Lift

Force

Joep Liefting &

Stan de Schepper
12-12-2018
Table of contents
Inhoud
Table of contents....................................................................................................................................2
Research question..................................................................................................................................4
Sub-questions.....................................................................................................................................4
Hypothesis..............................................................................................................................................4
Explanation to experiment.....................................................................................................................4
Theory....................................................................................................................................................5
Thrust.................................................................................................................................................5
Drag....................................................................................................................................................5
Gravity................................................................................................................................................5
Lift......................................................................................................................................................6
Angle of Attack...............................................................................................................................6
Form of the wing............................................................................................................................7
Variable parts of a wing......................................................................................................................8
Flaps...............................................................................................................................................8
Slats................................................................................................................................................8
General formula lift force...............................................................................................................9
Experiment...........................................................................................................................................10
Materials..........................................................................................................................................10
Designing the wing models...........................................................................................................10
Method.............................................................................................................................................11
Results..................................................................................................................................................12
Calculating Lift force.........................................................................................................................12
Calculating Lift Coefficient................................................................................................................12
Flaps.................................................................................................................................................14
Slats..................................................................................................................................................14
Spoilers.............................................................................................................................................15
Coordinate transformation...............................................................................................................15
Flaps.............................................................................................................................................16
Slats..............................................................................................................................................16
Spoilers.........................................................................................................................................17
Conclusion............................................................................................................................................18
Sub- questions..................................................................................................................................18

2
 Main question..................................................................................................................................18
Other findings...................................................................................................................................18
Flaps.............................................................................................................................................18
Spoilers.........................................................................................................................................18
Angle of Attack.............................................................................................................................18
Discussion.............................................................................................................................................19
Evaluation.............................................................................................................................................19
Sources.................................................................................................................................................20
Logboek................................................................................................................................................21

3
Research question
How do the adjustable parts of an airplane wing relate to the amount of lift created by the wing?

Sub-questions
1. How do flaps influence the amount of lift created by the wing of an aeroplane?
2. How do slats influence the amount of lift created by the wing of an aeroplane?
3. How do spoilers influence the amount of lift created by the wing of an aeroplane?

Hypothesis
We think that the flaps will drastically increase the amount of lift created, because they are extended
during take-off and increase the angle of attack.

The slats will probably also stimulate the amount of lift, because they are extended during take-off as
well. They are likely to create less lift than flaps, because they do not influence the angle of attack of
the wing.

The spoilers are most likely to decrease the amount of lift, since they are deployed during landing.

Explanation to experiment
For our experiment, we want to know the influence of the adjustable parts of an aeroplane wing on
the lift coefficient at different angles of attack, and thus on the amount of lift created. By adjustable
parts of the airplane wing, we mean the flaps, slats and spoilers, since those parts can be adjusted by
the pilot during flight to improve the behaviour of the aeroplane.

For this experiment we use model wings which all have different adjustable parts used at different
settings and a wind tunnel. The air velocity inside the wind tunnel, the surface of the wing and the air
tightness are known. The only thing we do not know is the amount of lift created and the lift
coefficient.

When an aircraft (or wing) flies at a constant height, the lift force is equal to gravity. That is why we
have a weight hanging onto the wing. As soon as there is air flowing against the wing, it will rise and
lift the weight. The amount of weight lifted is easy to measure with a scale. Using the formula Fz = g *
m, we can then calculate the gravity, which is equal to the lift.

With the amount of lift force, we can calculate the lift coefficient for each wing. We then chart the
data to find a relationship between different wing models and the lift coefficient. We perform this
test at three different Angles of Attack. We do not do this to determine the relationship between lift
and Angle of Attack, but to ensure that the relationship between lift and lift coefficient is the same at
every Angle of Attack.

4
Theory
Aeroplanes can be seen as one of the most inventive ways of transport invented by mankind.
Nowadays it is completely ordinary for us to see planes flying in the sky above us, but this has taken a
lot of time and knowledge to do so. Aeroplanes simply do not get off the ground very easily.

There are four main different forces that play a role on the performance of the aeroplane.

