight, vibration, impact, penetration
and uncertain climate. Every building structure with a
purpose (warehouse, hotel, school) has its own type of floors.
For example; a marble floor is always seen on hotels but not
in warehouse, right? Just imagine if the ball-truck (picture)
move on the marble floor. The results would be ugly, isn’t it?

75
 To remove water
Believe it or not, this is one of the functions. Most floors are
equipped with drains, cavity trays or small holes to prevent
water collection. In toilets, you can see the sink hole on the
toilet floor. There should be one too on the living room.
However, most residents opt to hide these holes with
furniture and doodads. This actually defeats the purpose of
the holes in the first place.

 To provide a suitable surface

A floor must be in accordance to the use of the room or
building. For example, a warehouse floor must able to handle
the impact of the wheels of a forklift truck. In a hospital,
there should be a ramp for disabled person. Yes, surface
includes ramp and stairs.

76
 Type of Flooring
There are many types of floor in building, these are a few
types:

 Hardwood Flooring
This type of floor presents a
combination of beauty and
durability that you would rarely have
on a flooring type. This type of
flooring provides a long-lasting
product, wear resistant surface that
could be refinished if necessary.
However, the downside is the floor
could darken with age and some
could shrink and expand, creating
gaps in the floor surface. If an
excess load is put on the floor, there
will be mark such as scratch (picture
right) or demotion level.

 Bamboo Flooring
Bamboo flooring is durable, elegant and comes in a variety of
colors usually ranging from
honey brown to light tan. It
provides a strong, clean
surface, but could darken over
time or when exposed to
sunlight. Bamboo flooring
seems like an arrangement of
bamboo shape to a plank.
Bamboo flooring should not
be left wet or it will get ugly.

77
If the bamboo plank gets wet, it may become too compact
(due to moisture uptake) and broken. Once broken, it may
not be able to be fitted back to the floor arrangement.

 Ceramic Tile
Ceramic tile could be used as
floor tiles, indoors, or as
counter desktop. Most of the
ceramic tile is waterproof, so
no need to be afraid of spilt
water. However, the tiles could
be damaged with scratch, and
possibly chipped if loaded with
heavy objects. One of its
biggest drawbacks is that grout
lines could be very hard and difficult to clean and low quality
tiles may chip.

 Laminate Flooring
One of the cheapest
flooring types
available, laminate
flooring looks like
hardwood floor, but
it is actually made
from fiber board; so
it shows a wood-like
look. Laminate
flooring provides a
strong, durable surface that can resist burns, scratches, water
and chipping unlike hardwood floor. It is an excellent
solution for high traffic areas, resembles natural materials.
However, laminate flooring could not be refinished and
repaired if broken.

78
 Marble
Flooring
Marble tiles are
one of the most
durable and
versatile tiles to
use. They can be
at floors, walls
and hallway
columns. These tiles are easily cleaned and maintained.
However, the tile usually requires costly maintenance because
the tile react with chlorine (chlorine is used in most
detergent), therefore it needs special type of detergent.
Marble tile also reacts with acid (orange juice is an example)
to produce an irreversible stain damage.

 Concrete Flooring
It is a common floor.
Concrete flooring is
extremely tough and resilient,
and is able to withstand the
pressure from very heavy
equipment such as cars,
trucks, forklifts, and stacked
crates. That is why it is such a popular material for hard
working commercial areas such as garages and warehouses.
However, defect can occur at
the early phase of
construction; when the
concrete was already step on
while it is still drying. This
could cause cracks right after
drying.

79
 Broken Tiles

The above picture shows broken tiles on a ceramic tile floor.

The broken tile is also included in the picture. The possible
original unbroken tile is illustrated in picture below. There are
3 possible causes; inadequate mortar / cement under the tile,
faulty tiles and heavy objects load. Inadequate mortar /
cement may not make the tile properly “stick” to the floor.
Sometimes, the tile itself may be a defect; chipped, or uneven
tile width.

