Chapter 2

Screws, Fasteners, and the Design of Non-Permanent Joints

This chapter introduces non-permanent joining elements such as bolts, nuts, setscrews
rivets, pins, keys, etc.

It also introduces power screws which changes angular motion to linear motion, where
it is similar in principle to screws and bolts.

Thread Standards and Definitions

 The terminology of screw threads is

illustrated in the figure.

Pitch (𝑝): the distance between adjacent

threads measured parallel to thread
axis.

Major diameter (𝐷): the largest diameter of the screw thread.

Minor diameter (𝐷1 ): also called “root diameter”, is the smallest diameter of the
screw thread.

Mean diameter (𝐷2 ): also called “pitch diameter”, the average diameter of the
screw thread (considering the theoretical full height of the threads).

Lead (𝑙): the distance a nut moves parallel to the screw axis when it rotates one
full turn.

 For a single thread screw the lead is same as the pitch.

 For multiple thread screws (two or more threads run beside each other) the lead
equals the pitch multiplied by the number of threads.
 All threads are usually right-handed unless otherwise is indicated.
 Tensile tests showed that a threaded road has a tensile strength equal to that of an
unthreaded rod having diameter equal to the average of the pitch diameter and
minor diameter of the threaded rod.
 Bolts are standardized and there are two standards: Metric (ISO) and American
(Unified). In both standards the thread angle is 60°.

Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering Design, 10th Ed.

CH 8 (R1) Page 1 of 15
Metric (ISO):
 There are two standard profiles M and MJ
where both have a similar geometry but
the MJ has a rounded fillet at the root and
a larger minor diameter and therefore it
has a better fatigue strength.
 Metric bolts are specified by the major
M profile
diameter and the pitch (both in mm).
 Example: 𝑀10 × 1.5 (10 mm major diameter and 1.5 mm pitch).
Profile
 Table 8-1 gives the standard sizes of Metric bolts along with the effective tensile
stress area and the root diameter area (which is used when the bolt is subjected to
shear loading).
 Note that there is Coarse-pitch and Fine-pitch (more threads) where the fine-
pitch has better tensile strength.

American (Unified):
 There are two standard profiles UN and UNR where the UNR has a filleted root
and thus better fatigue strength.
 Unified threads are specified by the major diameter (in inch) and the number of
threads per inch (𝑁).
 Example: ¼ − 20 𝑈𝑁𝐶
Coarse or F (Fine)
Diameter (𝑁) Profile
 Table 8 -2 gives the standard sizes along with the tensile stress areas and root
diameter areas (used for shear loading) for Unified bolts (Coarse and Fine series).
 Note that for diameters smaller than 1/4 inch, the size is designated by size
numbers rather than diameter.

 For screws used to transmit power (Power

Screws) there are Square or Acme threads.
 Table 8-3 gives the standard diameters and
Square Acme
associated pitch for Acme thread power screws.

Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering Design, 10th Ed.

CH 8 (R1) Page 2 of 15
The Mechanics of Power Screws

Power screws are used to change angular motion to linear

motion. It is used in jacks, lathes, vises, etc.

𝑝 (Pitch) = 𝑙 (Lead: for single thread screws)

𝜆 : Lead angle, 𝜓 : Helix angle

𝑑𝑚 : Mean diameter

 To find the torque needed to raise the load (𝑇𝑅 ) or

needed to lower the load (𝑇𝐿 ), let one thread of the
screw to be unrolled (assuming square thread).

 Using static equilibrium equations and knowing that 𝑇 = 𝑃(𝑑𝑚 /2) and
𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜆 = 𝑙/𝜋𝑑𝑚 , we can find that:
The torque needed to raise the load 𝐹:
The torque is used to
𝐹𝑑𝑚 𝑙 + 𝜋𝑓𝑑𝑚 raise the load and to
𝑇𝑅 = ( )
2 𝜋𝑑𝑚 − 𝑓𝑙 overcome thread friction

The torque needed to lower the load 𝐹:

𝐹𝑑𝑚 𝜋𝑓𝑑𝑚 − 𝑙 The torque is used to overcome

𝑇𝐿 = ( )
2 𝜋𝑑𝑚 + 𝑓𝑙 a part of the friction

 If 𝑇𝐿 turns to be zero or negative this means that the screw will spin (the load will
be lowered) without any external effort, and this is usually not desired.
 In order to ensure that this will not happen, then we should have:

𝑓 > 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜆 Self-Locking condition

Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering Design, 10th Ed.

