Module 2: Hybrid Vehicles

Basic Architecture of Hybrid Drive Trains and Analysis

of Series Drive Train

Basic Architecture of Hybrid Drive Trains and Analysis of Series Drive Train
Introduction
The topics covered in this chapter are as follows:
 Hybrid Electric Vehicles (HEV)
 Energy use in conventional vehicles
 Energy saving potential of hybrid drive trains
 Various HEV configurations and their operation modes
The Hybrid Electric Vehicle (HEV)
What exactly is an HEV? The definition available is so general that it anticipates
future technologies of energy sources. The term hybrid vehicle refers to a vehicle with
at least two sources of power. A hybrid-electric vehicle indicates that one source of
power is provided by an electric motor. The other source of motive power can come
from a number of different technologies, but is typically provided by an internal
combustion engine designed to run on either gasoline or diesel fuel. As proposed by
Technical Committee (Electric Road Vehicles) of the International Electrotechnical
Commission, an HEV is a vehicle in which propulsion energy is available from two
or more types of energy sources and at least one of them can deliver electrical
energy. Based on this general definition, there are many types of HEVs, such as:
 the gasoline ICE and battery
 diesel ICE and battery
 battery and FC
 battery and capacitor
 battery and flywheel
 battery and battery hybrids.

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Most commonly, the propulsion force in HEV is provided by a combination of
electric motor and an ICE. The electric motor is used to improve the energy efficiency
(improves fuel consumption) and vehicular emissions while the ICE provides
extended range capability.
Energy Use in Conventional Vehicles
In order to understand how a HEV may save energy, it is necessary first to examine
how conventional vehicles use energy. The breakdown of energy use in a vehicle is as
follows:
 In order to maintain movement, vehicles must produce power at the wheels to
overcome:
a. aerodynamic drag (air friction on the body surfaces of the vehicle, coupled
with pressure forces caused by the air flow)
b. rolling resistance (the resistive forces between tires and the road surface)
b. resistive gravity forces associated with climbing a grade
 Further, to accelerate, the vehicle must its inertia. Most of the energy
expended in acceleration is then lost as heat in the brakes when the vehicle is
brought to a stop.
 The vehicle must provide power for accessories such as heating fan, lights,
power steering, and air conditioning.
 Finally, a vehicle will need to be capable of delivering power for acceleration
with very little delay when the driver depresses the accelerator, which may
necessitate keeping the power source in a standby (energy-using) mode.
A conventional engine-driven vehicle uses its engine to translate fuel energy into shaft
power, directing most of this power through the drivetrain to turn the wheels. Much of
the heat generated by combustion cannot be used for work and is wasted, both
because heat engines have theoretical efficiency limit. Moreover, it is impossible to
reach the theoretical efficiency limit because:
 some heat is lost through cylinder walls before it can do work
 some fuel is burned at less than the highest possible pressure
 fuel is also burned while the engine is experiencing negative load (during
braking) or when the vehicle is coasting or at a stop, with the engine idling.
Although part of engine losses would occur under any circumstances, part occurs
because in conventional drivetrains, engines are sized to provide very high levels of

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peak power for the acceleration capability expected by consumers, about 10 times the
power required to cruise at 100Km/h. However, the engines are operated at most
times at a small fraction of peak power and at these operating points they are quite
inefficient.
Having such a large engine also increases the amount of fuel needed to keep
the engine operating when the vehicle is stopped or during braking or coasting, and
increases losses due to the added weight of the engine, which increases rolling
resistance and inertial losses. Even gradeability requirements (example: 55 mph up a
6.5% grade) require only about 60 or 70% of the power needed to accelerate from 0 to
100Km/h in under 12 seconds.
The Figure 1 shows the translation of fuel energy into work at the wheels for a typical
midsize vehicle in urban and highway driving. From Figure 1 it can be observed that:
 At best, only 20% of the fuel energy reaches the wheels and is available to
overcome the tractive forces, and this is on the highway when idling losses are
at a minimum, braking loss is infrequent, and shifting is far less frequent.
 Braking and idling losses are extremely high in urban driving and even higher
in more congested driving, e.g., within urban cores during rush hour. Braking
loss represents 46% of all tractive losses in urban driving. Idling losses
represent about one sixth of the fuel energy on this cycle.
 Losses to aerodynamic drag, a fifth or less of tractive losses in urban driving,
are more than half of the tractive losses during highway driving.

Figure 1:Translation of fuel energy into work in a vehicle

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Energy Savings Potential of Hybrid Drivetrains
In terms of overall energy efficiency, the conceptual advantages of a hybrid over a
conventional vehicle are:
 Regenerative braking. A hybrid can capture some of the energy normally lost
as heat to the mechanical brakes by using its electric drive motor(s) in
generator mode to brake the vehicle
 More efficient operation of the ICE, including reduction of idle. A hybrid
can avoid some of the energy losses associated with engine operation at speed
and load combinations where the engine is inefficient by using the energy
storage device to either absorb part of the ICE’s output or augment it or even
substitute for it. This allows the ICE to operate only at speeds and loads where
it is most efficient. When an HEV is stopped, rather than running the engine at
idle, where it is extremely inefficient, the control system may either shut off
the engine, with the storage device providing auxiliary power (for heating or
cooling the vehicle interior, powering headlights, etc.), or run the engine at a
higher-than-idle (more efficient) power setting and use the excess power (over
auxiliary loads) to recharge the storage device. When the vehicle control
system can shut the engine off at idle, the drivetrain can be designed so that
the drive motor also serves as the starter motor, allowing extremely rapid
restart due to the motor’s high starting torque.
 Smaller ICE: Since the storage device can take up a part of the load, the
HEV’s ICE can be down sized. The ICE may be sized for the continuous load
and not for the very high short term acceleration load. This enables the ICE to
operate at a higher fraction of its rated power, generally at higher fuel
efficiency, during most of the driving.
There are counterbalancing factors reducing hybrids’ energy advantage, including:
 Potential for higher weight. Although the fuel-driven energy source on a
hybrid generally will be of lower power and weight than the engine in a
conventional vehicle of similar performance, total hybrid weight is likely to be
higher than the conventional vehicle it replaces because of the added weight of
the storage device, electric motor(s), and other components. This depends, of
course, on the storage mechanism chosen, the vehicle performance
requirements, and so forth.

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  Electrical losses. Although individual electric drivetrain components tend to
be quite efficient for one-way energy flows, in many hybrid configurations,
electricity flows back and forth through components in a way that leads to
cascading losses. Further, some of the components may be forced to operate
under conditions where they have reduced efficiency. For example, like ICEs,
most electric motors have lower efficiency at the low-speed, low-load
conditions often encountered in city driving. Without careful component
selection and a control strategy that minimizes electric losses, much of the
theoretical efficiency advantage often associated with an electric drivetrain
can be lost.
HEV Configurations
In Figure 2 the generic concept of a hybrid drivetrain and possible energy flow route
is shown. The various possible ways of combining the power flow to meet the driving
requirements are:
i. powertrain 1 alone delivers power
ii. powertrain 2 alone delivers power
iii. both powertrain 1 and 2 deliver power to load at the same time
iv. powertrain 2 obtains power from load (regenerative braking)
v. powertrain 2 obtains power from powertrain 1
vi. powertrain 2 obtains power from powertrain 1 and load at the same time
vii. powertrain 1 delivers power simultaneously to load and to powertrain 2
viii. powertrain 1 delivers power to powertrain 2 and powertrain 2 delivers
power ton load
ix. powertrain 1 delivers power to load and load delivers power to powertrain
2.

