Chemical Bonding

wal
Charge. It is
imaginary charge assigned to atoms present in covalent
molecule to draw Lewis structure.

be its
·
Less the
is
charge on molecule move will
stability
formal valance co -1x no. of love fairs 2x low pairs
Charys of of
no
= -
no.

=V
-
BP- al.P

a 7 formal
6 -1X2-2xL
=

on

:
a=

charge

(a)
(C)
b f-Cy
= =

6
O
-

3 -
2x)
oxo-
=

=
+

c 7 =

f.c 6
=
-
1 -
2x3

--I

Fik:
-

0 --
Convert wor
o bo coordinate
bond to covalent
⑧

#NO3
=0:

f.(c 4 3x1-ax)
-NE8 -n 0
=

-
=

Ho => Ho
--
=- 1
f(p +
=
1

f. 6
= -

3x1 -ax) fC0 = -

1

=+ 1
N20 NEN - O
↓
=ot N N
= -
0-

formation of Ha molecules. -
I Atome Come Clou

e Attraction 2

I +
-v a =
+L
C >
> I

f=1

oce
0
=

asses

P. E 0
=

As Udd=> P.Edd=> Stability **

③ Atoms overlap ③ U<Vo

e8e two nucleus come

will closer
I I so repulsion take
will place

picsa
vvo =

Vo: distance between two

atoms when P.Eis minimum pexas unstability e

maximum)
<stability is

00

=
Atoms
r 200
=

00
Bond formation
->

valance bond
theory:
-

· Bond is formed by overlaping of two

half filled orbitals
orbital take place
In coordinate bond
overlaping of I
filled and I empty
·

will bond
·
Move be the
overlaping (shaved regions -> Move be
strength of
·
directional orbitals are
large in size so do
they
more
overlaping.
stronger bond is
cows to nucleus it will do
orbital is
overlaping
and
·

If move

formed
Overla
order: < [
-

End to and (Axial Overlaping: - .

Overlaping along Intenuclear axis

·
I bond is formed.

Enter.......................

otheticaldiagra
nuclear

Axis
my in
S-s
overlaping.
H F
eg:
-

H
1,<y=)......................... E
- 1
ite Inter nuclear Ax is I bond
Atz: -
fu

IV 11 12 1 -

= =
↓ Pu-Pubond
12 16121

Lateral/side wise overlaping:

-
·
forms a bond

takes place perpendicular to inter nuclear

·

Overlaping
Axis & a bond formed egPutPu (Along z-axis)
is

I
· a bond weaker than bond
is it due
is to

-e n te r see
the reason that
overlapping move
is
along
Intanuclear Axis
· Proof: -

Alkenes are more reactive then

Alkanes.
novy nory

delta bond (S): -

-..

......
or
-

- ---

view from top of

delta bond

upper d orbital
[
lower d orbital I
can
of zero overlap:
-

⑥ gerooverlap.
=>
 a calculate
no & a bonds in
of 5
NH2
⑧
a) Ca (CN) y

ICN
1- 2A

95
D Mr
3
=c c
ir

ulherence molecule or species can be expand by

N 94 any
=

- identical position
N c 12
I structures with
than one valid lens
of a bonds
I more
and a bonds but with different position
1- 2x

of
So
atome
real structure
then the
is explained by hybrid
a

or charge/ep phenomenon called

is Resonance. It isa dynamic
structure, this concept
Resonance: for -

Some covalent Compounds two or more structures can

line

be drawn due to de-localisation of a

eo; then
are called as

Resonating structures
/ Canonical forms
An Actual structure drawn help of structures
is
by the all
resonating
·

which iscalled Resonance

as
hybrid
is
·
Resonance
hybrid more stable then
resonating
any of the structures
All
resonating structures contribute
will in formation of resonance
hybrid
·

the

·
More contribution will
be from resonating
the which
structure has more
stability.
be its
structure, has will stability.
·
Move the
is
charge sequation
in resonating
an atom & Changs
Resonating structure
having we
charge on more the on move
· -

electrothe atom, will be more stable.

all nucleiars
Position of same in all
resonating structures.
·

the order more will

bond
Bond
Strength represented bywillbe
Bond order,
· is more is

Bond
be the strength
and has Bond
the
length.
· Bond order represents no
of bonds between two atoms
B.O
-
B.02 1 = B Strength
2 B.L
-

3
I

All bonds of Carbonate (CO2) are equle: -

-4
-

o 0-
>O
1 I I
L 11 C
.4
> C
C

-
d -
-
-

o
0 of To- -y

No. of bonds
It
Bond ordie= or between
Any
atominc.S
no
or -
Total no. of R.S
-
-
CH6
B.0 1
2 1
5,
E =
= + +
=

3=1.5
=

Bond
C CB.)<c
=
-
c B.L<c -

Single
in Benzen B.L

A0
-tw=
-

43 All N-0 B. Lars

?n.0
-o
-- 0
n=
= =

-2013
equle.

:
-

10,5-
0-5/6
-
--
/N
0-0-0-
-
Lewis structure

1/4
On-
-

O
o

II 1 B.0 1
=
+

1.75
=

Cl
o
Io Ergt
105

-u
-....l =
B.0 1
=
+

2 1.66
=

" - 113
...