 Thrust
 Drag
 Gravity
 Lift

When an aeroplane is flying at a constant speed and

altitude, meaning the resultant force equals zero, these
four forces should cancel each other out.

This means the amount of drag force is equal to the

amount thrust and the amount lift is equal to the amount of gravity

Thrust
Thrust is the force provided by the engines of the
aeroplane, which makes the plane go forward.

Drag
Drag or air resistance is caused when an aeroplane is moving through the air. It is ‘being slowed
down’ by the air molecules colliding with the body of the plane. The amount of main drag depends
on the shape of the plane’s frontal area, the speed at which it is moving through the air, the density
of the air and an drag coefficient.

Fdrag = ½ * ρ * v2 * CD * A (in Newton)

Gravity
Gravity is probably the most well-known force on earth. It is the force causing us to ‘not fall of the
planet’. On earth, gravity has influence on each and every object, and therefore on aeroplanes as
well.

In the case of an aeroplane, gravity ‘pulls’ the plane towards the ground, making it difficult to take off
and fly.

The amount of gravity depends on the mass of an object and the standard acceleration due to gravity
(g)

Fgravity = mass of object * 9,81 (in Newton)

5
Lift
Lift is the most important force on an aeroplane. This force makes the plane move in vertical
direction, meaning this force makes it possible for an aeroplane to actually fly.

Lift force is a rather complicated force. It is caused by putting together a lot of different physical
phenomena. The most common will be discussed below.

Lift force at an airplane is mainly created by two things:

- The angle of attack (AoA)

- The form of the wing

Angle of Attack
The angle of attack is the angle at which the wing of an
aeroplane is ‘going through’ the air. When it is
completely horizontal, the angle of attack is 0o.

When the air collides with the wing, it is ‘bent’

downwards.

Newton’s Third Law of Motion

This law states:

“When one body exerts a force on a second body, the

second body simultaneously exerts a force equal in
magnitude and opposite in direction on the first body.”

In the case of the wing, the wing exerts a force on the

air, because it is pushing the air molecules downwards.
According to Newton’s Third Law, the air is then
exerting a force on the wing, in opposite direction, so
the air molecules will push the wing upwards.

This is the main reason why airplanes can fly. However,

you will need thrust in order to have enough power to
let the wing push the air downwards.

6
Form of the wing
The form of the cross section of a wing
is usually very characteristic and almost
always the same. Most of the times it
looks like this:

Again, a few physical phenomena make

this kind of design perfect to create lift.

Conservation of mass
When the airstream collides with the front of the wing, it is
split into two air streams. One flows at above the wing and
one below the wing.

The air at the upper stream has less ‘space’. The air
molecules are pushed together a little. However, a gas
cannot be compressed easily. That is why the air is
automatically going to flow faster, in order to make sure that
the amount of air molecules at the front of the wing is equal
to the amount at the back.

Bernoulli’s Law
This law states when a liquid or gas is flowing faster, the pressure is
lower. This can easily be confirmed by this picture.

The airflow in the smaller part of the tube is going faster than the
airflow in the wider part, due to the fact that the same number of
molecules has to be transported, but through a smaller tube.
(Again conservation of mass)

The airflow is connected to the tube filled with water. The water level
in the right tube is lower, meaning the air pressure is higher
(pushes water downwards).

In case of the wing, the lower airflow is going slower than the upper one, meaning the air pressure at
the bottom of the wing is higher, pushing the wing upwards.

Coandă effect
This phenomenon has to do with fluids and gasses attaching to convex surfaces.
The flow is more likely to follow the round surface than to detach and continue in
a linear flow. This creates a low pressure.

The upper stream of the wing will follow the surface of the wing instead of
detaching and continuing in a linear horizontal flow.

7
Variable parts of a wing
Wings of modern aeroplanes have different parts which can be adjusted during flight. Those are the
flaps, slats and spoilers of an airplane. Pilots can adjust these to influence the performance of the
aeroplane.