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 Figure 2:Generic Hybrid Drivetrain [1]

The load power of a vehicle varies randomly in actual operation due to frequent
acceleration, deceleration and climbing up and down the grades. The power
requirement for a typical driving scenario is shown in Figure 3. The load power can
be decomposed into two parts:
i. steady power, i.e. the power with a constant value
ii. dynamic power, i.e. the power whose average value is zero

Power [kW] Power [kW] Power [kW]

Dynamic Power
Average power


0 0

0

Time [s] Time [s] Time [s]

Figure 3: Load power decomposition [1]

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In HEV one powertrain favours steady state operation, such as an ICE or fuel cell.
The other powertrain in the HEV is used to supply the dynamic power. The total
energy output from the dynamic powertrain will be zero in the whole driving cycle.
Generally, electric motors are used to meet the dynamic power demand. This hybrid
drivetrain concept can be implemented by different configurations as follows:
 Series configuration
 Parallel configuration
 Series-parallel configuration
 Complex configuration
In Figure 4 the functional block diagrams of the various HEV configurations is
shown. From Figure 4 it can be observed that the key feature of:
 series hybrid is to couple the ICE with the generator to produce electricity for
pure electric propulsion.
 parallel hybrid is to couple both the ICE and electric motor with the
transmission via the same drive shaft to propel the vehicle
Fuel IC Fuel IC Mech.
tank engine tank engine coupler
Transmission

Transmission
Generator Generator

Power Power
Battery converter Electric converter Electric
Battery
(elec. motor (elec. motor
coupler) coupler)

Figure 4a: Series hybrid [1] Figure 4b: Series-Parallel hybrid [1]

Fuel IC Mech.
tank engine coupler

Fuel IC
Transmission

Transmission

tank engine
Mech. Power Motor/
coupler converter Generator
Power Electric
Battery converter motor
Battery
Power Electric
(elec.
converter motor
coupler)

Figure 4c: Parallel hybrid [1] Figure 4d: Complex hybrid [1]

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Series Hybrid System:
In case of series hybrid system (Figure 4a) the mechanical output is first converted
into electricity using a generator. The converted electricity either charges the battery
or can bypass the battery to propel the wheels via the motor and mechanical
transmission. Conceptually, it is an ICE assisted Electric Vehicle (EV). The
advantages of series hybrid drivetrains are:
 mechanical decoupling between the ICE and driven wheels allows the IC
engine operating at its very narrow optimal region as shown in Figure 5.
 nearly ideal torque-speed characteristics of electric motor make multigear
transmission unnecessary.
However, a series hybrid drivetrain has the following disadvantages:
 the energy is converted twice (mechanical to electrical and then to
mechanical) and this reduces the overall efficiency.
 Two electric machines are needed and a big traction motor is required because
it is the only torque source of the driven wheels.
The series hybrid drivetrain is used in heavy commercial vehicles, military vehicles
and buses. The reason is that large vehicles have enough space for the bulky
engine/generator system.

Fuel tank
Torque

Tractive

Motor Speed
effort

Vehicle Speed

Motor Traction Mech.

Engine Generator Rectifier motor Trans.
controller

Engine DC
Operating
Power

DC
region

Battery
Engine Speed pack
Electrical
coupler
Battery Traction
charger
Battery charge

Figure 5: Detailed Configuration of Series Hybrid Vehicle [1]

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Parallel Hybrid System:
The parallel HEV (Figure 4b) allows both ICE and electric motor (EM) to deliver
power to drive the wheels. Since both the ICE and EM are coupled to the drive shaft
of the wheels via two clutches, the propulsion power may be supplied by ICE alone,
by EM only or by both ICE and EM. The EM can be used as a generator to charge the
battery by regenerative braking or absorbing power from the ICE when its output is
greater than that required to drive the wheels. The advantages of the parallel hybrid
drivetrain are:
 both engine and electric motor directly supply torques to the driven wheels
and no energy form conversion occurs, hence energy loss is less
 compactness due to no need of the generator and smaller traction motor.
The drawbacks of parallel hybrid drivetrains are:
 mechanical coupling between the engines and the driven wheels, thus the
engine operating points cannot be fixed in a narrow speed region.
 The mechanical configuration and the control strategy are complex compared
to series hybrid drivetrain.
Due to its compact characteristics, small vehicles use parallel configuration. Most
passenger cars employ this configuration.
Series-Parallel System
In the series-parallel hybrid (Figure 4c), the configuration incorporates the features of
both the series and parallel HEVs. However, this configuration needs an additional
electric machine and a planetary gear unit making the control complex.
Complex Hybrid System
The complex hybrid system (Figure 4d) involves a complex configuration which
cannot be classified into the above three kinds. The complex hybrid is similar to the
series-parallel hybrid since the generator and electric motor is both electric machines.
However, the key difference is due to the bi-directional power flow of the electric
motor in complex hybrid and the unidirectional power flow of the generator in the
series-parallel hybrid. The major disadvantage of complex hybrid is higher
complexity.

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 Power Flow in HEVs
Power Flow in HEVs
Introduction
The following topics are covered in this lecture
 Power Flow Control
 Power Flow Control in Series Hybrid
 Power Flow Control in Parallel Hybrid
 Power Flow Control in Series-Parallel Hybrid
Power Flow Control
Due to the variations in HEV configurations, different power control strategies are
necessary to regulate the power flow to or from different components. All the control
strategies aim satisfy the following goals:
 maximum fuel efficiency
 minimum emissions
 minimum system costs
 good driving performance
The design of power control strategies for HEVs involves different considerations
such as:
 Optimal ICE operating point: The optimal operating point on the torque-
speed plane of the ICE can be based on maximization of fuel economy, the
minimization of emissions or a compromise between fuel economy and
emissions.
 Optimal ICE operating line: In case the ICE needs to deliver different power
demands, the corresponding optimal operating points constitute an optimal
operating line.
 Safe battery voltage: The battery voltage may be significantly altered during
discharging, generator charging or regenerative charging. This battery voltage
should not exceed the maximum voltage limit nor should it fall below the
minimum voltage limit.

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Power Flow Control in Series Hybrid
In the series hybrid system there are four operating modes based on the power flow:
 Mode 1: During startup (Figure 1a), normal driving or acceleration of the
series HEV, both the ICE and battery deliver electric energy to the power
converter which then drives the electric motor and hence the wheels via
transmission.
 Mode 2: At light load (Figure 1b), the ICE output is greater than that
required to drive the wheels. Hence, a fraction of the generated electrical
energy is used to charge the battery. The charging of the batter takes place till
the battery capacity reaches a proper level.
 Mode 3: During braking or deceleration (Figure 1c), the electric motor acts
as a generator, which converts the kinetic energy of the wheels into electricity
and this, is used to charge the battery.
 Mode 4: The battery can also be charged by the ICE via the generator even
when the vehicle comes to a complete stop (Figure 1d).

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 F E
F E

G T
G T

B P M
B P M
Figure 1b: Mode 2, light load
Figure 1a: Mode 1, normal driving or acceleration

F E
F E

G G T
T

B P M
B P M
Figure 1d: Mode 4, vehicle at stop
Figure 1c: Mode 3, braking or deceleration [1]

B:Battery G: Generator Electrical link

E: ICE M: Motor Hydraulic link
F: Fuel tank P: Power Converter Mechanical link
T: Transmission (including brakes, clutches and gears)

Power Flow Control in Parallel Hybrid

The parallel hybrid system has four modes of operation. These four modes of
operation are
 Mode 1: During start up or full throttle acceleration (Figure 2a); both the ICE
and the EM share the required power to propel the vehicle. Typically, the
relative distribution between the ICE and electric motor is 80-20%.
 Mode 2: During normal driving (Figure 2b), the required traction power is
supplied by the ICE only and the EM remains in off mode.
 Mode 3: During braking or deceleration (Figure 2c), the EM acts as a
generator to charge the battery via the power converter.
 Mode 4: Under light load condition (Figure 2d), the traction power is
delivered by the ICE and the ICE also charges the battery via the EM.

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 F E
F E

T
T

B P M
B P M
Figure 2b: Mode 2, normal driving
Figure 2a: Mode 1, start up

F E
F E

T
T

B P M
B P M
Figure 2d: Mode 4, light load
Figure 2c: Mode 3, braking or deceleration [1]

B:Battery G: Generator Electrical link

E: ICE M: Motor Hydraulic link
F: Fuel tank P: Power Converter Mechanical link

T: Transmission (including brakes, clutches and gears)

Power Flow Control Series-Parallel Hybrid

The series-parallel hybrid system involves the features of series and parallel hybrid
systems. Hence, a number of operation modes are feasible. Therefore, these hybrid
systems are classified into two categories: the ICE dominated and the EM
dominated.
The various operating modes of ICE dominated system are:
 Mode 1: At startup (Figure 3a), the battery solely provides the necessary
power to propel the vehicle and the ICE remains in off mode.
 Mode 2: During full throttle acceleration (Figure 3b), both the ICE and the
EM share the required traction power.
 Mode 3: During normal driving (Figure 3c), the required traction power is
provided by the ICE only and the EM remains in the off state.
 Mode 4: During normal braking or deceleration (Figure 3d), the EM acts as a
generator to charge the battery.