80
 Floor Ponding

Similar to the roof problem, there’s a problem of water

settlement. However, in this case with the laminating floor
(above picture) there is a missing underlayment. Any tile, or
laminate installed directly on concrete floors will mirror any
cracks on the floor. Once a tile is cemented in place with
mortar, if the floor cracks, that crack will also show up on the
above layer; in this context, there’s a hole under the
laminating floor. This causes water to be able to “pond” on
the laminating floor. Any floor laid over existing cracks
usually cracks due to uneven floor movement along the tile.

81
 Laminating floor

Underlaying
floor

The above picture shows a laminating floor. However, there’s

a down slope due to faulty of base cement layer (probably
during early construction). This causes the laminating layer to
be faulty (middle picture)

Due to down slope, water can form a small pond. The nearest
water source in this context could be from the refrigerator.
However, it could also come from a leak on a ceiling.
Water collection

82
 Chipped Ceramic Tiles

Above is a picture of ramp with chipped tiles. This ramp has

been known to carry heavy loads (the heavy loads were
carried by a trolley up this ramp).

83
The ramp would
actually look like the Prone to damage
picture on the left
during its early days.
The ramp was smooth,
however, there’s an
inevitable opening that
could lead to damage.

The opening is vulnerable

to heavy loads, such as the
trolley wheel as in this
example. In technical
terms, this kind of force
(the loads were imposed to
a specific spot) is called
lateral thrust.

The lateral thrust to

the tip of the ramp
cause crack at the
tiles. Any further
thrust would only
increase the crack.

84
After a while, the thrust would open up the tile and break it.
The same can be said with the stairs below, with different
thing acts as a lateral thrust on it.

85
SUMMARY

 The function of a floor includes carrying the

load imposed, removing water and providing
suitable surface.
 There are 6 types of flooring; Hardwood,
bamboo, ceramic tile, laminating, marble and
concrete floor.
 Tiles can broke down due to inadequate mortar.
 Ponding on roof can also occur on floor
 Lateral thrust causes chipped tiles.

86
INTERMISSION

Standing on water

The Dead Sea is a salt lake in Jordan. The water has

a density of 1.240 kg/L, which makes swimming similar
to floating. The salinity of its water had been used to treat
skin disease and this attracts tourist from around the world.
Some tourist came for health reason, while others came just
to have fun. However, it is not recommended to drink the
water (even if accidentally) because extreme salt water would
induce vomiting.

87
 Chapter

Interpreting
Cracks
Interpreting Cracks

88
As of now, most common building defects are in form of
cracks. It’s important to note that cracks are inevitable; nothing
stays young forever. Materials will deteriorate, structure will
become unstable, the earth is always in constant motion.
There’s no such thing as perfect building that is free from
defects. However, what we can do is to extend the “shelf life”
of the building by removing any harmful doodads for
potential defects as well as repairing existing defects.

We want our home to be safe for our family to stay. That’s

why most people consider a house is the greatest asset they
have. However, an asset without maintenance is a liability. We
almost certainly don’t want that.

The monuments’ erected around the world seems to be the

pinnacle of human ingenuity. However, they are also not free
from deteriorating. That’s why; there are always teams of
construction preservationist group in each one of them.

The annual repair of The Great Mosque of Djenné in Mali.

89
 Reasons for common cause of cracks
Reason Directions Material Notes
Post Expansion Brickwork Occur within 6-
construction (wall) month of
movement construction
completion
due to
moisture Contraction Concrete Within 2- years
completion

Timber Within 2 years, can

be rapid if weather
worsen
Moisture Expansion Water
induced
changes
Influence of Expansion Metals Rusting of steel
exposure of Chemicals Sulphates (common
building (brick/concr in these 2 thing)
ete) expand when damp

Clay Water spilt on the

clay structure
Shrinkage Clay Due to loss of water
(hot weather)
Vegetation Expansion All Roots can grow
inside the material
and expand
Over-Load Floors All
Ground Floors Ground Compression of
failure filled material, or
even the ground.

90
 Interpreting crack from crack shape

Crack Note Possible Cause

Shape
Horizontal Repeated at regular intervals The metal within the
in brickwork wall corrodes. The
repeated crack should
show a pattern; shows
the extent of the
corroded metal.