Flaps
Flaps are the parts of the wing at the trailing edge, which can
be moved downwards. By doing this, the flaps will deflect the
air more downwards, increasing the angle of attack, meaning
the air will push the wing more upwards (Newton’s 3rd Law)

This results in the wing creating more lift force, which makes
the plane move more in vertical direction. In other words, the
same amount of lift is being created, but at a lower speed.

Flaps are usually extended during take-off and landing. During take-off, the plane will be able to get
off the ground at a lower speed, which means the engines have to supply less power. During landing,
the flaps cause the aeroplane to be able to land at a lower speed, which is safer and a shorter runway
is needed to let the aeroplane stop in time.

Flaps are retracted during mid-flight, because flaps create a lot of drag, making the plane slow down.
Besides, the plane does not have to move in vertical direction during mid-flight, so less lift is needed.

Slats
Slats are located at the leading edge of the wing. To understand the
effect of slats, you should first know what stall is and how it works.

Stall
Stall is a process in which the amount of lift force created by the
wing of an aeroplane decreases, while the angle of attack
increases. In other words, there is a maximum amount of lift at
a certain angle of attack. This is usually called the critical angle
of attack.

To create lift with a wing, the upper and lower airstream must flow along the surface of the
wing. When the critical angle of attack is exceeded, the upper airstream separates from the
aerofoil, creating an unsteady airstream.

8
Slats are used to help the air flow along the surface, causing the
airstream to separate from the aerofoil at a higher angle of attack,
meaning the aircraft can fly at a higher angle of attack, creating
more lift, without stalling.

During mid-flight, slats create more drag. To tackle this this

problem, pilots can either extend or retract the slats. However, at
modern airplanes, this is done automatically by a computer, by
determining at which angle of attack the plane is flying.

Spoilers
Spoilers are used to ‘spoil’ the lift force of a wing, meaning it fill ‘push’ the aircraft downwards in
vertical direction. When a pilot starts to descend to the runway of its destination, he can lower the
aircraft by reducing thrust, resulting in less speeds, which reduces lift. By using spoilers instead, the
aircraft can descend without losing its speeds, which can be more comfortable to control the aircraft.

As soon as the aircraft touches the runway, it has to stop as soon as possible. This is mostly done by
the brakes at the landing gear of the airplane. In order to get the brakes to work fully optimal, the
wheels, and thus the aircraft, need to be pushed down to the ground.

General formula lift force

9
Experiment
Materials
Wind tunnel (or another airtight chamber) Pedestal at the height of the airflow
A source which can provide an airflow (capable Thin rod (which you can attach to the pedestal)
of blowing wind at  31 m/s 110 km/h)
Aeroplane wing models with variating flap- Scale & weight (min. 500 grams)
angles (from 0 to 60 with intervals of 20)
Aeroplane wing models with slats (with Screwdriver & screws
variating flaps of 0 and 40)
Aeroplane wing models with 50% spoilers and Pen and paper
100% spoilers (with variating flaps of 0 and
40)
Fishing wire Geometrical triangle
Slow-motion camera (in our case an iPhone)

Designing the wing models

- Use the standard cross section form of an ordinary aeroplane wing body, which can be found
on the internet.
- Create the spoilers, slats and flaps
- Create wings in the following combinations:
flaps 0, 20, 40, 60 with slats 0 and spoilers 0
slats extended with flaps 0 and 40
spoilers 25o with flaps 0 and 40
spoilers 50o with flaps 0 and 40
- Fabricate the model wings by
means of a 3D printer