: -

B.0 1
1
=

1.5
+
=

-0 -
c 0
=
)
=

C-0

:
Fo =HcoM
o
B.0=
1 =
15

12o
Usi
equle Bonds
O 0
6

-o -cuz
0

Il it
d
= B.0 1
y 1.66
=
+
-
= -
0 =

"O
I
! it
0 0
↓- O
0

a
=
t -

c 0 0 c ot
-
- =

0c
=
= =

B.0 1 1
=g
= +
 cydd-
*
⑦
N- e

I wa

- -n*-ne **
⑰ ⑦
NN N
=
B.0U <2
B.O.
=

it xy
y > 2

ideio: -

Es
*
0 SO -
2 ⑰ ·
In
hydrazoic Acid
N N
N=
NN
-

N
= =

N-N B.)
Both are not
of
I Bot
B.L equle
equle and Also not
B.0 is

0 n
N-N equle

Aficion
N =
-

B. o equ ·
In
both e
hem equt B. (
Bonds
& Compare B.Oo CO, CO2, CO2"-

Co >CO2 > co?

3 2 1.33

is concept
Hydidisation: It
hypothetical
-

· It is
intermixing of atomic orbitals
having
almostsimmilar
Energy to form
orbitals
new set
of hybridised having
identical shape and
Energy.
orbital participated
of Hybridisd orbitalsformed Total of atomic
-
·
Total no. no

-y a
y

1888
-2

I + at -
·

me
Pu

sp3
e
Sp3 sp3 sp3

4 Atomic orbitals YHybrid ovitals

All
types of Atomic orbitals
(Empty, half filled
and
fully filledcan show
hybridish
·

Orbitals directionals bond

Hybrid strong overlaping
->

strong
->
·

After hybridish overlaping takes place

bond
·

Hybrid orbitals
usually do axial overlaping and form a
exception:- bond
E-EI benzyne
In new a
&

formed is
formed by
Benzene Bengym orbitals.
using sp"Hybrid
Before overlaping hybriding orbitals are
arranged insuch manner so that
·
a

repulsion is minimised.

hybiation:
-

Be: Iss
Bed = -

unpaired 20-there should be

Becasss Y
No no
bonding

Be[2.s)
IJ,
=

-
- ->
- a
C
o Co U
Be
180

P:15" as" 2p35" 3P3 G.S (3 unpaired e8) x -

be - c

3 bonds:- bonds
P is
if making if
making p is 3
more than

it is bonding in excited State

Gis. Then
· Then it
bonding
is in

· ex: -

PU5
·
ex:-PU3

hybridisation:
-

BAz: -

B is 'asap'
e
valance 20s
unpaired should form I bond
only
.

=>

let
I

15 ,
888
=>

-f sp" hybrid
orbitals

9-
3

8
h - 13 =

pot......
-...........
Trigonal
In
Planen

BFs
Geometry

I Sp P
overlap
hybiation:
-
is + 3P

CHy:
-

CysTd YTetrahydral geometry

C
of CHY
Cast M
Hsp-s overlap

088
-

2008
4 sp3 hybrid
Orbitals.

sp'd
hybridisation: IS+3P+ 1d
-

C
Pas
Sp3d

":trigonal bibyramidal U

geometry
C

:- PC5: -

I M I N Mi
35 3P 35 3P 3d
- -
intermix -> sp3
hybridisation. Intumix -
form spid
orbitals.
This IP is also mybuid
- inspl hybrid
orbital ·
PUsis
not
formed but NUsdoes

a
X-sp-poverlapped It because
is N has no vacant
pair
d orbitals to excite its low
orbitals
and
form sp'd hybrid
Sp>d: -

15 +
3p+2d

eg: 576
f

We can not call it

.*i
square pyramidal
· Because in TBP theirare two
types of B.L
i.e. long
and short so it is called Trigonal dipyramidal
not
so it is
· But all bonds all equal in length
here

Square Pyramidal
But
Octabydral
f

How to Calculate method:

Hybridisation by Stevic No,
-

Steric No.. -

No. of lone Pairs

bonded atome
of
+

=> No.
OU
pairs around atom
the
bonds atom
around the t no of low
=> No. of a
S. NO
Hybridisation :- & ↑ bonds

3
2
=

lP
=

2 SP -
- z
Sp2
2 5 SP3d
S. No:3 2
=

3
+

.
Y Sp3

5 Sp3d

6 Sp
7 Sp> d

USEPR
Theory: valance shell co pair repulsion theory
-

hybridisationcan lead to
different shape (NHS (Hy)
how &
·
Tells about sam

molecule is determined of 28 present in valance shell around

·
shape of by no

the central after

atom bonding
the

to pairs
· are
Their two
types of
· Done pairs and Bond fairs
Central atom. It has more y.S Charachter
lp around the
·
occupies more space
move closer
and it is to nucleus so repulsion between two lip move
is than
 two B.P.
between two double bonds
·

double bond also has more. Scharachte so repulsion

bonds.
is more than the repulsion between two single
love pair distortion takes place in molecule and shape
the
Due
·
to presence of
becomes ideal
different then shake of hybridisation.
e. P-1.P
⑧

order
of Repulsion
&.
al l.P-l.P > l.P -
B.P> B.P -
B.P
e.p-BPI Ye.P-B.P
und
B. P-B.P

double bond is also present:

-

If
·

·
l.P-1.P< l.P-double bond(=)

.
0 3
=
=
0
= -
-
-

gia)
=2 sp linear

·
diatomic molecule=> Always linear (But not always si)
S. NO 3: SO3 SO2
-
=

Planes
0 " geometry=) Trigonal
11 S shake => Bent
/Angular/Vsnake.
1
S 2
-
0
o
- O
120
0<120:
S. NO = 4: -