Horizontal Single horizontal joint crack Occur at High Level

The load above the
wall (on the roof or
upper level) is
substantial (changing
into new heavier roof,
too many heavy
furniture upstairs etc.)
causing cracks 2-3
brick courses below
the said load.

Horizontal Single horizontal joint crack Above Windows

There’s a combination
of concrete lintel and
brick near the window;
if building movement
occurs, or even a
cavity; these 2 will
concrete lintel cause the crack

91
 Crack Note Possible Cause
Shape
Horizontal Single horizontal joint crack Parapets
Parapet is the low
protective wall along the
edge of a roof, bridge, or
balcony. Very vulnerable
to hot weather; the
differences between the
hot parapet and the cooler
is that the brickwork layer
underlay it causes crack.
(just like pouring a cool
water into a hot glass)

Horizontal Damp proof course

Expansion due to
chemical reason; sulphates
in mortar/cement react
with water and CO2 ,
causing expansion

Vertical At wall Junction Occur at the joint between

the extensions of a
building. Differences (age,
material etc.) between the
extension structure and
the main house cause the
crack. This will occur
more often if there are
different materials
(brickwork and block
work)

92
 Crack Note Possible Cause
Shape
Vertical Form pattern shape Occur usually in
brickwork. Occur
due to thermal
expansion, or
even initial drying
shrinkage (at early
phase of
construction)

Vertical In concrete columns Could be due to

stress, corrosion
or carbonation
(chemical
reaction) of the
concrete.

Diagonal At corner Occur due to

stress being placed
on the wall at an
angle. The stress
may come from
rectangular
window, high
beam etc.

93
 Crack Note Possible Cause
Shape
Diagonal De-elevation of ground Movements of the
(subsidence of the ground) ground are the
most common
cause of diagonal
cracks. Based on
the structure
involved, a
subsidence of
ground could
move the entire
house (causing
major crack) or a
section of the
house, causing
small-medium
cracks). Report to
authority if this
occurs. Move
away if it persists.

Crazing Occur mostly in

cement / concrete
material. Often at
floor. May due to
load, incomplete
drying out (during
construction
phase)

94
SUMMARY

 Most cracks occur with a reason. Expansion or

contraction of a construction material is a major
source.

 Crack shape can give hint on possible causes;

based on its location and other amenities in the
vicinity.

95
INTERMISSION

The Great Mosque of Djenné

The Great Mosque of Djenné is one of the most famous landmarks in

Africa. Along with the "Old Towns of Djenné", it was designated as a
World Heritage Site by UNESCO in 1988. The walls of the Great
Mosque are made of sun-baked earth bricks (called ferey), and sand and
earth based mortar, and are coated with a plaster which gives the
building its smooth, sculpted look.

The entire community of Djenné takes an active role in the mosque's

maintenance via a unique annual festival which aims to repair the
damage inflicted on the mosque in the past year (mostly erosion
caused by the annual rains, and cracks caused by changes in
temperature and humidity). In the days leading up to the festival, the
plaster is prepared in pits. It requires several days to cure but needs to
be periodically stirred, a task usually falls to young boys who play in
the mixture, thus stirring up the contents. Men climb onto the
mosque's built-in scaffolding and ladders made of palm wood and
smear the plaster over the face of the mosque.

96
 Chapter

7
Protecting Yourself

PROTECTING
YOURSELF

97
If you still remember, there’s always an issue in
newspaper about property purchasers that was not
able to occupy their own property due to not having
certificate of compliance (of some sort). According to
law, as long the building is not certified, it is not
possible for occupancy.

If you thought that document was called CF or CFO

(Certificate of Fitness for Occupation), well you’re a
bit outdated. The system had changed since 2007, and
a new certificate called Certificate of Completion and
Compliance (CCC) is required. It was implemented on
12 April 2007 under the Street, Drainage and Building
Act 1974.