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 Mode 5: To charge the battery during driving (Figure 3e), the ICE delivers
the required traction power and also charges the battery. In this mode the EM
acts as a generator.
 Mode 6: When the vehicle is at standstill (Figure 3f), the ICE can deliver
power to charge the battery via the EM

F E F E

G T G T

B P M
B P M

Figure 3a: Mode 1, start up [1] Figure 3b: Mode 2, acceleration [1]

F E F E

G T G T

B P M
B P M

Figure 3c: Mode 3, normal drive [1] Figure 3d: Mode 4, braking or deceleration [1]

F E F E

G T G T

B P M B P M

Figure 3e: Mode 5, battery charging during driving [1] Figure 3f: Mode 6, battery charging during standstill
[1]

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The operating modes of EM dominated system are:
 Mode 1: During startup (Figure 4a), the EM provides the traction power and
the ICE remains in the off state.
 Mode 2: During full throttle (Figure 4b), both the ICE and EM provide the
traction power.
 Mode 3: During normal driving (Figure 4c), both the ICE and EM provide the
traction power.
 Mode 4: During braking or deceleration (Figure 4d), the EM acts as a
generator to charge the battery.
 Mode 5: To charge the battery during driving (Figure 4e), the ICE delivers
the required traction power and also charges the battery. The EM acts as a
generator.
 Mode 6: When the vehicle is at standstill (Figure 4f), the ICE can deliver
power to charge the battery via the EM

F E F E

G T G T

B P M B P M

Figure 4a: Mode 1, start up [1] Figure 4b: Mode 2, acceleration [1]

F E F E

G T G T

B P M B P M

Figure4c: Mode 3, normal drive [1] Figure 4d: Mode 4, braking or deceleration [1]

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 F E F E

G T G T

B P M B P M

Figure 4e: Mode 5, battery charging during driving [1] Figure 4f: Mode 6, battery charging during standstill [1]

Power Flow Control Complex Hybrid Control

The complex hybrid vehicle configurations are of two types:
 Front hybrid rear electric
 Front electric and rear hybrid
Both the configurations have six modes of operation:
 Mode 1: During startup (Figure 5a), the required traction power is delivered
by the EMs and the engine is in off mode.
 Mode 2: During full throttle acceleration (Figure 5b), both the ICE and the
front wheel EM deliver the power to the front wheel and the second EM
delivers power to the rear wheel.
 Mode 3: During normal driving (Figure 5c), the ICE delivers power to propel
the front wheel and to drive the first EM as a generator to charge the battery.
 Mode 4: During driving at light load (Figure 5d) first EM delivers the
required traction power to the front wheel. The second EM and the ICE are in
off sate.
 Mode 5: During braking or deceleration (Figure 5e), both the front and rear
wheel EMs act as generators to simultaneously charge the battery.

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  Mode 6: A unique operating mode of complex hybrid system is axial
balancing. In this mode (Figure 5f) if the front wheel slips, the front EM
works as a generator to absorb the change of ICE power. Through the battery,
this power difference is then used to drive the rear wheels to achieve the axle
balancing.

F E FT F E FT

FP FM FP FM

B RP RM RT B RP RM RT
Figure 5a: Mode 1, startup Figure 5b: Mode 2, full throttle acceleration

F E FT F E FT

FP FM FP FM

B RP RM RT B RP RM RT
Figure 5c: Mode 3, vehicle propel and battery charging Figure 5d: Mode 4, light load

F E FT F E FT

FP FM FP FM
B RP RM RT B RP RM RT
Figure 5e: Mode 5, braking or decelration Figure 5f: Mode 1, axil balancing

B:Battery FM: Front motor FP: Front power converter FT: Front axel
transmission E: ICE F: Fuel tank
RM: Rear motor RP: Rear power converter RT: Rear axle transmission [1]

Electrical link
Hydraulic link
Mechanical link

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In Figures 6a-f all the six modes of operation of front electric and rear hybrid is
shown.

F E FT F E FT

RP RM RP RM

B FP FM RT B FP FM RT
Figure 6a: Mode 1, startup Figure 6b: Mode 2, full throttle acceleration

F E FT F E FT

RP RM RP RM

B FP FM RT B FP FM RT
Figure 6c: Mode 3, vehicle propel and battery charging Figure 6d: Mode 4, light load

F E FT F E FT

RP RM RP RM

B FP FM RT B FP FM RT
Figure 6e: Mode 5, braking or decelration Figure 6f: Mode 1, axil balancing

B:Battery RM: Rear motor FP: Front power converter FT: Front axle
transmission E: ICE F: Fuel tank
RM: Rear motor RP: Rear power converter RT: Rear axle transmission [1]

Electrical link
Hydraulic link
Mechanical link

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 Torque Coupling and Analysis of Parallel Drive Train

Torque Coupling and Analysis of Parallel Drive Train

Introduction
The topics covered in this chapter are as follows:
 Introduction to Parallel Hybrid Electric Drive Train
 Torque Coupling
 Speed Coupling
 Post-Transmission Parallel Hybrid Drive Train with Torque Coupling
 Pre-Transmission Parallel Hybrid Drive Train with Torque Coupling
 Parallel Hybrid Drive Train with Speed Coupling
 Complex Hybrid Drivetrain
Parallel Hybrid Electric Drive Trains
In case of parallel hybrid drivetrains, the ICE and an electric motor (EM) supply the
required traction power. The power from ICE and EM are added together by a
mechanical coupler, Figure 1. Generally, the mechanical coupling is of two types:
 Torque coupling: In this case the coupler adds the torques of the ICE and EM
together and delivers the total torque to the driven wheels. The ICE and EM
torque can be independently controlled. The speeds of the ICE, EM and the
vehicle are linked together with a fixed relationship and cannot be
independently controlled because of the power conservation constraint.
 Speed coupling: In this case the speeds of the ICE and EM can be added
together and all torques are linked together and cannot be independently
controlled.

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 Fuel tank
Final drive
and differential

Mechanical
Engine Mechanical

Coupler
Transmission

Motor Battery
controller pack

Battery Traction
charger
Battery charge

Figure 1:General Configuration of a Parallel Hybrid Drive Train [1]

Torque Coupling
In Figure 2, a conceptual diagram of mechanical torque coupling is shown. The
torque coupling, shown in Figure 2, is a two-degree-of-freedom mechanical device.
Port 1 is a unidirectional input and Port 2 and 3 are bi-directional input or output, but
both are not input at the same time. Here input means the energy flows into the device
and output means the energy flows out of the device. In case of HEV
 port 1 is connected to the shaft of an ICE directly or through a mechanical
transmission.
 port 2 is connected to the shaft of an electric motor directly or through a
mechanical transmission
 port 3 is connected to the driven wheels through a mechanical linkage

T11 Mechanical
T33
Port 1 torque Port 3
coupler

Port 2
T22

Figure 2:Mechanical torque coupler [2]

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For a losses torque coupler in steady state, the power input is always equal to the
power output from it. For the torque coupler shown in Figure 1, the power balance is
T33  T11  T22
where
T1 = Propelling torque produced by ICE; 1 = Speed of ICE (1)
T2 =Propelling torque produced by EM; 2 = Speed of EM
T3 = Load torque delivered to wheels; 3 = Speed of wheel
The torque coupler can be expressed as
T3  k1T1  k2T2
where (2)
k1 , k2 are the structural parameters of the torque coupler

From equation 1 and equation 2 it can be seen that

1 2
3 =  (3)
k1 k2

A gearbox used in the vehicles is a typical example of torque couple. Some torque
coupler are shown in Figure 3
.
Shaft r1 Pulley or Chain Assembly
ω1 T1 r3
ω2,T2 r1

ω1 T1
ω T3
ω1 T1 T3 ω3 3

r
2
r4
r2 ω2 T2 ω2 T2 ω3 T
3

Rotor
Stator r2 r3 r2
k1= k2= k1= k2= 1
r1 r4 r1

r 1, r 2, r 3, and r 4---- Radii of pulleys r 1 and r 2---- Radii of pulleys

Figure 3a:Configuration of a torque coupler [2] Figure 3b:Configuration of a pulley/chain assembly torque coupler [2]