Bent
① 4+ 0:
tetrahydral:-CHy, CCy :- 2 2:
-
+

#0
shape:
-tetrably
dual &Vsnaps/Angular (Bint
-H
1
& 3+1:
Pyramidal
-

:
-

itrigonalPyramidal
#

i
!H
S. NO 5:
-

(i) 5+0:-PUs
Trigonal Bipyramidal
C

12(ax) equitorial Bonds are smaller than

Bondlength
axial bonds.
........ 12 >
G--.-- leg) :
............. d

: Stu Sec-Saw snake

-

· lip is placed on equitorial to minimise repulsion.

is also placed at equitorial position.
· double bond Xe02fz
F

·x
F sec-Sqw
-
s - shake
F

F
3:-UTs T shaped
I Plane
& All yatoms are in one
c
·

-
f

-!
T shake
 linear
:
xe
-

& xe
·

:-
#0:- Sfo
F
octahybral -BrisSquare Pyramidal in the

I- f
as all
positions,are equivalent.
F All bonds are

f
Is -F equivalent and in
-b
I
-
equal length
I -07
f

#* Re:
-

Square Plan: -

· two lip should be

placed opposit to each other

:
F
-
f
g I I
> Xe

f
18
F

double bond and IP are placed opposit to each other: -

xe 0 fu
f

I=
-
f F I -
O

YY -wrong
-

&Ye F
-

f
f
=7:
-

are

igoreP i bz ra m i
If7
Axial bonds
are
longer
equitorial.
then

buli
F

F..

: Burg
~

e !

" Plaul

------
F

Capped octahydval
(iii) :
-

Pentagonal Planer
xet,*

·
 Ca((NIz
of P
Example
hybridisation: CO2, C2H,
-

↳ NEC -c =
c -
N
C=
N-(Azide ion)
⑦ O
- N NN =
=

&

Co2, NOs, BO3, SO2

etc.
SOz, O,

Hydragoic O-No
snake of -Bent

Acid e Molecul

Grabit. It isallotrop of Carbon

Hexagonal planer wings are

found having covalent bond

Weak
· Vander wall
force ispresent between two
layers having
hexagonal graphite
can
planer rings, so then
layers can slide over each other so

lubricant.
be used as
dry
· Each C is
sp"hybridied and a ets are
found in detocalised form so
graphit
delocalisation
only
one
type of c-c Bond
is
good conductor of electricity. Due to

double bond)
length found is
in
graphite (partial

Along the
layer conductivity high while the
layers conductivity low.
·
is across is

is in different directions)
So
graphite astropic (different physical properties
· When increased
T is
conductivity decreans layer
along the (similar to metal)
while conductivity 44accross the
layers (similar to semiconductors)
So graphite can act as both metal and semiconductors.

Covalent Compound
I =I
·

solid due to 3-d

un
layer-1

weak
·

--

Network
van der
· All catomy are
Wall Forces of Attraction
Spc
hybridisd - I I
=

--
~ Layer -2
 Inorganic Benzene: -
By Ng Hs
· Also known as Borazine/Borazole.
·
It more
is reactive Benzene
then because
of bond
polarity.
e0s; it shows aromatic charachter similar to benzene
·
Due to delocalization of a

· It is also planer molecul

In 3-dichloro derivatives
are
found where as in
inorganic benzene y
·

Benzene
dichlovo derivatives are found
H
is
. each atom in the
ring sphybridised. I
H -
N TN -
H

Balto +NHS -
B3Ns Ho I
-B
H -
B -
H

Dibovane
N

it
dichloro derivatives U
d

myn-Un-DN -
I
B -u

⑩ e
N

i ↳

Zionof : (Na, By 0, 104, 0)

-

Na, [By0s(ON)y]. 8NcO-> GNaY (ByOs(ON)n]-

-
Anion of Borax
0H
1 -
B o Be two atoms sp3->G5%5 Charachter.

d - Bis two atoms sp2-> 33.3% charachter.

lit of
No. B-B bonds 0
=

⑦
/
No
To-Bol
Boraxine:- o B - sp2 B-B bonds 0
=

(B30; sp2
B
0 -

Planer structure

-o -
↳ You - or
evensTo Manmade allotroke of coo.. e

common: Buckminster football

most
Bucky ball.
· -

or

there are
pentagons and hexagons
·

12
Pentagons and Go hexagons are found in Coo
·

Each Carbon is
sp"
hybridisd.
·

·
Two
types of -1 B.1 are
found (i)
Single B.L & (ii) Partial double B.L

graphite
In
type of found
is
one our BL

Pentagons
·
connected with
are
only luxagone but
hexagons are connected with

both
pentagons and Luxagons
It
· is most
symmetrical compound found

xamplesof Hybriation:
-

ammonium
- ion e
-> Alkane

-> ((N)6
I

pot)
i
-Er
NEC
-= N
"Trigonal Pyramid e

Irigoul Pyrides
i:
f

In - -
-

/SpY sptf

-
Diamond: -

·
Hardest substance in nature. . sp3, Bad Conductor
of electricity
3D-Network
· Covalent solid · Good Conductor of Heat (thermal conductivity high)
B.L.
·
only one
type of C-C
Compoundsof Sulkure: -

H2SO4 -> son

Acid then anion would sulphuric
If oxy Sulphate
· --

->
Acid
is in mans have 'ate' in its
has

3
To-snake
Name.
tetrahydral
-

If oxy Acid's Name Anion will be

-S
the
End with having in H2SOs -> SO,"
of its sulpliion
name
last sulphur
Acid
9
Trigonal
So (octa sulphure): S

od Pyramidal.
-

·
crown shape

E S S
·
Total 1.P 16
=

timer of OS - (S309)