98
The reason for the change is due to problem of the
former system. The CF system depended on Local
Authority for ANY authorization, including
authorizing water supply system installation (go to the
Local Water Council), authorizing electricity
installation (go to Tenaga Nasional Berhad) etc.

The new system; CCC, is based on self-regulation (not

you, but the people in the construction team). In the
Construction team, there will be professionals
including Engineers, Architects and building
draftsman. One of these professionals will be
responsible for the CCC and that person is called
Principal Submitting Person (PSP; not the Sony
console game). The PSP only needs to submit building
plan to the Local Authority and supervises the
construction according to the approved plan.
Therefore, no more person going to the Water Council
or TNB; the PSP will supervise it.

99
However, the CCC has a catch. Since it is self-
regulating, there’s a chance of exploitation. The PSP
(and the contractor) may plan to build the property not
according to the approved building plan (for whatever
possible reason). This does not mean that the law will
pull a blind eye; there’s an offensive charges on this.
The offence will cause a fine of RM 250,000 or 10
years jail time or even both.

But human are human, exploitation still occur and we,

customer need to protect ourselves. Exercise your
rights and act when deem necessary. By now, you can
identify and predict most major building defects. The
following page should give you some ability to present
a proof to proper authority or the PSP should some
exploitation occur. This also includes building
improvement projects, building extension etc.

100
DEFINITION OF “DEFECT”

You may think, after several chapters, now you’re defining

the word “Defect”?

Well, there’s a reason and that reason is the definition can be

interpreted in many ways. It is better to explain from all
angles AFTER you had known the types of building defects.
This will give you some perspectives and judge whether the
water pipe malfunction on your new house is a defect or not.

The definition of Defect:

• Defects are the non-fulfilment of intended usage

requirements (Josephson & Hammarlund 1999).
• ‘A lack or absence of something essential to
completeness’ - Tate v. Latham & Son (1897).
• ‘Anything which renders the plant’ in an item of
plant - Yarmouth v. France (1897).
• ‘An imperfection or shortcoming’
- Black’s Law Dictionary (7th edition).

In our context, Defect means:

“Does not conform to the agreed specification”

This includes:

• Disconformity • Temporary
• Non-conformity disconformity (pre-
• Non-compliance completion defects):
• Incomplete defects before
completion

101
In much simpler terms:

• work (including design) or materials not of

acceptable quality

• work (including design) or materials that are in

themselves of acceptable quality, but do not confirm
with specification or the design brief

• Work that is incomplete.

As a customer, you have rights to claim for

exploitation or Free of Charge reparation (depending
on type of defect) if you are able to provide ground for
claim against some or all of the project team.

102
Type of DEFECT

 PATENT DEFECT

Defect that is visible clearly or defect that is observable

once it met certain condition (usually after weather
condition). It can be spotted by lay man.

 LATENT DEFECT

Defect that is not observable or is concealed. Usually it

is concealed under a layer of fine superficial
workmanship or tiny defect, which will later become
significant. It requires expert observation to deduce
defect estimation.

103
If you have a contract with the contractor, a defect can
entitle you:

• To a compensation
• To a building contract termination or
appointment of consultant
• Delay obligation to pay & right to receive
payment
• Prevent work being regarded as complete
(certification purposes)

If the work had been done without a contract, well,

there are 2 solutions: Restitution or Tort

104
RESTITUTION

It means Claim of Payment for work done in the

absence of contract.

From a property owner perspective; restitution can be

used when the building done is not up to standard;
(not according to customer request). If there were no
request made; the construction should be made
according to the standard imposed from the building
plan that is authorized by the Local Authority or any
building standard that currently in practice. The Local
Authority (normally following the bye-laws) had set
the standard code for building, therefore customer
should rely on the specification set by the Local
authority when he/she did not make any request.

However, the claim of payment does not necessarily

mean that contractor will pay up money. Instead, the
cost of repairing the defective section could be
reduced from the normal price up to a certain
percentage or even free.

105
TORT

Legal action can be made if defect occurred under

customer knowledge and had reported to the
contractor for remedial action. Further justification for
a legal action is when the contactor is aware of the
claim and ignores or denies the claim.