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Speed Coupling
The power produced by two power plants may be coupled together by adding their
speed. This is done with the help of speed coupling devices (Figure 4). The Speed
Coupler is a three port two-degree-of-freedom device. Port 1 is a unidirectional input
and Port 2 and 3 are bi-directional input or output, but both are not input at the same
time. Here input means the energy flows into the device and output means the energy
flows out of the device. In case of HEV
 port 1 is connected to the shaft of an ICE directly or through a mechanical
transmission.
 port 2 is connected to the shaft of an electric motor directly or through a
mechanical transmission
 port 3 is connected to the driven wheels through a mechanical linkage

Mechanical
Speed
T1 , 1 coupler
T3 , 3
Port 1 Port 3

T2 , 2
Port 2

Figure 4:Mechanical speed coupler [2]

For a losses speed coupler in steady state, the power input is always equal to the
power output from it. For the speed coupler shown in Figure 4, the speed relation is
3  k11  k22
where (4)
k1 , k2 are the structural parameters of the speed coupler

The power relation in case of speed coupler is same as given in equation 1. From
equation 1 and equation 4 it can be seen that
T1 T2
T3 =  (5)
k1 k2

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A typical speed coupler is the planetary gear (Figure 5). The planetary gear unit is a
three port device consisting of
 Sun gear, marked 1 in Figure 5
 Ring gear, marked 2 in Figure 5
 Carrier or Yoke, marked 3 in Figure 5
T2 , 2 2

3 2
rc rr
rs

1 T1 , 1

3 T3

1
Figure 5a:Planetary gear front view [2] Figure 5b:Planetary gear cut section [2]

For a planetary gear train configuration as shown in Figure 5, the gear ratio (nb) is
given by
 s  c z z z r
nb   r c  r  r
r  c zc z s zs rs
where
s = angular speed of the sun gear
c = angular speed of the carrier gear
r = angular speed of the ring gear
(6)
zs = number of teeth on the sun gear
zr = number of teeth on the ring gear
zc = number of teeth on the carrier gear
rs = radius of the sun gear
rr = radius of the ring gear
rc = radius of the carrier gear

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The equation 6 can also be expressed as
nb  r  c    s  c
  s  nb r  c 1  nb   0 (7)
1 n
 c  s  b r
1  nb 1  nb

In the analysis of the planetary gears, rotation and torque in the anticlockwise
direction is assumed to be positive and in the clockwise direction is assumed to be
negative. Using the power balance, the torque acting on each gear is obtained as
Tss  Tcc  Trr  0 (8)

Substituting the value of  c from equation 7 into equation 8 gives

  n 
Ts s  Tc  s  b  r   Tr r  0
 1  nb 1  nb 
 1   n  (9)
  s  Ts  Tc    r  Tr  b Tc   0
 1  nb   1  nb 
1  nb
Tc   1  nb  Ts and Tc  Tr
nb

If the carrier is attached to a stationary frame ( c = 0 ) then from equation 7

s z r
nb   r  r (10)
r zs rs

and from equation 8 the torque relation is given by

r
Ts   T
s r (11)
T
 Ts   r
nb

From Figure 5 it can be seen that rr  rs , hence nb  1 . If it is assumed that the input

torque is given to the sun gear and the output shaft is connected to the ring gear, then
from equation 10 and equation 11 it can be deduced that
 The output torque ( Tr ) is increased by a factor nb and the direction of the

output torque is same as that of the input torque ( Ts )

 The output speed (  r ) is reduced by a factor of nb and the direction of speed

is reversed with respect to the input speed (  s ).

Page 24 of 59
 In Table 1 all the six possible scenarios of planetary gears are summarized.
Table 1: Planetary gear operation scenarios

Sun Carrie Ring Output Output Output Output Output Output

gear r gear gear Speed Torque speed speed torque torque
directio magnitud directio magnitud
n e n e
Input Output Held s Tr  nbTs Reverse Decreases Remains Increases
r 
nb
s same
Held Output Input nb 1  nb Remains Decreases Reverse Increases
c    r Tc  Tr
1  nb nb
same s

Outpu Input Held s  1  nb  c T =  Tc Remains Increases Reverse Decreases

t
s
 nb 
1 
same s

Held Input Output 1  nb n Remains Increases Reverse Decreases

r   c Tr  b Tc
nb 1- nb
same s

Input Held Output s Tr  nbTs Reverse Decreases Remains Increases

r 
nb
s same
Outpu Held Input s  nbr Tr Reverse Increases Remains Decreases
Ts  
nb
t s same

Page 25 of 59
 Basic Architecture of Electric Drive Trains

Basic Architecture of Electric Drive Trains

Introduction
The topics covered in this chapter are as follows:
 Electric Vehicle (EV) Configuration
 EV alternatives based on drivetrains
 EV alternatives based on power source configuration
 Single and Multi-motor drives
 In wheel drives
Electric Vehicle (EV) Configurations
Compared to HEV, the configuration of EV is flexible. The reasons for this flexibility
are:
 The energy flow in EV is mainly via flexible electrical wires rather than
bolted flanges or rigid shafts. Hence, distributed subsystems in the EV are
really achievable.
 The EVs allow different propulsion arrangements such as independent four
wheels and in wheel drives.
In Figure 1 the general configuration of the EV is shown. The EV has three major
subsystems:
 Electric propulsion
 Energy source
 Auxiliary system
The electric propulsion subsystem comprises of:
 The electronic controller
 Power converter
 Electric Motor (EM)
 Mechanical transmission
 Driving wheels

Page 26 of 59
The energy source subsystem consists of
 The energy source (battery, fuel cell, ultracapacitor)
 Energy management unit
 Energy refueling unit
The auxiliary subsystem consists of
 Power steering unit
 Temperature control unit
 Auxiliary power supply

Page 27 of 59
In Figure 1 the black line represents the mechanical link, the green line represents the
electrical link and the blue line represents the control information communication.
Based on the control inputs from the brake and accelerator pedals, the electronic
controller provides proper control signals to switch on or off the power converter
which in turn regulates the power flow between the electric motor and the energy
source. The backward power flow is due to regenerative braking of the EV and this
regenerative energy can be stored provided the energy source is receptive.
The energy management unit cooperates with the electronic controller to control
regenerative braking and its energy recovery. It also works with the energy-refueling
unit to control refueling and to monitor usability of the energy source.
The auxiliary power supply provides the necessary power with different voltage levels
for all EV auxiliaries, especially the temperature control and power steering units.

Electric propulsion subsystem Wheel

Brake
Electronic Power Electric Mechanical
controller converter motor transmission

Accelerator
Wheel

Energy Auxiliary Power

management Energy Power steering
source unit
unit Supply
Steering
wheel

Energy Temperature
refueling control
unit unit
Energy source
subsystem
Auxiliary subsystem

Energy
source

Figure 1:General Configuration of a Electric Vehicle [1]

Page 28 of 59
In modern EV’s configuration:
 Three phase motors are generally used to provide the traction force
 The power converter is a three-phase PWM inverter
 Mechanical transmission is based on fixed gearing and a differential
 Li-ion battery is typically selected as the energy source
The typical setup of the EV is shown in Figure 2.

Electric propulsion subsystem Wheel

Brake 3-phase
Electronic 3-phase Mechanical
controller PWM transmission
AC motor
inverter

Accelerator
Wheel

Energy Auxiliary Power

management Battery Pack Power steering
unit Supply unit
Steering
wheel

Energy Temperature
refueling control
unit unit
Energy source
subsystem
Auxiliary subsystem

Figure 2:Typical Configuration of a Electric Vehicle [1]

Electric Vehicle (EV) Drivetrain Alternatives Based on Drivetrain Configuration

There are many possible EV configurations due the variations in electric propulsion
and energy sources. Based on these variations, six alternatives are possible as shown
in Figure 3. These six alternatives are
 In Figure 3a a single EM configuration with gearbox (GB) and a clutch is
shown. It consists of an EM, a clutch (C), a gearbox, and a differential (D).
The clutch enables the connection or disconnection of power flow from EM to
the wheels. The gear consists of a set of gears with different gear ratios. With
the use of clutch and gearbox, the driver can shift the gear ratios and hence the
torque going to the wheels can be changed. The wheels have high torque low
speed in the lower gears and high-speed low torque in the higher gears.