10
Method
1. Obtain all of the materials mentioned above and create the test setup.
a. Place the wind tunnel on a stable place (in our case a table) and check if the airflow is
unobstructed.
b. Connect the airflow source to the wind tunnel, make sure that the leaking of air from the
airflow source is minimal by closing everything off very well or shoving it all the way into
the tunnel.
c. Make sure that the pedestal (with the thin rod attached) where the aeroplane wing
hangs on is on the same height as the airflow, and place it inside of the tunnel. Also make
sure that the friction between the pedestal and the aeroplane wing is as little as possible,
this can be done by greasing or creating more space between de two.
d. Hang one of the aeroplane wings on the pedestal and attach a fishing wire to the back of
the wing.
e. Measure at what height the thin rod has to be to get the angle of attack that you want.
f. Use the thin rod attached to the pedestal to put the angle of attack on 20.
g. Lead the fishing wire through a hole in the floor of the tunnel and attach the weight of
500 grams to this end of the wire.
h. Place the weight on the scale
i. Guarantee that when the aeroplane wing is in rest, the fishing wire is tightened up. This
is done so that all the created lift can be measured on the scale. The tightening of the
wire can be done by screwing multiple screws in the floor of the tunnel and attaching the
wire by means of a loop.
2. Attach the wing to the pedestal with the fishing wire attached. Confirm that the wire is
tightened after.
3. Take a look at the weight displayed on the scale and write it down using your pen and paper.
Make sure you write down the correct measurements next to the correct type of wing.
4. Start filming the display of the scale with the slow-motion camera and turn on the airflow.
5. After approximately 5 seconds you can stop the slow-motion and the airflow.
6. Watch the slow-motion and look for the lowest value displayed on the scale, when you found
this value, write it down with your pen and paper. Again, make sure you write down the
correct measurement next to the correct type of wing.
7. Calculate the difference between the starting and end weight. By using the formula:
Starting weight – End weight = Weight difference
8. Repeat steps 2 to 7 for all the different wing types.
9. Change the angle of attack of the wing to 30 and repeat steps 2 to 7.
10. Change the angle of attack of the wing to 40 and repeat steps 2 to 7.

11
Results
Calculating Lift force
L = Fz = m * g
m in kg, during experiment measured in grams, so divided by 1000

Calculation Lift Flaps 0o: L = Fz = 0,0346 * 9,81 = 0,339 N

Calculating Lift Coefficient

ρ = 1,23 kg/m3 (air density at sea level)

v = 110 km/h = 30,6 m/s (airspeed in windtunnel)

S = 15 x 10 cm = 150 cm2 = 0,0150 m2

CL = L / (0,5*ρ*v*S)

Calculation Lift Coefficient Flaps 0o:

CL = 0,339 / (0,5 * 1,23 * 30,6 * 0,0150) =

Angle of Attack 20o

Flaps Start weight (g) End weigth (g) Difference (g) Lift (N) CL
0o 479,6 445 34,6 0,339 1,202
20o 490,5 257,8 232,7 2,282 8,087
40o 485,8 154,5 331,3 3,250 11,513
o
60 466,8 92,9 373,9 3,668 12,994

Slats
At Flaps 0o 460,3 418,6 41,7 0,409 1,449
At Flaps 40o 469,4 100,2 369,2 3,622 12,830

Spoiler
100% at Flaps 0o 469,9 447,5 22,4 0,219 0,778
100% at Flaps 40o 466,4 223,6 152,8 2,382 8,438
50% at Flaps 0o 488,1 459,5 28,6 0,281 0,994
50% at Flaps 40o 465,6 176,6 289 2,835 10,043

12
 Angle of Attack 30o

Flaps Start weight (g) End weight (g) Difference (g) Lift (N) CL
0o 468,5 372,9 95,6 0,937 3,322
o
20 463,9 227,2 236,7 2,322 8,226
40o 483,4 124,5 358,9 3,520 12,473
60o 480,2 40,5 439,7 4,313 15,281

Slats
At Flaps 0o 480,3 375,5 104,8 1,028 3,642
At Flaps 40o 473,2 5,6 377,6 3,704 13,122

Spoiler
100% at Flaps 0o 478,2 419,6 58,6 0,575 2,036
100% at Flaps 40o 487,2 227,3 259,9 2,550 9,032
50% at Flaps 0o 465,7 384,0 81,7 0,801 2,839
50% at Flaps 40o 471,5 162,6 308,9 3,030 10,735

Angle of Attack 40o

Flaps Start weight (g) End weight (g) Difference (g) Lift (N) CL
0o 474,9 267,0 207,9 2,039 7,225
20o 474,5 152,8 321,7 3,155 11,180
40o 472,6 51,3 421,3 4,133 14,641
o
60 482,8 20,6 462,2 4,534 16,062