Legalities issue is out of this book domain. However,

as a customer, we deserve the rights to claim for
reparation when defect occurred. If you think that
you’re exploited, seek advice and guidance from
proper professionals (surveyors, lawyers, architects
etc).

In Malaysia, there are already various legal battles

between property owner and contractor. As long
purchaser/owner is able to provide ground for defect,
the purchaser/owner can claim against some or all of
project team [Alasan Penghakiman Rosdi VS Coopas
Sdn Bhd] (Teo Say Eng, 2012).

106
SUMMARY

 Certification of Fitness (CFO) is obsolete,

nowadays, building are certified with Certificate
of Completion and Compliance (CCC)

 CCC is self-regulating, there’s a possibility of

exploitation by contractors. Be vigilant and visit
construction site regularly to identify defects
that could be done deliberately.

 When a deliberate defect is observed, exercise

the right as an owner; Claim your rights as in
contracts stated or if there is no contract;
Restitution or Legal action.

107
INTERMISSION

RIPLEY’S BUILDING DEFECT?

It wasn’t hit by a massive earthquake. In true fashion of the

Ripley Legacy, This Ripley’s oddities attraction in Branson
Missouri was built to reflect the odd 1812 earthquake that
measured 8.0 on the rick. The building has now become one
of the most photographed in the world and attracts tourist all
year around.

108
 Chapter

FIELD TEST
Field Test

109
This chapter will show several pictures of building defects.
After reviewing the pictures, try look around your house,
office or property and see if you can find some.

110
111
112
113
114
115
 Chapter

End
Epilogue

EPILOGUE

116
Recently, a house had a problem; one of the wall sections of
the house had a huge crack. Here’s the picture:

The crack is large enough to warrant concern from the whole

family. We set to call a contactor to inspect and repair the crack.

117
As a brief description, this is the location of the house and the
neighbors. Note the different soil level between the houses:

The wall of the house is like this:

118
And the crack as in the picture is located here:

The reason for the crack is due to different soil level. The
wall of the house is leaning toward house “A”. If we left it
long enough, the wall may tumble down to house “A”:

119
Since the wall at the back is interconnected with the wall on
“C”, it created a pulled tension and created the crack:

Therefore, in order to repair the wall, we need to remove and

rebuild the 2 walls with stronger foundation. The following
page will show the process of reparation.

120
The above picture shows the walls are being broken with a
sledge hammer. There are only 2 people doing the job.

121
..And down the wall goes…

122
….until it completely demolished. The debris was cleared.

123
This is the inner side of the
wall. The brick were placed
in a solid construction
fashion. There are some
metal protruding outward,
but it is not clear in the
picture.

The inner of the other side

of the wall

124
After clearing the wall, it’s time to make the concrete frame.. The concrete
frame involves digging the soil; like making a trench and fill it with wire mesh
and cement. This is the picture of the basic concrete frame:

The trench
requires two
boards as a
footing on
each side.

After setting the trench and

footing, they placed wire
mesh at the center of the
footing to increase rigidity
and prevent cracks in the
concrete. After that, cement
was poured onto it and
formed a slab. This is a
concrete frame.

125
 The concrete frame is
situated on a trench.
From above, it seems like
soil/cement mound.

After that, they started placing the bricks, layer by layer.

126
And the new wall is rising.

127
There are some iron rods protruding out of the bricks layer.
The function is to make the layer of bricks rigid and firm with
cement.

128
The fully erected brick wall. After this they will plaster the wall with cement to
make it sturdy and long lasting. The plaster will protect the cement brick from
any factor that could lead to deterioration.

129
Once the plaster is finished, it will need to wait until it fully
dried before painting can begin.

130
Finally, the wall is painted with the exact same color of the
rest of the wall. Wall reparation completed.

By detecting the point of failure, we can repair it and make it

as if, the wall never crack before. That’s the power of building
defect knowledge.