CH 8 (R1) Page 3 of 15
 The efficiency is important in evaluating power screws.
 If 𝑓 = 0 (no friction) then all the applied torque is transferred into force (100%
efficiency) and the torque needed to rise the load 𝑇𝑅 to becomes:
𝐹𝑙
𝑇𝑜 =
2𝜋
Thus the efficiency is found as:

𝑇𝑜 𝐹𝑙
𝑒= =
𝑇𝑅 2𝜋𝑇𝑅

 For screws with Acme thread, there is additional wedging force due
to the angle 𝛼 which increases the frictional forces (𝐹 becomes
𝐹/ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛼).
 Thus all frictional terms are divided by (𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛼) therefore 𝑇𝑅
becomes:
𝐹𝑑𝑚 𝑙 + 𝜋𝑓𝑑𝑚 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝛼
𝑇𝑅 = ( )
2 𝜋𝑑𝑚 − 𝑓𝑙 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝛼

 Due to the increased friction the efficiency of Acme thread is less

than that of Square threads.
 However Acme threads are commonly used because they are easier to machine
and split-nuts (to compensate for wear) can be used.

 In many cases a Collar (sliding friction bearing) is used to

support the load (as seen in the figure), and thus
additional component of torque (𝑇𝑐 ) is needed to
overcome the friction between the collar and load plate.
The collar torque is found as:
𝐹𝑓𝑐 𝑑𝑐
𝑇𝑐 =
2
Where, 𝑓𝑐 : coefficient of friction for the collar
𝑑𝑐 : collar mean diameter

Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering Design, 10th Ed.

CH 8 (R1) Page 4 of 15
  Table 8-5 gives the coefficients of sliding (dynamic) and starting (static) friction for
some common metal pairs (The best is for bronze on bronze, but since bronze have
relatively low strength it is not commonly used for the screw).
 Table 8-6 gives the coefficients of friction (sliding and starting) for thrust collars.

 It is necessary to find the stresses developed in the power screw while performing
its function to ensure its safety.
 The stresses in the body of the power screw are found as:
𝐹 4𝐹
Normal stress: 𝜎= = Tension or Compression
𝐴 𝜋 𝑑𝑟 2

𝑇𝑐 16𝑇
Shear due to the torque: 𝜏= = Maximum at the root
𝐽 𝜋 𝑑𝑟 3

 If the screw is loaded in compression, then buckling

should be considered also.
 Johnson or Euler formula can be used according Root

to the slenderness ratio (use the root diameter).

 The threads are also subjected to stresses which are:

−𝐹 2𝐹 Compressive contact stress
Bearing stress: 𝜎𝐵 = =−
𝐴 𝜋𝑑𝑚 𝑛𝑡 𝑝 over the entire surface area
where 𝑛𝑡 is the number of engaged threads
𝑀𝑐 6𝐹
Bending stress: 𝜎𝑏 = = Max at the top surface of the root
𝐼 𝜋𝑑𝑟 𝑛𝑡 𝑝

3𝑉 3𝐹 Max at the center of the root

Transverse shear: 𝜏 = =
2𝐴 𝜋𝑑𝑟 𝑛𝑡 𝑝 & zero at the top surface

 Experimental results show that the load is not shared equally between the engaged
threads, instead the first takes 0.38 of the load, 2nd takes 0.25, 3rd takes 0.18, and
the 7th is free of load (assuming the number of engaged threads is six or more).
 Thus, the highest stresses are at the root of the first thread, and in the analysis
we do not divide the load by the number of engaged threads (𝑛𝑡 ) but rather we
do the analysis based on 38% of the load.

Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering Design, 10th Ed.

CH 8 (R1) Page 5 of 15
 The critical stress occurs at the top of the root and it's found
according to Von Misses knowing that:
6𝐹
Bending 𝜎𝑥 = , 𝜏𝑥𝑦 = 0
𝜋𝑑𝑟 𝑛𝑡 𝑝

16𝑇
𝜎𝑦 = 0 , 𝜏𝑦𝑧 = Torsion
𝜋 𝑑𝑟 3

4𝐹
Axial 𝜎𝑧 = − , 𝜏𝑧𝑥 = 0
𝜋 𝑑𝑟 2

Critical when this is compression and bending is (+)

See Example 8-1 from text

Threaded Fasteners
The purpose of a bolt or screw is to clamp “fasten” two or more parts together.
 The dimensions of bolts and screws are standardized and there are several head
styles that are being used (Figures 8-9, 8-10 and 8-11 show some of the common
head styles for bolts and cap screws).
 The terms bolt and screw are sometimes used interchangeably and they can refer
to the same element. In general, a bolt is used with a nut while a screw is used
with a threaded hole (Not a standard definition).
 Washers must be used under bolts heads in order to prevent the sharp corner of
the hole from biting into bolt head fillet where that increases stress concentration.
 Tables A-29 and A-30 give the standard dimensions for bolt heads.
 Table A-31 gives the standard dimensions of hexagonal nuts.
 Tables A-32 and A-33 give the standard dimensions of plain washers.

 The length of a bolt is not chosen arbitrarily, usually the length is chosen from the
preferred sizes given in Table A-17.
 The length of the threaded portion of a bolt (𝐿 𝑇 ) is also standardized where the
relation for metric sizes is given as:
2 𝑑 + 6 𝑚𝑚 𝐿 ≤ 125 , 𝑑 ≤ 48 𝑚𝑚 For sizes in inch
𝐿 𝑇 = { 2 𝑑 + 12 𝑚𝑚 125 < 𝐿 ≤ 200 𝑚𝑚
see Table 8-7
2 𝑑 + 25 𝑚𝑚 𝐿 > 200 𝑚𝑚
Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering Design, 10th Ed.

CH 8 (R1) Page 6 of 15
Bolts Strength
According to standards, tensile stress in the bolt (due to both preload and external
load) should not exceed the minimum Proof Strength “𝑆𝑝 ” of the bolt where the Proof
Strength is defined as the maximum stress value that the bolt can withstand without
having a permanent deformation (it is slightly less than the Yield Strength where it
corresponds to the Proportional Limit).
 Bolt materials are standardized and they are classified into different grades.
 Table 8-9 gives the SAE specifications for steel bolts.
Note the head
 Table 8-10 gives the ASTM specifications for steel bolts. markings of the bolts
 Table 8-11 gives the ISO specifications for metric steel bolts.

Joints with External Load (Tension Joints)

Bolts and screws are used to clamp two, or more, parts

together where these parts are subjected to an external force
trying to separate them.

 When a bolt and a nut are used to make a joint, the nut is
usually tightened to grip the joint firmly.
 This tightening of the nut introduces a tensile force in the
bolt (called the pre-load) and a compressive force “of the same value” in the
clamped material.
 When the external “separating” force is applied to the joint it will be divided
between the bolt (where it increases the tension in the bolt) and the clamped
material (where it reduces the compression in the material).
 In order to find the portion of the external load carried by the bolt and the portion
carried by the material, spring methodology is used where the bolt and the clamped
material are represented as two springs in parallel.
 Therefore, the portion of the external load carried by each of the two springs
(representing the bolt and the clamped material) depends on the stiffness (spring
rate) of each of the two springs.

Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering Design, 10th Ed.

CH 8 (R1) Page 7 of 15
Joints – Fastener Stiffness

The stiffness (spring rate) is the ratio of applied force to the deflection caused by that
force.