·
Spb
9oS
· total l.P 18 =

Lo
S-S bond
0
=

s =
:!! ↓:
compounds of ous: found allotrop
only naturally
-

① Pu -
White Phosphorous Phosphorous.
of
Bone ash + sion -> White Phosphorous ·

Stability (Colour Intensity & Stability)

cas (POu P
Black P > RedP> Whit

total l.P 4

I
· =

60 ·
Total P-Pbonds 6
=
·
White P is
highly reactive

P P
strain gives Rise
five in open air
~It
catches
·

high Angle
P
to
high reactivity due to
high reactivity.
Py+0, PcO, > P205 This burning is called phosphorscence
~
White + NaOH ->
PHy+NaHz POz

I
·

P
P
-

white P Red P

P2Os =Py0j: Phosphorous

08:-Phosphorous pentaoxie
trioxide
-

-o - · p-P bonds 0
=

O · P-P bond sevo =

p p 11
0 0

X
l.P
Y
- -
pF 20
=

Total l.P 16 .

P
=
·

=
p-o-Pbonds 6

↳Xerox
d
=

Phosphoric Acid
RuSz:
-
Phosphorous Sisquioxide Tricyclic meta

new Acid
Acid to
total l.P oxy meta Acid

·
10
=

One molecule
P-P bond= 3
S H20
S
-

P-S bond 6 HPOS

=

H3PO
P ol meta phosphoric
W O
Acid

H0-p
Lo O

0 P
-

To
OH
·

·
total 1.P 18
P-P bonds

basicity=3
=

0
=

↓
/ I
Compounds of silicons: -

Isi- sit
-- -
-si-s1--si-s-si-
.

Six 3D Network structure

↳si ↳si
/ x
Si Oz (silica): -

ca, is
solid
but sio, is
I -
·

gas
3D Covalent structure
-si- 0 c 0.
Sphybridisation
=
=

-siE
intraction

%Isi-o- Lo si strongsPatP*

3
- SiOz=>. size of si
large exist as

O
-
o sie
12
·
Weak 3P-2P overlap Polymer
<Solid)
 N-Negas. PSP, Why
·
solid

bonds weak due to repulsion

N-N single
So NIN forms
4 -

Orthosilicates:- SiOy

..............
o Si-a No bond between

si 0 two 0 atomy
0 -

/
↓-
-

0
- =0..............
O

Pyrosilicate: - SicO,
=

-0..... .....o

: :
-I
-

...........
~

sito si
-

⑧ 0

................... ......
!

no of 0 shared=1

Cyclic silicates and linear chain silicates: -

0
0 shared with others = 2
⑧

· ⑧

2D-sheetsilicates:-

/tore
(Sion"), or
sios):-
-o
0- -O
190-0I I Cyclic
↳

· silicate
Lo
! I

(sino) n=(sicos-Yn
↑

dat
3-D silicates:
-

shared with other units = 4

No. of 0

sioz
eg

·-sino-si- ↓

si
I
si
-
-
- -o

icone:- d
H

si
H
I
Chemically Inert I
·

H - 1 Si-i a - a
H
Si-o-si bond
n
-

↓
I

Thermally stable H in
Methane silane Tetra chlovo Silane

u a R R
C I I

R-sieg
I

a-siec+RMgx - + R-si-R
↓
+ M-si-R

↓
Resi
+

R
↓
↓ H20 ↓120 ↓H20
R
0

i
H
git I

Si-OH R- Si R R-Si-R
R
-
-

I
0H ↓H ↓i
I

I
it-si-or -> Silano
It
silicones:
-

it o -
-

-s-mschain I
terminating

R R
R

linear chain silicons:

--o-si-o iiii-i Fs
R k
 R
R R
I
,o-si-o-si-o -si-o-
↓ I
R
R
Cross Linked
Polymer:
-

R
R
Ho-si-aiini-si-Ho--or
R R I
I
sro-si-o-sivosi
dit ↓
↓H ↓H dH
! 0H
Ho-si-on
Ho -
si- oit

↓
Comparision of and
Bond
Angle. S.NO
different
is no lip present:-
is
-
.

BeUz > Bfz) CHy)St ↑

2 0
+

3 0
+
4 0 +
6 +
0

SP Sp2 SPS Sp3d

120° 1098' 90
1808

S. No is same, c. As
different, Bonded atom - same a
pedifferent:
-

CHy ) WHs 7:Hz

B. Ad
l.P 4
C

1080 106 -
104281

I . &
-
0
H
/i
C
i r x

50 & SO2

to
↑

<120:

C.As different:
S. No
Same, lip same, bonded atomesame
-

EN of C.A44,
Bond pair come clown to central atom so repulsion between them 4*
· As
Bond
as well as
angle
NHS > PHy> ASHy> SbHs;H20> H2S > HaSe> HzTe
S. NO Same;l.P Same, C. A same bonded atom different:
-