Page 29 of 59
  In Figure 3b a single EM configuration without the gearbox and the clutch is
shown. The advantage of this configuration is that the weight of the
transmission is reduced. However, this configuration demands a more
complex control of the EM to provide the necessary torque to the wheels.
 Figure 3c shows a configuration of EV using one EM. It is a transverse front
EM front wheel drive configuration. It has a fixed gearing and differential and
they are integrated into a single assembly.
 In Figure 3d a dual motor configuration is shown. In this configuration the
differential action of an EV when cornering can be electronically provided by
two electric motors.
 In order to shorten the mechanical transmission path from the EM to the
driving wheel, the EM can be placed inside a wheel. This configuration is
called in-wheel drive. Figure 3e shows this configuration in which fixed
planetary gearing is employed to reduce the motor speed to the desired wheel
speed.
 In Figure 3f an EV configuration without any mechanical gearing is shown.
By fully abandoning any mechanical gearing, the in-wheel drive can be
realized by installing a low speed outer-rotor electric motor inside a wheel.

C
M GB D M FG D

Figure 3a: EV configuration with clutch, gearbox and Figure 3b: EV configuration without clutch and gearbox
differential [1] [1]

FG
M
M
FG
D M
FG

Figure 3c:EV configuration with clutch, gearbox and Figure 3d:EV configuration with two EM [1]
differential [1]

Page 30 of 59
 FG
M

M
FG
Figure 3e:EV configuration with in wheel motor and Figure 3f:EV configuration with in wheel motor and no
mechanical gear [1] mechanical gear [1]

Electric Vehicle (EV) Drivetrain Alternatives Based on Power Source

Configuration
Besides the variations in electric propulsion, there are other EV configurations due to
variations in energy sources. There are five configurations possible and they are:
 Configuration 1: It is a simple battery powered configuration, Figure 4a. The
battery may be distributed around the vehicle, packed together at the vehicle
back or located beneath the vehicle chassis. The battery in this case should
have reasonable specific energy and specific power and should be able to
accept regenerative energy during braking. In case of EVs, the battery should
have both high specific energy and specific power because high specific
power governs the driving range while the high power density governs the
acceleration rate and hill climbing capability.
 Configuration 2: Instead of two batteries, this design uses two different
batteries, Figure 4b. One battery is optimized for high specific energy and the
other for high specific power.
 Configuration 3: In this arrangement fuel cell is used, Figure 4c. The battery
is an energy storage device, whereas the fuel cell is an energy generation
device. The operation principle of fuel cells is a reverse process of electrolysis.
In reverse and electrolysis, hydrogen and oxygen gases combine to form
electricity and water. The hydrogen gas used by the fuel cell can be stored in
an on-board tank whereas oxygen gas is extracted from air. Since fuel cell can
offer high specific energy but cannot accept regenerative energy, it is
preferable to combine it with battery with high specific power and high-energy
receptivity.

Page 31 of 59
  Configuration 4: Rather than storing it as a compressed gas, a liquid or a
metal hydride, hydrogen can be can be generated on-board using liquid fuels
such as methanol, Figure 4d. In this case a mini reformer is installed in the
EV to produce necessary hydrogen gas for the fuel cell.
 Configuration 5: In fuel cell and battery combination, the battery is selected
to provide high specific power and high-energy receptivity. In this
configuration a battery and supercapacitor combination is used as an energy
source, Figure 4e. The battery used in this configuration is a high energy
density device whereas the supercapacitor provides high specific power and
energy receptivity. Usually, the supercapacitors are of relatively low voltage
levels, an additional dc-dc power converter is needed to interface between the
battery and capacitor terminals.

B
B P P
B

Figure 4a: EV configuration with battery source [1] Figure 4b: EV configuration with two battery sources [1]

FC R FC
P P
B B

Figure 4c: EV configuration with battery and fuel cell Figure 4d: EV configuration with multiple energy sources
sources [1] [1]

B B
P P
C P FW P

Figure 4e: EV configuration with battery and capacitors Figure 4f: EV configuration with battery and flywheel
sources [1] sources [1]

Page 32 of 59
Single and Multi-motor Drives
A differential is a standard component for conventional vehicles. When a vehicle is
rounding a curved road, the outer wheel needs to travel on a larger radius than the
inner wheel. Thus, the differential adjusts the relative speeds of the wheels. If relative
speeds of the wheels are not adjusted, then the wheels will slip and result in tire wear,
steering difficulties and poor road holding. In case of EVs, it is possible to dispense
the mechanical differential by using two or even four EMs. With the use of multiple
EMs, each wheel can be coupled to an EM and this will enable independent control of
speed of each wheel in such a way that the differential action can be electronically
achieved. In Figure 5, a typical dual motor drive with an electronic differential is
shown.

Wheel Wheel
ωout > ωin

ωout ωin

EM 1 EM 2
with fixed with fixed
gearing gearing

Figure 5: Differential action [1]

Page 33 of 59
In Wheel Drives
By placing an electric motor inside the wheel, the in wheel motor has the advantage
that the mechanical transmission path between the electric motor and the wheel can be
minimized. Two possible configurations for in wheel drives are:
 When a high-speed inner-rotor motor is used (Figure 6a) then a fixed speed-
reduction gear becomes necessary to attain a realistic wheel speed. In general,
speed reduction is achieved using a planetary gear set. This planetary gear is
mounted between the motor shaft and the wheel rim. Usually this motor is
designed to operate up to 1000 rpm so as to give high power density.
 In case outer rotor motor is used (Figure 6b), then the transmission can be
totally removed and the outer rotor acts as the wheel rim and the motor speed
is equivalent to the wheel speed and no gears are required.
The tradeoffs of the high-speed inner rotor motor are:
 It has the advantage of smaller size, lighter weight and lower cost
 Needs additional planetary gearset
The tradeoffs of outer-rotor motor are
 Low speed and hence does not need additional gears
 The drawbacks are larger size, weight and cost because of the low speed
design.
Inner-rotor Outer-rotor
Tire Tire

Rim

Rim
PM
Brake
Wheel Brake Motor Winding

Motor Winding Wheel

Bearing
PM Bearing Encoder
Planetary gear set

PM Encoder Bearing
Wheel
Bearing
Motor Winding Motor Winding

Brake
Brake
Wheel PM
Rim Rim

Tire
Tire

Figure 6a: Inner rotor In Wheel drive [1] Figure 6b: Outer rotor In Wheel drive [1]

Page 34 of 59
Considerations of EMs used in EVs
The requirements of EMs used in EVs are:
 Frequent start/stop
 High rate of acceleration and deceleration
 High torque low speed hill climbing
 Low torque cruising
 Very wide speed range of operation
The EMs for EVs are unique and their major differences with respect to industrial
motors in load requirement, performance specification and operating environment are
as follows:
 EV motors need to produce the maximum torque that is four to five times of
the rated torque for acceleration and hill climbing, while industrial motors
generally offer the maximum torque that is twice of the rated torque for
overload operation
 EV motors need to achieve four to five times the base speed for highway
cruising, while industrial motors generally achieve up to twice the base speed
for constant power operation
 EV motors require high power density as well as good efficiency map (high
efficiency over wide speed and torque ranges), while industrial motors are
generally optimized to give high efficiency at a rated point.
 EV motors need to be installed in mobile vehicles with harsh operating
conditions such as high temperature, bad weather and frequent vibration, while
industrial motors are generally located in fixed places.

Page 35 of 59
 Design of Hybrid and Electric Vehicles
Design Principles of HEVs I
Design Principles of HEVs I
In this lecture the different types of the hybrid electric vehicles are presented. The
following topics are covered in this lecture:
 Definition of hybridness
 Hybrid design philosophy
 Hybridness: parallel hybrid, series, mixed and range extender (plug-in) hybrids
 Range extender
 Optimization and hybridness
 Battery power and electric motor power
DEFINITION OF HYBRIDNESS
The definition of hybridness, H, is
Sum of power of all traction motors
H (1)
Sum of traction motor+Engine power
Some hybrids have more than one motor/generator (M/G). Hybrids with motor-in-the-
wheel and all-wheel-drive (AWD) have more than one motor. The definition uses the
sum of all traction motors. The name, hybridization, is occasionally used for H.
As an example of hybridness consider a light delivery van with the propulsion:
Diesel engine: 110 kW at 3000 rpm
Electric motor: 23 kW; maximum torque 243 N-m at 500 rpm
23kW
H  0.17  17% (2)
23  110kW
As will be seen, H = 17% is a mild hybrid. As a note of caution, the sum of component
power 23 + 110 kW = 133 kW is not the maximum hybrid power. The maximum electric
motor torque and engine torque occur at different rpm.
H defines micro, mild, and full hybrids. The domain of the plug-in hybrid is defined by a
range of values of H.