 The spring rate of axially loaded members is defined as:

𝑘 = 𝐴𝐸/𝑙 (from Chapter 4)

 For bolts and screws the length of the member that

is being subjected to the tensile load is called the
“grip” (𝑙).
- For a bolt-nut connection, the grip (𝑙) is the total
thickness of the clamped material (including the
washers).
- For cap screw connection, the “effective grip” (𝑙 ′ )
is found as:

ℎ + 𝑡2 ⁄2 𝑡2 < 𝑑
𝑙′ = {
ℎ + 𝑑 ⁄2 𝑡2 ≥ 𝑑

 In general, the bolt will have threaded and unthreaded portions where each will
have a different stiffness (because the cross-sectional area is different). Thus, the
two portions are treated as two springs in series, and the total stiffness is found
as:
1⁄ = 1⁄ 1
𝑘 𝑘1 + ⁄𝑘2
Knowing that,
𝐴𝑡 𝐸 𝐴𝑑 𝐸
𝑘𝑡 = & 𝑘𝑑 =
𝑙𝑡 𝑙𝑑

Stiffness of the threaded portion Stiffness of the unthreaded portion

 Thus the effective stiffness of the bolt or cap screw is found to be:

𝐴𝑑 𝐴𝑡 𝐸
𝑘𝑏 =
𝐴𝑑 𝑙𝑡 + 𝐴𝑡 𝑙𝑑

Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering Design, 10th Ed.

CH 8 (R1) Page 8 of 15
 Where 𝑙𝑡 : length of threaded portion of the grip.
𝑙𝑑 : length of unthreaded portion.
𝐴𝑑 : “major-diameter area” of fastener.
𝐴𝑡 : tensile stress area (Tables 8-1 & 8-2).

Joints – Member Stiffness

The clamped members will be treated as springs in series in order to find the total
stiffness.
1⁄ = 1⁄ + 1⁄ + 1⁄
𝑘 𝑘1 𝑘2 𝑘3
 If one of the clamped members is a soft gasket (which has a very small stiffness
compared to other members), the stiffness of other members can be neglected and
only the gasket stiffness is used.

 Experimental investigation showed that the area subjected to

compressive stress in the clamped zone has a conical shape
with half apex angle of about 30˚.
 For members made of the same material (same 𝐸), the
effective stiffness is found to be:
𝜋 𝐸𝑑 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝛾
𝑘𝑚 =
(𝑙 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝛾 + 𝑑𝑤 − 𝑑)(𝑑𝑤 + 𝑑)
2 𝑙𝑛
(𝑙 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝛾 + 𝑑𝑤 + 𝑑)(𝑑𝑤 − 𝑑)

 Knowing that the standard washer diameter is 50% greater than the bolt
diameter (𝑑𝑤 = 1.5𝑑) and 𝛾 = 30°, the effective member stiffness can be
simplified as:
0.5774 𝜋 𝐸 𝑑
𝑘𝑚 =
0.5774 𝑙 + 0.5 𝑑
2 𝑙𝑛 (5 )
0.5774 𝑙 + 2.5 𝑑

Where (𝑙) is the total thickness of the clamped members.

 Alternatively, 𝑘𝑚 can be found using a curve fit equation (obtained from FEA) which
gives a very close value:

𝑘𝑚 = 𝐸𝑑[𝐴 𝑒 𝐵𝑑⁄𝑙 ]

Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering Design, 10th Ed.

CH 8 (R1) Page 9 of 15
  The constants 𝐴 and 𝐵 depend on the material being used and their values are
given in Table 8-8 (both are 𝐴 and 𝐵 unitless).

Tension Joints – The External Load

When an external tensile load “𝑃” is applied to the joint, the load will be divided
between the bolt and the clamped member (as long as the load “𝑃” is not large
enough to separate the clamped members), in addition to the preload “𝐹𝑖 ” carried by
each.

Defining; 𝑃𝑏 : portion of 𝑃 taken by bolt.