As EN of Bonded B.P move atfar

*u*
=>
=> <

A tom 44
distance from c.A

so repulsion did and

B. Add

Nos <NUs < NBUg

Drago's Rule: -
If Element of N and 0
family except N and 0 forms
Covalent Compound with C or less en element then is
their
in
can
only pure orbitals will
participate overlaping
no
hybridisation found. In this

mon: much deviation ideal

angle of Hybridisation.
Since there
from
-

is

9 PHS isless basic than

Why NHS

,
"
Becau 1.P P is
preant pures
N Ans: -

of in

⑭A
oubital near to nucleus. Thislip
that is
while lone Pair
difficultto
is donate
sp"-S overlaps Poverlap is in sp3 which comparitively
-

is
of NHS

to donate. Hence stronger

NHS is
easy
ball then
PA3

NH3 +.HY >

- NHut
Nint is move

+HY ->PHT Stable then PHu

PHy

PHy H20 & AalO HIS HISe HITe

& SO2
SP3 Sp3 X
Sp No Hybridis X X

A
B.A > B.A) B.A) B.
H20 [SO2
PH,

& S(2H)-

D
&
-
1, cx3
equivalent and non equivalent Hybrid orbitals:-

equicent:
-
SP, sp2 sp3, spd=> only one
type of found
B.Lis

Nonequent:-SPY and SpSd2-two different types of

B.L are found
1
It x =c c -
c
H CEC
-
-

·1.3 50% 33.33% 25%

B.A 1800 1200 10928

Bond =C > C2
=

> c C -

strengt
B.L C < c c < -C
=

=c

aracht
eine
Bent Rule:- orbital
Move EN atom attaches itself to
having more P charach

er or lists charachter

fraction
S: of S charachter-
CosO =
=

P fraction
=

ofP charachter.

S +P 1
5x100 %S
=
=

P X100 %P
=

CHY It
I
COS 110928' =
E l.p has move
s charachter

To i
S 0.25%5 25%
=
S-1
=

1.5 25%
=

#-
in Bond - Less B.A
D-S>25 Less is

-Nos
 *A CHY & CHIC
CH2f2 H

att
H

0
↳
less s
O < 0"< ol
1
C
-I
It

- more an atom

03> 02> 0,
~

move
·1.S

S. NO 5:
-

Sp3d:-sp3+ Pd => d orbital and is dee In sp3d-d21 and

dx-y are
und
C
Less. Scharachter
-> Pd hybridisation=>
c

Z of Move is charachti
a sphybridised

Saxial
P -

U barrie
equitorial -)
non equivalent

a
Bonds
hybridisation.
exception of PCs:
-

here all bonds can Position

interchange
F
So all p-f bonds are almost similar.
f P
f

high
lots:
More Natom connects to bond where is las and p
is is

f > c => f isconnected at axial.

F
A
* Exception.

d
p -f B.R
< P cBl
-

C p
ch

F
·
l.p is
close to Nuclus so it has moves charachter hence it placed
is

atequitorial position.
·
double bond also has
high j.s, so it also
is placed atequitorial position.

Comparision of Bond length:

-
Schreine
B.lxt
Bond
strength

factors
affecting B.1:-
·

size
⑰ of atom:-size of Atom 4 B.14
FlHDUSNetee
A
B.S d
Strength
1I

Acid
eption:
-

strong

S I
Bond disociation In periodic table
U2> BU2 > fr>Iz =>
Energy. Acidic nature of
44down
Hydvide
H20 <H2S <HuSe <HITe (B.L) growt
the

>
·
Bond become weaker

easily give
· H

good reducing Agent.

Bond =) B. Ldd
Bonds:- of Bonds 4 =>
↑
strength 44
B) No.
of No.
(B.S)

B. -
7 =) =
N2 02 F2

B.S -= NEN 00
=

F-f

B. L N2 < 0r < Fz

C) %s Charachter: -- As " SYNB.Ldd

I202 02 f2 high is charachter

/b
H
-
ob
f

16020 -
↳o
low is

charachte
->
longer
B.L
B. 2 as a b'>b
N-N B.1 in
N2Oy NcOs
-lesss More.
0 - O

OIN*N= &
N
b
- N
/
->0
↳more
I
O
%
·* L Less is

a<b

Of, and Octz (0-fB.1)

&Ps
he f yos

,j8I
& - equal

I① =
move

&, > M2
companitly
.S
less

<2 B.L): CH2f2 CH+ 3

CHf3 CHC3
-
H -

CH,f
f H
it H F
I I 113
I I C

Ii
C

-d 'If
Is a
/
I
.S in <
E.N f> C <
C -
H

%.5c -f < c - a
Bil 1, > r2 > l3
%S ( -
H 3c -
H

(CH(z) ((((3) C-HB1 in Cry, CHsf, CHifzCHf3

CHy> Cryf
> CH2fz> CHf3
B.R CH <CH
(CH3) (CH((s)

↓ a-px and pa-da

Bonding:
-

19
S
MyIl i l >P2-dX
o
! S A M TD1 >PR -
dk

Sep) PA-PE 3d

form 3 new
SPL orbitals
 -
o
I
exe= Mk
# Aty1
I x

I -hybrid bond
5 new

orbital a
Pa da
b ↳ xe
-

↓ ↓
0 xe I bond
a bod

Cases
Some special of Hybridisation:
-

BeC =>
gas
- Be -c
Sphybridisation
=>

BeC=) solid

·Bere
SP3
S. No Y
=

hybridisation
DC5solid: -

PUsgas-sp3d
Contains
PU5 twotyby of
solid -> Tony

-
PU, Pant
↓ d
Sp'd Sp3.