Page 36 of 59
Morphing of series hybrids, which is done by varying H, leads to mixed hybrids. H can
be an independent variable in an equation for hybrid performance. One example, which is
range extension, is discussed below.
HYBRID DESIGN PHILOSOPHY
By considering the major factors for hybrids, an understanding of the various values of H
is gained. The basic efficiency of the gasoline engine is low. A typical value is 25%. The
efficiency of MGs is higher. Typical values are above 90%.
Battery efficiency is moderate; energy is lost putting energy into the battery and again
removing energy. Round trip in/out efficiency is typically 70%–80%. Because of the
inefficiency, the batteries must be cooled. Overall hybrid design philosophy has three
parts:
 Operate electric motor first (less emissions/less fuel consumed).
 Add gasoline engine only when needed.
 Operate gas engine at the best rpm and throttle setting, that is, operate on
minimum fuel consumption line in engine map.
HYBRIDNESS: PARALLEL HYBRID
Figure 1 demonstrates the utility of hybridness, H for parallel hybrid vehicle. Some parts
are not shown, like the battery. Five different values of H that are illustrated in Figure 1
are:
 For H = 0%, the vehicle is solely powered by a conventional gasoline engine.
 For H = 25%, the hybrid electric vehicle (HEV) has an electrical traction motor
with 25 kW and an engine with 75 kW. Both engine and motor shafts are inputs to
a three-way transmission. This is the region for a mild hybrid. Mild hybrids are a
good solution for certain vehicles. The cost/benefit ratio is highly favorable.
 For H = 50%, the HEV has both electrical traction motor and an engine with equal
power of 50 kW. As is the case for a parallel hybrid, both engine and motor shafts
are inputs to a three-way transmission. This is the region for a full hybrid.
 For H = 75%, the HEV has a very large M/G compared to the engine power. To
supply the electrical power for the M/G, a large heavy battery is required. This is
the region for a plug-in hybrid. Also this is the region for the range extender

Page 37 of 59
 vehicle. For H = 75%, if the M/G runs for an hour, the energy consumed would be
75 kWh. The engine/generator requires 3 h to recharge the battery.
 For H = 100%, the vehicle is a pure electrical vehicle (EV). All electrical power
comes from either the battery or regenerative braking. Energy stored in the battery
is supplied by charging stations.
Except for H = 0% and H = 100%, each hybrid has the same architecture. The M/G and
engine are inputs to a three-way, or three-shaft, transmission.
A series hybrid by its definition has a value of H near 50%. For values of H away from
50%, different classes of hybrids are found (Figure 2). The diagram assumes no losses;
all components have 100% efficiency. The shafts, which are identified by an ellipse
indicating torque, are a mechanical connection between parts.

Fig.1. Illustration of component sizes for parallel hybrid designs with varying hybridness. [1]

Page 38 of 59
HYBRIDNESS: SERIES, MIXED, AND RANGE EXTENDER (PLUG-IN)
HYBRIDS
The series hybrid has motor power approximately equal to engine power; hence, the
series hybrid exists in a band near H = 50%. Outside that band, the series hybrid changes
into either mixed hybrid or plug-in hybrid.
RANGE EXTENDER
The range extender, which has large value for H, is shown in Figure 2. An almost infinite
number of either parallel, mixed, series or plug-in designs can be made for a hybrid. The
equations discussed below apply to one plug-in or range extender hybrid design. The
assumptions for the equations are as follows:
1. When it runs, the generator always runs at full power.
2. Power to cruise, which depends on cruise speed, is greater than the generator
power.
3. Battery power supplements engine (generator) power.
4. At the end of cruise at maximum range, R, the battery is “dead” and the fuel tank
is empty.
Note that when voltage supplied to the motor is equal to the battery open circuit
voltage, the battery neither supplies nor absorbs electrical energy.

Page 39 of 59
 Figure 2. Series hybrid and its derivatives related to hybridness, H. For H less than 50%, the series hybrid morphs into the
mixed hybrid. For H greater than 50%, the series hybrid transforms into the range extender, electric, vehicle. H greater than
50% is also the region for the plug-in hybrid. The dashed line (----) is an electrical connection. For H = 29%, the part
attributed to series is shown as well as the part which is parallel. H = 29% is a mixed hybrid. [1]

The symbols and equations are

R0
R (3)
H

Page 40 of 59
where R0 is the range without engine/generator, R is the range with engine/generator
which extends range and H is the hybridness factor. The increment in range, ΔR, is
defined by Equation 11.4
1 H
R  R  R0  R0 (4)
H
The typical SOC versus Range curve for a range extender is shown in Figure 3. The
numerical values assumed for the curve shown in Figure 3 are R0=240km, H=75% and
R=240km/0.75=320km

100
Battery SOC (%)

80 R0 R
60 SOCmin
40 Extended
H=0.75 Range
20
80 km
0
0 100 200 300 400
Range (km)

Figure 3. Extension of range due to a small gasoline-powered generator recharging the battery. [1]

The gain in range is

R  R  R0  240km (1  0.75) / 0.75  80km

OPTIMIZATION AND HYBRIDNESS

For small hybridness, that is H much less than 50%, the optimum hybrid operates near
the best specific fuel consumption line on the engine map. Small H corresponds to mild
hybrids. For a band of hybridness near 50%, the efficiencies of both electrical and engine
components affect the optimum operating points. Values of H larger than 40% are termed
full hybrids. For large values of H, that is, near 100%, hybrid optimization focuses on the
M/G, battery, and power electronics.

Page 41 of 59
BATTERY POWER AND ELECTRIC MOTOR POWER
To begin, a few features of batteries are stated. Battery size is determined by
Battery energy = (power of M/G)(run time)
This equation assumes that the battery power equals the power of the M/G. By a
property of the battery known as specific energy (Wh/kg), battery energy can be changed
to battery mass. Specific energy of the battery has units of (battery energy)/ (mass) and
the run time is the time required for the battery to become dead.
The trends in the variation of battery power and energy are shown in Figure 4. The
battery power and electric motor power must be matched. For examining the trends,
battery and motor powers are assumed equal Figure 4. is divided into two regions with
_______________________________________
Mild and full hybrids 0% < H < 50%
Plug-in hybrids 50% < H < 100%
_______________________________________
The battery variation with increasing H depends on the region.

Fig.4.Variation of battery power and battery energy as a function of hybridness. [1]

Page 42 of 59
 ____________________________________________________________
__________________
TABLE I
Qualitative Aspects of Battery Size Small Big

Small Gig
Engine runs too often Too much weight to haul around
Little loss of mpg due to excess weight Allows lots of electric-only operation
Insufficient for electric-only operation Suitable for plug-in operation
____________________________________________________________
__________
For mild and full hybrids, as H increases, the battery power and battery energy increase
hand in hand. From the equation Battery energy = (Power of M/G)(Run time), the run
time remains fixed in this region. Refer to the definition of H in the opening paragraphs
of this chapter.
An increase in M/G power increases H. Also a decrease in engine power, that is,
downsizing the engine, increases H. Battery energy (E), and power (P); grow to match
the growth in M/G. The increase of H in this region is due mainly to growth of M/G
power.
For the plug-in hybrid, the M/G power no longer needs to grow. The M/G has sufficient
power to move the vehicle. The battery power need not grow; however, battery energy
must grow to gain more range. Figure 4. shows the parting of the ways of battery E and
P in the plug-in region.
Battery E continues to increase while battery P remains constant at a value equal to M/G
power. In this region, since M/G power is fixed, increases in H are due to shrinking
engine power compared to M/G power.
Batteries can be designed so that power remains fixed while energy increases. What is the
link that relates the power of the M/G to battery size or weight? Table I provides some
qualitative comments on battery size.
Energy stored in battery
Desired run time = (5)
Power of M/G

Page 43 of 59
 Design Principles of HEVs II:
Design Principles of HEVs II
In this lecture the different types of the hybrid electric vehicles are presented. The
following topics are covered in this lecture:
 Interpretation of Ramps
 Techniques to enhance hybrid performance
 Mild or micro hybrid features
 Plug-in hybrid
 All-wheel drive hybrid
INTERPRETATION OF RAMPS
The interpretation of the ramps is discussed here. The example used in Figure 1 applies
to the capability of hybrids to exploit regenerative braking.
For a mild hybrid, H = 15%, regenerative braking is possible but only about 38% of
kinetic energy can be recovered. The calculation is 15/40 = 38%, which is the height of
the ramp at H = 15%.
The limitation is due to the small generator. The ramp ends at H = 40% for which a
hybrid has a generator large enough to enable high-efficiency regenerative braking.
For a full hybrid, H = 50%, more than enough generating capability exists for
regenerative braking. As denoted by the fl at bar, the span of H from 40% to 100% allows
full regenerative braking.