Slats
At Flaps 0o 466,9 249,5 217,4 2,133 7,555
At Flaps 40o 471,5 39,1 432,4 4,241 15,027

Spoiler
100% at Flaps 0o 463,3 319,7 143,6 1,409 4,990
100% at Flaps 40o 476,1 166,8 309,3 3,034 10,749
50% at Flaps 0o 470,8 304,3 166,5 1,633 5,786
50% at Flaps 40o 463,5 99,8 363,7 3,568 12,639

13
 Flaps

Lift coefficient wing flaps

18
16
14
12
Lift coefficient

10
8
6
4
2
0
20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34 36 38 40
Flaps 0 Linear (Flaps 0) Angle of Attack Flaps 20 Linear (Flaps 20)

Flaps 40 Linear (Flaps 40) Flaps 60 Linear (Flaps 60)

Slats

Lift coefficient wing slats

16

14

12

10
Lift coefficient

0
20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34 36 38 40
Flaps 0 slats Linear (Flaps 0 slats) Angle of Attack
Flaps 0 no slats Linear (Flaps 0 no slats)

Flaps 40 slats Linear (Flaps 40 slats) Flaps 40 no slats Linear (Flaps 40 no slats)

14
 Spoilers

Lift coefficient wing spoilers

16
Flaps 40 spoiler 0%
14 Linear (Flaps 40 spoiler 0%)
Flaps 40 spoiler 50%
12
Linear (Flaps 40 spoiler 50%)
10
Lift coefficient

Flaps 40 spoiler 100%

8 Linear (Flaps 40 spoiler 100%)
Flaps 0 spoiler 0%
6 Linear (Flaps 0 spoiler 0%)
4 Flaps 0 spoiler 50%
Linear (Flaps 0 spoiler 50%)
2 Flaps 0 spoiler 100%
0 Linear (Flaps 0 spoiler 100%)
20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34 36 38 40
Angle of Attack

Coordinate transformation
Linear relation, so y = c * x + d

The Angle of Attack 20 will be the starting point of our graph at x = 0, in order to let the graph go
through the origin. We should leave the d out as well, to lower the graph in order to make sure it
goes through the origin. This is the value at x = 0, at Angle of Attack 20
AoA 0 AoA 10 AoA 20
CL CL - CL CL CL - CL CL CL - CL
Flaps
AoA 20 AoA 20 AoA 20
0o 1,202 0 3,322 2,120 7,225 6,023

20o 8,087 0 8,226 0,139 11,180 3,093

40o 11,513 0 12,473 0,959 14,641 3,128

60o 12,994 0 15,281 2,287 16,062 3,069

Slats
At Flaps 0o 1,449 0 3,642 2,193 7,555 6,106

At Flaps 40o 12,830 0 13,122 0,292 15,027 2,196

Spoiler
100% at Flaps 0,778 0 2,036 1,258 4,990 4,212
0o
100% at Flaps 8,438 0 9,032 0,594 10,749 2,311
40o
50% at Flaps 0,994 0 2,839 1,845 5,786 4,792
0o
50% at Flaps 10,043 0 10,735 0,692 12,639 2,596
40o

15
 Flaps

Lift coefficient wing flaps

7

5
Lift coefficient

0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
Flaps 0 Linear (Flaps 0) Angle of Attack Flaps 20 Linear (Flaps 20)

Flaps 40 Linear (Flaps 40) Flaps 60 Linear (Flaps 60)

Slats

Lift coefficient wing slats

7

5
Lift coefficient

0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
Flaps 0 slats Linear (Flaps 0 slats) Angle of Attack
Flaps 0 no slats Linear (Flaps 0 no slats)

Flaps 40 slats Linear (Flaps 40 slats) Flaps 40 no slats Linear (Flaps 40 no slats)

16
 Spoilers

Lift coefficient wing spoilers

7
Flaps 40 spoiler 0%
6 Linear (Flaps 40 spoiler 0%)
Flaps 40 spoiler 50%
5 Linear (Flaps 40 spoiler 50%)
Lift coefficient