:- Contains two types of ions :- Contains two

types of
ions
-
PBryt By
Plut IO

L
4 0
+

SpY
V
Tetrahydral
Sp3
tetrahydral

xets (solid):-
xest-Pyramidal
 IzUs(Solid): -dimer of IUs
C Spid
--- S. NO 4
+ 2 0
=
=

I
K I
- a- I
-
u

a ·u
T
-
a

In Us (liquid):-

IOn IU,

4 1R.P
+

2 31.P
+

5 5

Sp3d Sp3d
Sec-Saw linear

15:-(gas) NOs (Solid):

-

NOT Nort
NE
0-
- -
-

I 0= 0 N
0
=

O N - 0
=

o inear
Sp2

gra
despen:
-

for odd etspecies we find hybridisation using Bond

Angle
C0sO =1 => NO2 =
N 0-120 SPL
=

S-1
~x

80 o

0 120 SP2
R

CO2 = =

d =

!O
Clos can not.
·
No can form dimer but

its
2 N -> ·TN -
N
0
=
NO form dimer because

o xo o -O
odd to is in b orbital whic
red-brown Colourless
oddet Clo, delocalised
as of is

Paramagnetic diamagnetic in its vaccent d orbital

and

not available for bonding.

240 -> X
 Acids:
of oxy
-
Structures

Acid Anion
at
①-ic -

its
② -ous -

③ 2 Acid
J-Hz0
Pyro
④ l acid
7-Hic
meta

ex 113BOS
·
Mono protic Acid
give +)
0 H
arrhenius Acid (Not
I · Not

Lewis Acid (Accept 1.PS

B ·

Ho
YoH
1-120
·
B(OH) -> BCONY
-

I-Bonengaval
H2SO4
- SOY P
S
Sp3 tetrahydral
- -

!to

->
-
so
-SP Pyramidal

:-(01eum)
O ⑥ O

ii
H-o-s-o--oH
11

not
->

on
·
sp tetrahydral.
dibasic, Dipvotic.
H2S2O, Dithionic Acid:
Disulphurus Acid:- HaS205
-

Ho-i "
--
- -
or
oh
No
-

Hass e

Aid Iasion
thiosulphuric Acid

tonous Il
S

ScO," miosulphat
H-o-s-OH
->

0 d
ion

H2S, 08 Marshall's Acid: Acid et

(Cavo A

:-Proxysulphuric
-

acid)
(Pyro disulphuric O

0H
H -
0 -
- -
0 - -

I
! I

Oy 0

↳
11 O2 Il
⑥

io,
#

or
it
i
Phosphoric Acid
Acid.
Tribasic
Phosphorous Acid
Hypophosphorous
Dibasic Mono basic

Phosphoricale
met
Phosphoric Acid
Meta

Acid:- (H2P2O5
(Pyrophosphoric
⑰ --Pyrrous Acid):

O ⑥

Ao--o jioi-on --
Il
Ol Ho or
Ho -
P-
I
di 0 H
it
d

-- -
⑧ O
11
0 -
oH
p
- -

Ho -
t
H-o
di
-

di it I
Tetrabasic

Acid:- (Pyrophosphoric 1Oxygen) HuP28

Hyphoric
-

ito--p-OH Tetrabasic
i
d ↓it p-P bond = 1
Triphosphoric Acid:- 13HsPoy-2H20) =>
H5 P300
O
iP
⑥

o Penta
· basic
P 0 -
- -

Ho 0
-
- -

P-0-P bonds
↓H
·
2

↓H di · O P-P bonds.

Bonding:
-

(B.B)
has lip has vaccent orbital
·
In a covalent molecule ifone atom and other

take place
back
then
bonding may
ex13: -

· It is et deficient compound.
acid
leis
·
It can work as a

·
octate of B is incomplete
between f&B atom as I has I.P.
·
Back bond
found
is
increases
double bond charachter introduced
is so bond order
· Due to BB Partial
Bond also increases
and strength
B. L
·
In Boy B-f Bond length
isshorter then expected single
acidic decreas
· Dus to B. B lewis strength

Note: more orbitals

having
-
in
Extent of back
bonding is simmilar
energy.
ex: -
B fz) BUy> BBUg> BIs
2P-2P GP-3P 2P-YP 2p 5P
-

Bath awengtudd
B. B4 Bond 44
strength
Extent decrease no of C.P44 Central Atom.
R. B.B
if
on
of
-

Tambur
-]
Si>p>s>
octet
Bond length
< Bf, ->
Ex:
BFz
-

de 2
B. B Possible No BB Possible
↓ Le
Partial double No partial double bond

Bond present d
(B-f)
Purely single bond

So Brno
has longer Bond
length.
 Ofz Vs OUz: -

empty orbital d orbit a

raccent
No
Bond

I, onear tan Angle:

B.B -

P *A
-u 0 Fz < H20 < OUz
0-1110
· No B. B · B. B

bond Partial double bond => More Repulsion - Move O.

single
·
.

NT3 vs NC3: -

AndAngle

-= as a NFs <NHs <NU3

NO B. B B. B Possible
bent while linear.
Trimethyl isocynate trisily isocynate is
-

is

(linear)
CHINCO (Bent) Sit z NCO
pa-da back bonding
&
co
..
12
- 5i -N c 0
= =

12 17
·
NO B.B. ·
B.B pucent.
S.NOforN=2(lPare busy in B.B).
S.No.foUN 2+1 3.
= .
· =

Sp"hybridis.
·

Sphybridisation.
· linear
shape.
·
Bent shape.