131
CONCLUSION

We hope this book can help you in identifying simple building

defects. This knowledge is what we all should know when
looking for property, planning for house renovation or even for
estimating property value. But alas, the most important thing,
we hope this book will save you.
Back in 1993, a tragedy occurred when a block of Highland
Tower collapse, killing 48 tenants. It was known that the cause
of collapse was landslide. However, the landslides occurred due
to unsafe house development located not far from there. Cracks
were reported to have formed on the road leading to the towers
months before the tragedy.
A question remains after a while; a building does not fall
instantly, it must have given a sign of deteriorating. Did any of
the tenants notice it? Had someone taken a step back during
work and ask himself; “why is there a crack here?” and take
further action, they would definitely know the dire situation they
were into.
Nevertheless, any sign of major building defects should be taken
seriously, since this will determine matter of life and death. Seek
help when it is beyond your capability (even at early stage of
reasoning)
Finally, we want to express our gratitude to you, for reading and
understanding this book. We hope this knowledge will spread
and grow in people.

Thank you

132
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We would like to express our gratitude to our family

and friends who support us through the journey of
making this book. We would also like to express our
deepest gratitude to Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia’s
Center of Entrepreneurship and SME’s Development
(UKM-CESMED) for creating an opportunity for all
of us to create this book. It is possible that, without
them, this book may not be realized.

We would also like to thank Prof. Malcolm Hollis for

writing a superb book on buildings. His textbook on
surveying knowledge should be sought for those who
want to further their studies or even want to know
more about buildings and building defects.

133
BIBLIOGRAPHY

TEXT BOOK REFERENCE

Hollis, M. & Gibson, C. 2000. Surveying Buildings. Fifth Edition.
Rics Books London.

INTERFERENCE REFERENCES

Alasan Penghakiman COOPAS SDN BHD V ROSDI BIN MAT

ALI, 22-36-2008 C.F.R. 2012.
Andy Isaacson. 2011. The Pamir Mountains of Tajikistan.The New
York Times
http://www.nytimes.com/slideshow/2009/12/20/travel/2009
1220-pamir-slideshow_index.html
Barrett, K. 2008. Defective Construction Work. United Kingdom: Wiley-
Blackwell.
Bourgeois, J. L. 1987. The History of the Great Mosques of Djenné.
African arts 20(3): 54-92.
Ching, F. D. 2011.Building Construction Illustrated. John Wiley & Sons.
Dickinson, P. R. & Thornton, N. 2006. Cracking and Building Movement.
Coventry: RICS Books.
George Church. 1989. Freedom! The Berlin Wall.Time Magazine.
http://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,959058
,00.html [2/11/2014].
Josephon, P.E. & Hammarlund, Y. 1999. The Causes and Costs of
Defects in Construction: A Study of Seven Building Projects.
Automation in Construction. 8: 681-687.
Michelle, Rick, Seth Teicher, Leslie Mcintyre, Martofkukuf, Wythe,
Bertiein India, Nicholas Jackson & Dylan. The Root Bridge of
Cherrapunji
. http://www.atlasobscura.com/places/root-bridges-
cherrapungee [2/10/2014].
Roam, D. 2009.The Back of the Napkin (Expanded Edition): Solving
Problems and Selling Ideas with Pictures. Penguin.
INDEX
asset, 89 Frame, 60, 72
bricks, 69, 96, 126, 128 gap, 59
broken, 33, 71, 78, 80, 121 house, 18, 20, 26, 27, 89, 92, 94, 101,
builder, 18 110, 117, 118, 119, 132
building, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 7, 9, 12, 16, 17, inspect, 117
20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 26, 30, 37, inspection, 1, 7, 17
59, 60, 61, 62, 63, 64, 67, 72, Intermission, 4, 18, 37, 56, 73, 87, 96,
75, 76, 77, 89, 90, 91, 92, 96, 108
98, 99, 100, 101, 104, 105, Interpreting, 4, 88, 91
107, 108, 110, 131, 132, 133, investigation, 7, 17
135, 137 joint, 91, 92
Cause, 91, 92, 93, 94 load, 60, 77, 80, 86, 91, 94
cement, 67, 68, 70, 80, 82, 92, 94, 125, location, 11, 95, 118
128, 129 maintenance, 4, 79, 89, 96
compensation, 18, 104 Material, 90
concrete, 73, 79, 81, 86, 90, 91, 93, metal, 60, 65, 67, 68, 69, 91, 124
94, 125 microbe, 22
construction, 3, 5, 7, 59, 60, 62, 68, 69, Moisture, 35, 90
79, 82, 89, 90, 93, 94, 95, 99, motion, 11, 89
105, 107, 124, 137 movement due to, 90
contactor, 106, 117 organism, 21
contamination, 22 pattern, 55, 63, 72, 91, 93
corrodes, 91 plaster, 35, 96, 129, 130
crack, 55, 61, 62, 63, 64, 67, 72, 81, process, 1, 120
84, 91, 92, 94, 117, 119, 120, repair, 17, 89, 96, 117, 120, 131
131, 132 reparation, 102, 106, 120, 131
Crack, 67, 91, 92, 93, 94, 95 roof, 4, 33, 39, 40, 44, 46, 55, 59, 81,
cracks, 1, 26, 61, 63, 79, 81, 89, 90, 86, 91, 92
91, 94, 95, 96, 125 stress, 20, 55, 62, 93
Dampness, 21, 22, 27, 33, 34, 35 surface, 1, 21, 22, 23, 24, 36, 76, 77,
defect, 1, 2, 30, 36, 37, 55, 59, 71, 79, 78, 86
80, 101, 102, 103, 104, 106, Surface, 24
107, 131 survey, 3, 7, 17
defects, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 9, 12, 16, 58, 59, tension, 24, 36, 120
75, 89, 100, 101, 107, 110, understanding, 17, 132
132, 133, 137 vision, 10, 11, 12, 13, 17
deteriorate, 23, 89 wall, 5, 23, 26, 33, 35, 58, 59, 60, 61,
environment, 1, 20, 21, 29, 137 63, 65, 66, 67, 70, 71, 72, 73,
factor, 23, 129 90, 91, 92, 93, 117, 118, 119,
fee, 17 120, 122, 124, 125, 127, 129,
floor, 4, 22, 23, 27, 35, 75, 76, 77, 78, 131
79, 80, 81, 82, 86, 94 window, 33, 61, 62, 91, 93
ABOUT THE AUTHOR