𝑃𝑚 : portion of 𝑃 taken by members.
𝐹𝑏 = 𝑃𝑏 + 𝐹𝑖 : resultant bolt load.
𝐹𝑚 = 𝑃𝑚 − 𝐹𝑖 : resultant members load.
𝐶 = 𝑃𝑏 ⁄𝑃 : fraction of external load carried by bolt.
(1 − 𝐶) : fraction of external load carried by member.

 Since the bolt and members will have the same deflection:
𝑃𝑏 𝑃𝑚 𝑘𝑏
𝛿= =  𝑃𝑏 = 𝑃𝑚
𝑘𝑏 𝑘𝑚 𝑘𝑚
Knowing that,
𝑘
𝑃𝑏 𝑃𝑏 𝑃𝑚 𝑏
𝑘𝑚
𝐶= = =
𝑃 𝑃𝑏 + 𝑃𝑚 𝑘
𝑃𝑚 𝑏 + 𝑃𝑚
𝑘𝑚
𝑘𝑏 The Stiffness Constant
 𝐶=
𝑘𝑏 + 𝑘𝑚 of the joint

And the resultant bolt load is:

𝐹𝑏 = 𝑃𝑏 + 𝐹𝑖 = 𝐶𝑃 + 𝐹𝑖

And the resultant member load is:

𝐹𝑚 = 𝑃𝑚 − 𝐹𝑖 = (1 − 𝐶)𝑃 − 𝐹𝑖

Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering Design, 10th Ed.

CH 8 (R1) Page 10 of 15
  Note that these relations are valid only when (𝐹𝑚 < 0), meaning that the
members are still under compressive load and did not get separated.
 If the external load is large enough to separate the members, then the entire load
will be carried by the bolt: 𝐹𝑏 = 𝑃 (this should not happen).

Statically Loaded Tension-Joints with Preload

 For a bolt subjected to an external load “𝑃” and having a preload “𝐹𝑖 ”, the tensile
stress is found as:
𝐶 𝑃 + 𝐹𝑖
𝜎𝑏 =
𝐴𝑡
 The limiting value of 𝜎𝑏 is the Proof Strength “𝑆𝑝 ”, therefore the static factor of
safety “𝑛𝑝 ” can be calculated as:
𝑆𝑝 𝑆𝑝 𝐴𝑡
𝑛𝑝 = =
𝜎𝑏 𝐶 𝑃 + 𝐹𝑖
 However, such factor of safety is not very useful since it is expressed based on the
stress in the bolt which is due to both the pre-load and external load. A more
useful definition will be a “load factor” of safety that indicates how many times
the external load can be increased (since the pre-load value will remain constant)
and that can be found as:

𝐶 (𝑛𝐿 𝑃) + 𝐹𝑖
= 𝑆𝑝
𝐴𝑡
Thus,
𝑆𝑝 𝐴𝑡 − 𝐹𝑖
𝑛𝐿 =
𝐶𝑃
Where 𝑛𝐿 is the Load Factor (i.e. the load “𝑃” can be increased “𝑛𝐿 ” times for
the stress to reach 𝑆𝑝 ).

 It is also necessary to ensure that separation will not occur (if separation occurs, the
bolt will carry the entire load).
 Separation occurs when:
𝐹𝑚 = 0 = (1 − 𝐶)𝑛𝑜 𝑃 − 𝐹𝑖

Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering Design, 10th Ed.

CH 8 (R1) Page 11 of 15
 Thus,
𝐹𝑖
𝑛𝑜 =
𝑃(1 − 𝐶)
Where 𝑛𝑜 is the Load Factor guarding against joint separation.

 Both load factors 𝑛𝐿 & 𝑛𝑜 should be calculated, and the smaller of the two will be
the load factor of safety for the joint.