Plans:
Trimethylamine is
Pyramidal while trisilylamine istrigonal
-

(CH3), N [Sirs) N

1 CNs
o
siesin
4 S.NO=3
SNOOJN=3H
= ·

·
No B.B
·
B.B Possible
·
so"
hybridisation
·

sp2Hybridisation
Planer Shape
·

Trigonal
:
-

CHG-0-cHs (dimethyl ether) can form bond with its but (Sitt), O Can't:-

H
0:
H,
-

bond with
B s Isi"
Hy Si
3
1.P Not available
for donation,
as it is
Notformbond
and
Angesis e

form involved in B.B.

B F3

Triphenyl disilylether:
- ·

Toisily, Amine -T. Plane Trisily phosphim

↳pyramidal
· *
(si<PhTs), O
H,Si-N-Sits
s

H,Si-p-sits

-Sizin Einsations.
sills sits
- Bi possible · B.B not possible

3t0=sp" du to delocalis
0
in Lon · S.NO=
ph
B. B Planes of PPng P in its
Trigonal
·

vaccent d-orbitals

CNf S.NO=3+1 4 =

(CNC,
·

CHA
·
Acidic nature
of CHA, Vs
Sp3
' ·

Pyramidal
CHG, #s ECs C
C
-E
a ↳
0cf3
+

H
->
CHfy ·
B.B ·
B.B X

localised
·charge gets. Charge
delocalized Anion destablised
·
Anion stablises Less Acidic.
More Acidic.

·Silano is more Acidic Methanoli

then -

Silanol Possible

4
methanol. No B.B
localised
Sitt z-Ol CHy-OH · - ve
charge
Anion less stable
2 ↓
·

-
H+ -
Ht
· Less Acidic
H, Si -o= [Hz- 0

·
B.B
· Delocalisation of -
ve

Move
charge
·

·
Anion stablised Acidic
 Boric Acid: -

double & single

H · 0=1140 due to repulsion between partial
0=114"
0
Bond
Sp"
Hybridisation of
0
=

0 It
HO

·CH2 VSiCdz VSiCf2: -

·CH2 ·<Uz iCfz

B. B < <

Dibovane (Batts): -

(Banana bond)

I
CaCONI
CayBc H20
+
->

"

-B B trussarebouts on cut onane

Hodged
-H
*

to
-H
blame - Geodeficit re
..... ji (Om
-> Lewis Acid

"
·
SNO=Y SP3
Ht
-H H
· Terminal I can be easily replaced bridged
then
H =
terminal
=> H

Bats
-
BitzL4

Entrapment
ne

ina
perpendicular place
In presence of small Aminus In case
of large Amine
·
·

Batts is
highly reactive like NHS, RNHz, RCNH it Show
·

RzNOU Cs-H5N It Shows

Burns
spontaneously. heterolytic cleavage homolytic cleavage
·

Acombustion = -
Ve ·
Bats OBHY +BHgor Bato- BHs+BHs
highly exothermic d Bit z2 BisL
· and
Dibovane is as Rocket fuel SpY
·
sots ↳ Sp3
because energy released per
gram high
is
 Ala H6i
=

AlaUj:
-

3 c-2eobonds d
Ala(CH3),
-A- X
C

-
v
C

-
CH3 a T
-A - a
a
Al
·
Banana bond not
prevent.
et
Not
deficient
·

· Banana bond Present. ·

Sp3:
octetcomplete.
· et deficient Compound. ·

·
Sp3
Octet
·
incomplete

#Ha)n:
-

All
120 bonds
It

Bebe:seet
H. · Ho ·

Be Be
·ooo
1 H
I 11

·
All banana bonds
acid)
(lewis
·
Co deficient
·
S. NO 4(SP3)
=

(Beda);:

eteeper
·
No banana bond
d
· octet complete
- · S.NO 4
=

(SPY)
·

(Be Hz)g:- · banana bond

H-
Be----H....- e -
H
· es deficient
S.NO=3/Sp2)

Ho
...........
·

In Borazine

and Boraxinthe
[BeCu),: -

·
No banana bond

- a Be C
·
S.NO =3 (SPL).
a
Be
-

deficient
-

·
et
U
/
 atom is bonded with more en
In covalent atom if it

Hydrogending
a

like
atom O, N and - de to
then move in
difficance
when then it atom comes into
developed Hatom
partial positive charge is on
same molecule or in the
element like
in the
N, and f
Contact of move en atoms which
developed
attraction is between two
then
other molecule, electrostatic

is called as H-bond

H-bond of
is two
types
·
U does not participate in
H-bonding dus to larger
size
distance
IntractionEnergy
~=
(f) <1 between two
for H-bond 03
atoms

between two molecule

a) Inter molecular H-bond: -
A bond is
found
Same
liquid is argument applies
·

ex.-H20 is His gas

StS- for it liquid
is
and

-
68-
I
H- 0..... 88+ 11-
less chary
->
He is gas
sequation
1st St
↓ 58t

between two atoms in molecule

b)molecular
H-bond: -

H-bond formed same

ex:- ortho-nitrophenol is more volatile

them....nitrophenol
bonding possible
molecular it is
Into

Nine E
·

high B.pt and

↳ Yo
·
which leads to
to d low volatility.
·
Intra molecular H-bonding o
covalent
· Inter-molecular H-bonding
not ·

generally
bond is then
possible stronger
H-bond

0-flows phenol:
KHf2
exception:
-

ex:-
-

kHfz k
+ * f2

*H-bond
+

->

covalent
-bord.. Heand the

· H-bond is
formed due to electrostatic attraction Hoe H-bond and Lovalent
H-atom and lip other similar
between tirely charged of bonds are
having
atom
H-bond depends on two factors Strength.
·
of
Strength Ibond found
is
in
H atom Strongest
(a) magnitude9 of
the
charge on
- H F
D.EN=> F > 0 -H
92
> N 1 9.592<93-so a
H NHS gas
-
-
is
b) Avalability of air: always dominate
factor b
-
but factor
basic Nature
NHz > H20

↓
more
availability
of e.P

a H-bond.
compare the
91

a) 0-H .....