Hadi Akbar Dahlan

Hadi Akbar graduated with a Bachelor Degree in Food
Science and Nutrition from Universiti Kebangsaan
Malaysia. Although a deviation from his degree, he is a
person that likes to try and learn new things, including
writing and illustrating for a subject that is entirely new
to him. He have several projects coming soon that aim
to deliver complex knowledge to the public via graphic
novel. He aspires to make knowledge more managed
and easy to understand in this world of excess information.

Adi Irfan Che Ani

Adi Irfan Che-Ani (Sr Dr.) is currently an Associate
Professor at Department of Architecture, Faculty of
Engineering and Built Environment, Universiti
Kebangsaan Malaysia – UKM (The National University
of Malaysia). He attained his PhD from University of
Malaya, Malaysia in the discipline of facility management
(performance measurement). He is actively involved in
many researches (focusing on building condition
assessment) and contributes to the numerous indexed publications. He
is also the recipient of the Young Building Surveyor Award 2013.

Ahmad Sairi
Ahmad Sairi is a member of Royal Institution of
Surveyors Malaysia (RISM). He attained his PhD from
UiTM in the field of Incineration. He is currently the
Director, Department of Building Control of Kajang
Municipal Council. He has been active in theoretical
and practical aspect of surveying in Building Control
Department in local authority since 1989 to date. His
expertise is towards quality control in building and
building compliance in terms of by-laws and local
authority practices.
Learning Building Defects via Visual Novel Approach is a
visual-oriented book aims to teach readers on the type of
building defects and it effects. This is an important
knowledge that most people “forget” (or failed perhaps) to
learn, since this topic is rarely discussed, unless you’re a
construction people or built environment academician. With
this book, we do hope that more readers will know more
about their home and building; thus instill more concern
about their surroundings.