Fig.1. Interpretation of the ramps [1]

Page 44 of 59
 _______________________________________________________
TABLE 1
Effect of Low Charge on Vehicle Performance

Acceleration Full Charge Partial Charge

Time 0–60 mph, s 10.8 12.3
Standing quarter mile (s) 18.3 19.1
Speed at quarter mile (mph) 78 75
Note: Data are for a 2006 Honda Civic Hybrid as compiled from various sources.
________________________________________________________________
TECHNIQUES TO ENHANCE HYBRID PERFORMANCE
As a summary to the hybridness discussion, various techniques to enhance hybrid
performance are arrayed with hybridness in Figure 2.
Start–Stop
Engine-off during stops in traffic affords a saving in fuel. The usual 12 V starter does
not have the power to restart the engine without delay, noise, and vibration. With the
more powerful electrical motors, even in mild hybrid, the engine rpm can be quickly
increased. Once smoothly and quickly up to starting rpm, the fuel injection can be
activated.
Damping Driveline Oscillations
Another way that fuel consumption can be reduced is to shut off fuel flow whenever
brakes are applied. Abrupt turn off of fuel can cause shudder and unpleasant oscillations
of the engine and of driveline. Damping by the electrical motor can decrease the
unpleasantness to an acceptable level.
For a hybrid that uses an automatic transmission, some losses in the torque converter can
be reduced by locking the torque converter eliminating slippage.
Under some conditions, when the torque converter is locked, driveline oscillations are
excited; these oscillations are disagreeable to the customer. Once again, damping by the
electrical motor can decrease the unpleasantness to an acceptable level.

Page 45 of 59
Vehicle Launch
An engine at low rpm has little torque. At launch, torque is essential. An electric motor,
even a small one, has high torque at low rpm.
The motor fills in the torque hole at low rpm. A small motor can contribute significantly
to the initial launch.

Fig.2. Availability of various techniques to enhance hybrid performance as a function of hybridness and resulting mpg
gain. The bar below the hybridness graph has a ramp which extends from H = 0% to a value of H for the particular
technology. For start–stop, the ramp ends at H = 10%. The flat bar beyond indicates that for all values of H > 10%, that
feature is available to the hybrid designer. [1]

Page 46 of 59
Regenerative Braking
For small values of H, which implies small generator, the Motor/Generator (M/G) set
cannot absorb the kinetic energy of the vehicles forward motion in a rapid stop.
Although modest regenerative braking is possible and is used at low H, regenerative
braking can only be fully exploited when H is about 40%.
Motor Assist
Vehicle launch is part of motor assist, but applies to very low speed. Motor assist covers
a broader range of speed and vehicle operations such as hill climbing and driving in
snow. More power and a larger electric motor are required.
Hybridness, H, of 50% yields enough power from the electrical motor to overcome the
power deficiencies of the downsized engine.
Electric-Only Propulsion
Electric-only propulsion means the gasoline engine is shut down and does not consume
fuel. Electric-only operation improves mpg.
To achieve performance goals, the motor must have adequate power. At H = 50%, the
traction motor is as large as the engine. Alone, the traction motor yields the desired
performance.
Another reason that electric-only operation is desirable is the fact that emissions are zero
or near zero. Stringent emission requirements may be met by electric-only operation.
However, cool-down of the catalyst during idle-off is a problem to be solved.

Kilometer per liter gain

As hybridness increases, up to about 50%, mpg (1 mile per gallon = 0.425143707
kilometers per liter) also increases. This is a result of a balance between power required
and power available. The increase in mpg possible by plug-in is not shown. Plug-in
requires energy from charging stations.

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MILD OR MICRO HYBRID FEATURES
As a result of being a mild hybrid, certain features follow. The M/G may be belt or chain
driven. Alternatively, the M/G may be part of the flywheel. The M/G serves as the
starter/alternator combined.
Mild hybrids have limited regenerative braking. The battery and installed M/G may be
large enough to provide low speed motor assist or to provide low speed launch assist. For
the rare case of a diesel/hybrid, the M/G in M-mode can provide cold start of the diesel.
For a mild hybrid, other possible design features include fuel cutoff at deceleration, idle
shutoff, and torque converter lockup where applicable.
PLUG-IN HYBRID
The plug-in hybrid can be viewed as an EV but with a small engine to extend range.
Features of a plug-in hybrid include a large, heavy, expensive battery. The comparison
with a full hybrid is a battery of a few 45.36 kg instead of the typical 45.36 kg in a full
hybrid.
Additional equipment is needed to connect to external “wall plug” electrical source for
recharging. Since batteries are high voltage, the voltage of the charging source must be
even higher. Inductive rechargers prevent exposure to high voltage. The plug-in will
likely have small gasoline engine driven generator for on-board charging; this engine
separates the plug-in hybrid from the EV.
For people willing to undertake the recharging chore, the plug-in offers fantastic mpg. To
gain the benefits, the range of hybridness for a plug-in is 50% < H < 100% with H likely
to be closer to 100%.

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ALL-WHEEL DRIVE HYBRID
For the subsequent discussion, some definitions are necessary: AWD = All-wheel drive,
4WD = Four-wheel drive, 2WD = Two-wheel drive, FWD = Front-wheel drive and RWD
= Rear-wheel drive. In the discussion to follow, AWD is used for either AWD or 4WD.

Fig.3. AWD hybrid design starting with an FWD legacy vehicle. The three drawings are 2WD, the conventional AWD, and
hybrid AWD. [1]

The design for an AWD hybrid vehicle depends on whether the starting point is a
conversion of an existing AWD vehicle or starting with a clean sheet of paper. With
conversion of an existing design, the starting point is called the “legacy design.” Many
conventional AWD vehicles are sold with the optional choice of either 2WD or AWD.
The 2WD is less expensive than the AWD and provides better mpg. The optional 2WD
versions may be either FWD or RWD. The 2WD on the left side of Fig.7 starts as FWD.
The 2WD on the left side of Figure 4 starts as RWD.

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The legacy design affects the loading for the front and rear tires. With FWD, the front
tires have three loads:
 cornering
 braking or traction
 steering.
Tires have a load limit. Loads are additive. The rear tires carry, at most, two loads:
 cornering
 braking or traction.
Too much torque to the front wheels may overload the front tires. An overload adversely
affects vehicle handling in extremis.
To avoid overloading the front tires, a torque split between front/rear is satisfactory with
50/50 or with a bias on the rear wheels of approximately 30/70 F/R.
The torque split need not be precisely equal to the numbers 50/50 and 30/70; values near
these values are satisfactory.

Fig.4. AWD hybrid design starting with an RWD legacy vehicle. The three drawings are 2WD, the conventional AWD, and
hybrid AWD. [1]

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Table I, which is coordinated with Figure3 and 4, shows the front and rear power loading
for legacy FWD and legacy RWD. The traction motors are limited in power due to
battery limitations. For discussion purposes, each M/G has a realistic 30 kW and the
engine is 100 kW.
In motor assist, the battery must supply 60 kW, which is 30 kW for each M/G in M-mode
(Figure 3). With a legacy FWD, the M/G is on the rear axle. This means the traction load
on the rear axle is limited to 30 kW (Figure 3). With a legacy RWD, the M/G is on the
front axle. This means the traction load on the front axle is limited to 30 kW, which is
favorable in regard to loading of the tires.
Figure 3shows a legacy design of FWD for the optional 2WD. When the 2WD version of
unmodified vehicle is FWD, then a hybrid conversion will undoubtedly have an electric
traction motor driving the rear wheels. Front/rear torque bias will likely be reversed 70/30
F/R, which is usually unfavorable.
Figure 4 shows a legacy design of RWD for the optional 2WD. If the 2WD version of
the unmodified vehicle is RWD, then a hybrid conversion will undoubtedly have electric
traction motor driving the front wheels. Front/rear torque bias will likely be a favorable
30/70 F/R.