 According to standard, the recommended value of preload is given as:

0.75 𝐹𝑝 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑛𝑜𝑛𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 (𝑟𝑒𝑢𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑓𝑎𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑠)
𝐹𝑖 = {
0.9 𝐹𝑝 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠
Where 𝐹𝑝 is the Proof Load: 𝐹𝑝 = 𝑆𝑝 𝐴𝑡
 If the preload “𝐹𝑖 ” is set according to the recommended value, then it is less likely
that separation will happen before the stress reaches the proof strength (unless
high strength fasteners are used).

Relating Bolt Torque to Bolt Tension (Preload)

Applying preload to the bolt (by tightening) is very important where it increase the
strength of the joint by preventing separation of the members.
 It is important to relate the torque used in tightening the bolt to the amount of the
preload developed in the bolt in order to ensure that the preload is sufficient and
that it did not exceed the allowable value.
 The relation between torque and preload is given as:
𝑇 = 𝐾 𝐹𝑖 𝑑
Where “𝐾” is the Torque Coefficient and it is given as:
𝑑𝑚 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜆 + 𝑓 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝛼
𝐾 = ( )( ) + 0.625𝑓𝑐
2𝑑 𝑙 − 𝑓 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜆 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝛼
 Note that this is similar to the relation used for power screws which Acme
threads. The angle 𝛼 is the thread angle where its standard value is 30˚ and 𝑓𝑐 is
the coefficient of friction between the bolt head or nut and the clamped material
or washer.

Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering Design, 10th Ed.

CH 8 (R1) Page 12 of 15
  On average, 𝑓 = 𝑓𝑐 = 0.15 and this gives a torque coefficient of 𝐾 = 0.2
regardless of the bolt size.
 Table 8-15 gives the 𝐾 values for different types of bolts.

See Example 8-4 from text

Shear Joints

In many cases, joints can (and should) be loaded in shear only such that no additional
tensile stress is introduced in the fasteners (only the preload).

 In shear joints, the shear load is carried by the friction between the members which
is introduced by the clamping force (the preload).
 If the friction is not sufficient, the shear will be carried by the fasteners (in reality
even when a number of fasteners are used at the joint, only two fasteners will carry
the load because of the errors in holes size and location).
 If locational-pins (dowel pins) or rivets are used for the shear joint, the shear load
will be distributed between them.

 In order to analyze the shear joints subjected to moment, the relative center of
rotation between the two members needs to be determined.
 For a pattern of fasteners of different sizes, the center of
rotation (Centroid) is found as:
𝐴1 𝑥1 + 𝐴2 𝑥2 + 𝐴3 𝑥3 + ⋯
𝑥̅ =
𝐴1 + 𝐴2 + 𝐴3 + ⋯
𝐴1 𝑦1 + 𝐴2 𝑦2 + 𝐴3 𝑦3 + ⋯
𝑦̅ =
𝐴1 + 𝐴2 + 𝐴3 + ⋯

Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering Design, 10th Ed.

CH 8 (R1) Page 13 of 15
 For a shear joint loaded by a shear force and a moment,
each fastener will carry two shear components:
- Primary shear (due to the shear load).
- Secondary shear (due to the moment).

 The shear load will be divided evenly between the

fasteners (assuming all fatteners have the same area and same 𝐸) and each will
have:
Primary shear 𝐹𝑛′ = 𝑉⁄𝑛

where 𝑛 is the number of fasteners.

 The moment introduces secondary shear in the fasteners

and the value of the secondary shear (assuming all
fatteners have the same area and same stiffness) depends
on the distance of the fastener from the center of rotation
“G” where the closer fastener to “G”, the less load it carries:

Secondary shear 𝑀𝑟𝑛

𝐹𝑛′′ =
𝑟𝑎2 + 𝑟𝑏2 + 𝑟𝑐2 + ⋯

 The two components are added using vector summation to

find the magnitude of the resultant shear force on each
fastener and to identify the critical fastener carrying the most
amount of shear force:

𝐹𝑅 = ‖𝐹⃗𝑛′ + 𝐹⃗𝑛′′ ‖ = √𝐹𝑛′ 2 + 𝐹𝑛′′ 2 + 2 𝐹𝑛′ 𝐹𝑛′′ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃

 If the threaded portion of the fastener is passing through

the shear interface, then the shear stress in the fastener
“𝜏” is found as:
𝐹𝑅 Shear interface
𝜏=
𝐴𝑟
where 𝐴𝑟 is the Root Diameter Area (Table 8-1 or 8-2).

Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering Design, 10th Ed.

CH 8 (R1) Page 14 of 15
 If the un-threaded portion of the fastener passes through the shear interface, then
the shear stress is found by dividing by the nominal area 𝐴𝑑 .

See Example 8-7 from text

Bolted and Riveted Joints Loaded in Shear

• Riveted and bolted joints loaded in shear are treated exactly alike in design and analysis.

Figure 8–23
Modes of failure in shear
loading of a bolted or riveted
connection: (a) shear loading;
(b) bending of rivet; (c) shear
of rivet; (d) tensile failure of
members; (e) bearing of rivet
on members or bearing of
members on rivet; ( f ) shear
tear-out; (g) tensile tear-out. (a) (b) (c) (d )

(e) (f) ( g)

• Figure 8–23a shows a riveted connection loaded in shear. Let us now study the various means by which this
connection might fail.

• Figure 8–23b shows a failure by bending of the rivet or of the riveted members. The bending moment is
approximately M 5 Fty2, where F is the shearing force and t is the grip of the rivet, that is, the total
thickness of the connected parts. The bend-ing stress in the members or in the rivet is, neglecting stress
concentration,

M
s5 (8–52)
Iyc

Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering Design, 10th Ed. Page 15 of 16

CH 8 (R1)
where Iyc is the section modulus for the weakest member or for the rivet or rivets, depending upon which
stress is to be found. The calculation of the bending stress in this manner is an assumption, because we do not
know exactly how the load is distrib-uted to the rivet or the relative deformations of the rivet and the members.
Although this equation can be used to determine the bending stress, it is seldom used in design; instead its effect
is compensated for by an increase in the factor of safety.

• In Fig. 8–23c failure of the rivet by pure shear is shown; the stress in the rivet is
F
t5 (8–53)
A
where A is the cross-sectional area of all the rivets in the group. It may be noted that it is standard practice in
structural design to use the nominal diameter of the rivet rather than the diameter of the hole, even though a
hot-driven rivet expands and nearly fills up the hole.

• Rupture of one of the connected members or plates by pure tension is illustrated in Fig. 8–23d. The
tensile stress is

F
s5 (8–54)
A

where A is the net area of the plate, that is, the area reduced by an amount equal to the area of all the rivet
holes. For brittle materials and static loads and for either ductile or brittle materials loaded in fatigue, the
stress-concentration effects must be included. It is true that the use of a bolt with an initial preload and,
sometimes, a rivet will place the area around the hole in compression and thus tend to nullify the effects of
stress concentration, but unless definite steps are taken to ensure that the preload does not relax, it is on
the conservative side to design as if the full stress-concentration effect were present. The stress-
concentration effects are not considered in structural design, because the loads are static and the materials
ductile.
In calculating the area for Eq. (8–54), the designer should, of course, use the combination of rivet or
bolt holes that gives the smallest area.

• Figure 8–23e illustrates a failure by crushing of the rivet or plate. Calculation of this stress, which
is usually called a bearing stress, is complicated by the distribution of the load on the cylindrical surface
of the rivet. The exact values of the forces act-ing upon the rivet are unknown, and so it is customary to
assume that the components of these forces are uniformly distributed over the projected contact area
of the rivet. This gives for the stress
F
s52 (8–55)
A
where the projected area for a single rivet is A 5 td. Here, t is the thickness of the thinnest plate and d is
the rivet or bolt diameter.