NE. Wil
b) 0 - .... 0 more charge
more availability
P
q2 sepration of
C) N-H.... N= 9,792
92 ↳ dominant factor.
d) N - H ....

H20 has 100

·
Hehas B. pt 31 while

Ifact: -
If forms strong
H-bond than 0-H)

f--- ........ ..... 4.H:bonds

f. ,
One HA
forms two 0
...

it
... H-bonds i
F
..... .......

·
due to move no of H-bonds

B.pt of H20 high.

is

Hspon liquid it is due to H-bonding.

syrupyhigh viscosity
a
is
-

O
11

liquid ......
or......
:
H......
solid:
, is -0
-

Hexagonal geometry
-

of H-bonds.
#

(Boric Acid) 0 - B
& ·more no

.......
-
.......

C2H50H
B. pt
of > CH30CHS: R
-

H-0...- H- 0 R-0 -

I ↳ NO H bonding
H-bonding
 soluble in Water:
Alcohols
easily
-

are

As 14
A -
0 .... H -
0
·
size of Alkyl group solublity and

In R R - 0 -
H
We
between 4 As
It
bonding Size of R44

120 and ROH hence

polarity of
and

& di
solublity
DC0 H20:
Boiling point of > -

on Water:
Ice floats
-

H =

,H Sin D <H

....H-o....
1 -

D 1H2
=

D: -
More electropositive it
92
than H
9:
H -
0<D -
0 liquid water

"..."utr
2.1
legthan
3.5 3.5

9291 more space in

Ice
in D20 ice is unoccupied
H-bonding stronger due
strong e
zempty) to

D-0... H-bonding them

b
120
which

density
vol 44

D20 Ice
floats on D20 liquid: -

D2O Ice Sink in H20 liquid:

-

·
Same reason as above

less density du
Do
·
move vol

to structure
D
cage
D
↳ Stronger ·
It
bonding
IC2
Density D,0
·
iceL H20

also D20 ice> Hioliquid

in His liquid.
·
So D20 ice sinks

Hao has al Y:
maximum
density Ig1m)
-

as

at T40°c Ice - has

density a than liquid
molecules into
at 0s <4°c
Ice Start
melting, some surface
entres
cages
of ice and vold
&
density 44 upto you 7..)"
leads to 44in volume
place which
at
T>4° As TMAthermal expansion takes
and ad in density.
 Hao has H502, H20s, H302, H505 ion in
negligible amount -

very
HcO- m* +H Hot + H20 ring. H502HMOs
H + H20 + - Hy0 ·OH +H20 Free Hy0I H50g
ion
Hydronium
He) Can form with
gals (except Compounds
Noble clathrate H20 Ice:-

compounds
gas get trapped
When in ice it is called clathrate
noble
says
·

to."
is too small to
get trapped.
·

Note: He -

clathrate
compound

phenol:
Benzoic Acid
H-bonding
then
-

Shows
stronger
O 42
+ 91
+

-4 H
91792
(170
H
-

-
0 -

=I
Stronger H-bonding
in

Benzoic Acid

Acetylem soluble is in acetone but not in water: -

CH)
c 1P"......o H..!...0 H.8.0
-
c H....
H-c =
=

H c
=
c -

Cr)
-
-
- - -

Gwean
↳
·
·

more
Sp Carbon
"oS
H-bonding ↳ it ·

Strong H. bond
boud
more E.N It will form
I
·

· will not
form
Acidic properties
solublity.
·

so
only bond &
form no

Phosphoric Acid soluble

is in Urea: -

18/p0... We 91
+

12
nee

stronger) Bond
length
9,92 l1 > 12
 formation hydrate).
of A-bond
by C (chloral
H-bonding St ↳ cUyCHo. H20
-c. -0
...

a - C

....... -
2 -

RNA.
B.ptof RNHz RiNH > RyN: -
More H
bonding In

Removal of second proton isdifficultin Caro Acid: -

1-0--0-si
0

H -
0 - -o -0 -
H Fi
(kai)
↓
↳ Now H
this

Removal
of and proton is hard in maleic Acid than is connected on two
sides and is hard to
fumaric Acid: -

-> H-bonding remove, so and proton

removal isharder in Caro's
90
H...

co
=

100C COOH Acid:

it c0
=

I ~ - ↳ -
-> cC
I c
=

↳
=

H
-
H H -
It
Maleic
Removal of proton
He -LooH H 1
⑦
is hard
C
=

C - -c c-
200
NO H
further
- due to H-bonding.
=

HOOC H
Hoo
-
It
fumavic bonding

Aceto Acetic Ester is stable:

Enol
form of
-

CH-p-CH2-G-OCHs-> CHy-CH--Ocas
III

See
H
B.ptof 0-Salicyldehyde less than
is

C
I Stable Chelate
leads
- Ring
p-Salicyldehyde: c c-0(2H5
-

1-
to stability of
I1
0 f
↓ Enol
this form
. Intermolecular
O

↳ &......

i C 0
=
. More B.Pt
-

Intramolecular
it

H-bonding