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AWD hybrid vehicles operate in the 2WD cruise mode of Table II. In the motor assist
mode, both M/G are in M-mode providing traction. Hence
H  60kW / (100  60kW )  37.5%
______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________
TABLE II
Power and Load to Front and Rear Wheels for Two Hybrid AWD Designs Using Either Legacy FWD or Legacy RWD

Operational Power to Wheels

Mode M/G 1 M/G Front Rear
Legacy Design: FWD
2WD cruise Off Off 100 kW
0 kW
4WD cruise G-mode, 30 kW M-mode, 30 kW 70 kW 30 kW
4WD motor assist M-mode, 30 kW M-mode, 30 kW 130kW 30 kW
Legacy Design: RWD
2WD cruise Off Off 0 kW
100 kW
4WD cruise M-mode, 30 kW G-mode, 30 kW 30 kW
70 kW
4WD motor assist M-mode, 30 kW M-mode, 30 kW 30 kW
130 kW

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Power Train and Drive Cycles
The power train of EVs and HEVs consists of Electric Motor (EM) and the Internal
Combustion Engine (ICE). The first step towards the design of the power train is to
determine the power ratings of the motor used in the EV and HEV drivetrain is to
ascertain the motor specifications. These specifications are determined making use of the
drive cycle the vehicle operates on and the vehicle dynamic equation for tractive force
calculation. The design constraints set on the drivetrain like the initial acceleration time,
the value of the cruising at rated vehicle speed, and the value of the cruising at maximum
vehicle speed affects the specification of the induction motor. Finally, the tractive force
required to propel the vehicle to the drive cycle chosen gives the necessary motor
specifications used in the drivetrain.
The design constraints of power train of the vehicle are listed below and the vehicle
operating regions are shown in Figure 1.

i. Initial acceleration.
ii. Cruising at rated vehicle speed.
iii. Cruising at maximum vehicle speed.
iv. Retardation.

Speed
Maximum Speed
Rated Speed

Time
Initial Cruising Cruising at Retardation
Acceleration at Maximum
Rated Vehicle
Vehicle Speed
Speed

Figure 1: Operation regimes of a vehicle [1]

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 Sizing of Electric Machine for EVs and HEVs
Sizing of Electric Machine for EVs and HEVs
Introduction
The topics covered in this chapter are as follows:
 Sizing of Electric machine
 Peak Torque and Power
 Constant Power Speed Ratio
 EM Sizing
 Sizing Power Electronics
 Switch Technology Selection
Sizing of the Electric Machine (EM)
An EM is at the core of HEV drivetrains. The electric energy path of HEV consists of an
energy storage unit (such as batteries, supercapacitors or fuel cells), a power processing
unit (such as DC-AC converters) and an EM. In Figure 1 a schematic of hybrid
propulsion system is shown. Most EMs used in HEV or EV drivetrains have speed limit
of 12000 rpm due to following reasons:
i. At very high rpm, the centrifugal force acting on the rotor increases and it is
possible that the rotor might fail mechanically.
ii. The control algorithms of the EM involve determination of rotor position and this
becomes very difficult at high rotor rpm.
The performance of EM is measured by following quantities:
i. Torque and Power Capability
ii. Constant Power Speed Ratio (CPSR)

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In the subsequent section these quantities are explained in detail.

Fuel tank

AC DC Mech.
Engine Generator Traction
DC motor Trans.
3~ AC

DC
DC

Battery
pack

DC
AC

General EV configuration

Figure 1: Configuration of a hybrid drivetrain [1]

Peak Torque and Power

The EM capability curves for torque and power define the peak operating capability
curve of the HEV.
In Figure 2 a typical torque versus speed characteristics of an EM is shown. There are
three curves shown in Figure 2 namely:
i. Continuous rating: The EM can be operated whin its continuous rated region.
ii. Intermittent overload operation: The EM can operate in this regime for short
duration (typically <30s).
iii. Peak overload operation: The EM can operate in this region for a very short
duration (typically <1~2s).

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 400

350
Peak torque (38Nm)
300
Torque, Nm

250 Intermittent output

200
Continuous output
150

80
100
85 65
90 65
50 90

0
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000 4500
Speed, rpm

Figure 2: Torque versus speed curve of an EM [2]

From Figure 2 it can be seen that:

i. the peak output is about 2.5 times the continuous or rated output
ii. the intermittent output is about 1.5 times the continuous or rated output
The various operating regions show in Figure 2 is:
i. the region the flat torque region is known as the constant torque operating
region. In this region the DC-AC converter has sufficient voltage from the dc
sources to inject required current into the EM.
ii. when the machine speed increases and reaches the point A, the induced emf in the
stator winding increases and the EM enters the constant power regime and flux
weakening control is used.

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Constant Power Speed Ratio (CPSR)
In Figure 3 the operation of EM in different modes is shown. The description of various
operation modes is as follows:
1. In the 1st quadrant the EM works as a motor and its direction of rotation is
clockwise (CW).
2. In the 2nd quadrant, the EM operates as a generator and its direction of counter
clockwise (CCW)
3. In 3rd quadrant the EM operates as motor and its direction of rotation is CCW
4. In the 4th quadrant the EM operates as a generator and its direction of rotation is
CW

T(Nm)
300

Quadrant I
Quadrant II CW-Motor
CCW-Generate 92
93
90 88
86 84

6 5 4 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
84
92 93 86 Speed (krpm)
90
88
Quadrant III
CCW-Motor Quadrant IV
CW-Generate

Figure 3: Torque versus speed curve of an EM for four quadrants [2]

In Figure 3 the efficiency contours for the EM are also shown. A few observations from
Figure 3 are:
i. The motoring operation of the EM occurs for positive torque and positive speed
(CCW)
ii. For negative torque and negative speed (CW) the motoring action takes place.

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When the sign of either torque or speed are reversed the EM enters generating mode.
With modern power electronic converters the EM is capable of operating anywhere
within the confines of the torque versus speed envelope shown in Figure 3. The shift of
EM’s operation from one quadrant to the other is generally very fast but it depends on the
previous and new operating points. For example:
i. A transition from motoring at 2500 rpm and 100Nm of torque to generating at
2500 rpm and -100Nm of torque can be achieved a simple change in sign in the
controller. Since the EM’s transient electrical time constant is much smaller than
the mechanical system, the torque change is viewed as occurring nearly
instantaneously.
ii. The driver wishes to overtake some vehicle and at that instant the EM is operating
in motoring mode at 2500 rpm and producing a torque of 100Nm. After
overtaking the driver slows to re-enter the traffic. When the driver slows, the EM
has to decelerate and it acts as a generator and produces -100Nm of torque at a
reduced speed, for example, of 15000 rpm. Initially the acceleration started the
EM was operating in the field weakening region and during deceleration the EM
has to operate in the constant torque region (Figure 3). Hence, the controller has
to change its action from field weakening to constant torque regime and this
process is slower than simply changing torque at constant speed. This changeover
takes about 30ms to 100ms and is still much faster than the mechanical system.
EM Sizing
The EM is physically sized by its torque specification. Since, EM torque is determined by
the amount of flux the iron can carry and the amount of current the conductors can carry,
and can be expressed as
T  kABD 2 L
where
k is proportionality constant
A is total ampere-turns per circumferential length [A/m] (1)
B is the Magnetic flux density [T]
D is the diameter of the rotor [m]
L is the length of the EM [m]
The two fundamental sizing constraints on the EM are:

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 i. Electric loading
ii. Magnetic loading
The electric loading is determined by the current carrying capacity of copper conductor
and it is limited by its thermal dissipation. The bounds on the current density for copper
is given by
2 A/mm2 for continuous operation 
 
J cu   6 A/mm 2 for 3 minutes  (2)
 2
20 A/mm for 30 seconds 
 
The magnetic loading, also defined by B , for EM is usually about 0.8Tesla. The EM
sizing using equation 1 gives the first approximation of the size of EM. Once the initial
size of the EM is obtained, detailed analysis and modelling techniques such as Finite
Element Methods can be used to obtain detailed design.
The EM design is also constrained by a mechanical limit known as the rotor burst
condition. For this constraint it is common to limit the EM rotor tangential velocity to
less than 200m/s. At higher speeds the following factors become major concern:
i. Critical speed flexing
ii. Rotor retention
iii. Rotor Eccentricity

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