Flaps 40 spoiler 100%

4
Linear (Flaps 40 spoiler 100%)
3 Flaps 0 spoiler 0%
Linear (Flaps 0 spoiler 0%)
2 Flaps 0 spoiler 50%
Linear (Flaps 0 spoiler 50%)
1
Flaps 0 spoiler 100%
0 Linear (Flaps 0 spoiler 100%)
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
Angle of Attack

17
Conclusion

Sub- questions
1. How do flaps influence the amount of lift created by the wing of an aeroplane?
Flaps make the wing create more lift at the same Angle of Attack at the same airspeed.

2. How do slats influence the amount of lift created by the wing of an aeroplane?
Slats make the wing create a higher amount of lift at the same Angle of Attack at the same
airspeed.

3. How do spoilers influence the amount of lift created by the wing of an aeroplane?
Spoilers make the wing create less lift at the same Angle of Attack at the same airspeed.

Main question
Flaps and slats increase the amount of lift created by the wing of an aeroplane, while the spoilers
decrease the amount of lift created.

Our hypothesis was right.

Other findings
Flaps
The amount of extra lift created between flaps 40
& 60 is less than between 0 & 20 and 20 & 40.

This means that flaps 60 is causing the wing to

come closer to the Critical Angle of Attack, the
point at which the wing creates more drag than
lift. (It could either have come near it or past it.)

Spoilers
Spoilers are more effective at a higher angle of attack, since the difference in lift is bigger at AoA 40
than at AoA 20.

Angle of Attack
The relationship between the lift force and the Angle of Attack is a linear relationship, since all graphs
are a straight line

18
Discussion
We are satisfied with the outcome of our experiment. The conclusion is certainly in accordance with
our hypothesis.

Some measurements deviate slightly from the linear relationship. This is most likely due to the lack of
accurate measurement. In our setup we used a weight attached to the wing using a piece of fishing
wire, which stood on a scale. It was difficult to determine when the wire was actually tightened when
preparing the wing when the wind tunnel was turned off. Because of this it was sometimes not
completely clear how many grams the wing had actually lifted.

With this setup and the available measuring instruments in the beta lab it was, and unfortunately is,
not possible to perform this test more accurately.

In a possible follow-up study, we could tackle everything on a larger scale, for example by using a
more accurate scale and a more accurate way of measuring the different angles of attack. We could
also make the measurements of this follow-up study more accurate by designing a better mechanism
to keep the fishing line tightened and a better way to adjust the angles of attack without a long rod
blocking some of the airflow.

A further experiment could be to measure the drag instead of lift, to get a better view of the forces
that influence the wing, but unfortunately, this would not be possible in the beta lab.

Evaluation
All in all, the experiment went pretty well, but, as always, there were still a few things that could
have gone better. One of these problems was when we attached the weight to the fishing wire. We
had the problem that the hook where the wire was tied around was not properly attached to the
weight. We had to re-attach the hook to the weight which cost a bit more time then we hoped it
would have. There were also some slight problems with the installation of the wing models on the
stand; models that did not come out of the 3D printer correctly and some dumb mistakes. Altogether
this resulted in three broken wing models, therefore we needed some extra time to spend on the
experiment to get it all finished.

Time wise we had not estimated it very well, something which is often common with experiments,
but fortunately we were able to complete the experiment by working an extra in-between.

We both found that the best thing about the test was that it actually ran according to the pattern we
expected it to. We saw that other couples who were also doing their experiment in the beta lab had
a lot of frustration, because the measurement results did not match the theory. Besides, many of our
materials were not present, so we had to get them from somewhere else, or make them ourselves.
This resulted in our experiment becoming a much more 'own made' research instead of simply
following a book or an experiment done by someone for us.

In general, you do not really fancy carrying out such a project or research, but we can say that this
was hardly the case with us.

We both thought it was very interesting to carry out this experiment and both have enjoyed it very
much.

Our recommendation: Time lapse of our 3D printing: https://youtu.be/QhzV9k1CgF0

19
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