• Edge shearing, or tearing, of the margin is shown in Fig. 8–23f and g, respectively.
In structural practice this failure is avoided by spacing the rivets at least 112 diameters away from the edge. Bolted
connections usually are spaced an even greater distance than this for satisfactory appearance, and hence this
type of failure may usually be neglected.
In a rivet joint, the rivets all share the load in shear, bearing in the rivet, bearing in the member, and shear in
the rivet. Other failures are participated in by only some of the joint. In a bolted joint, shear is taken by
clamping friction, and bearing does not exist. When bolt preload is lost, one bolt begins to carry the shear and
bearing until yielding slowly brings other fasteners in to share the shear and bearing. Finally, all participate, and
this is the basis of most bolted-joint analysis if loss of bolt preload is complete. The usual analysis involves

• Bearing in the bolt (all bolts participate)

• Bearing in members (all holes participate)
• Shear of bolt (all bolts participate eventually)
• Distinguishing between thread and shank shear
• Edge shearing and tearing of member (edge bolts participate)
• Tensile yielding of member across bolt holes
• Checking member capacity
Page 16 of 16
Design of Permanent Joints
This chapter introduces permanent joining methods which include: welding, soldering,
cementing, bonding, etc.

Permanent joining usually leads to significant savings over non-permanent joining

(because of the elimination of fasteners and holes).

Welding Symbols
Welding symbols are used on drawings to indicate the type and specifications of the
weldments.

 Figure 9-1 shows the American Welding Society (AWS) standard welding symbol.
The most important features of the welding symbol are illustrated below:

 The table below shows the Basic weld symbol for the different types of welds.

 Figures 9-3, 4, 5 show some examples for the use of welding symbols.
 In general, there are two types of welds; butt welds and fillet welds.
- Fillet welds are the most used type for machine elements.
- Butt welds are usually used for pressure vessels.

Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering Design, 10th Ed.

CH 9 (R1) Page 1 of 6
 Since welding is associated with a significant increase in temperature, there will be
some metallurgical changes in the parent material in the vicinity of the weldments.
 Thus, when checking for failure of the parent material in the vicinity of the
weldments, it is recommended to use the properties of Hot-Rolled (HR) material
even if the material is Cold-Drawn (CD).
 Also, residual stresses might be introduced during welding because of clamping or
sometimes because of the order of welding.

Butt and Fillet Welds

 For a Butt weld subjected to tensile force or shear force;

 The normal stress is found as:
𝐹
𝜎=
ℎ𝑙
Where ℎ: Throat of the weld
(Does not include the reinforcement)
𝑙: Length of the weld

 The average shear stress is found as:

𝐹
𝜏=
ℎ𝑙

 The reinforcement causes stress concentration and therefore it should be

removed by grinding or machining if the joint is subjected to fatigue loading.

 For a Fillet weld loaded in tension;

 The forces in each weldment will have
two components. Normal force “𝐹𝑛 ”
and Shear force “𝐹𝑠 ”where their
magnitudes change with the angle.

 From equilibrium the magnitudes are found to be:

Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering Design, 10th Ed.

CH 9 (R1) Page 2 of 6
 𝐹𝑛 = 𝐹 cos 𝜃

𝐹𝑠 = 𝐹 sin 𝜃

 From trigonometry the throat “𝑡” is found as:

ℎ
𝑡=
𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃
 Therefore, at any angle 𝜃 there are normal stress “𝜎” and shear stress “𝜏” where;
𝐹𝑛 𝐹𝑛 𝐹𝑠 𝐹𝑠
𝜎= = & 𝜏= =
𝐴 𝑙𝑡 𝐴 𝑙𝑡

 The values of 𝜎 & 𝜏 depend on 𝜃 and using Von Mises stress, the maximum
stress is found to occur at 𝜃 = 62.5°.
 However this analysis procedure is too complicated and the geometry of
weldments is not uniform.

 Instead, a simplified (conservative) approach is used for design purposes.

 The approach ignores the normal stresses and assumes that the external force is
carried as shear stress only on the smallest throat area of the weldment (the
smallest value of “𝑡” @ 𝜃 = 45°).
 Conservative because all the external force is assumed to cause shear stress
knowing that the shear strength is almost half of the normal strength.

 According to this approach, the shear stress is found as:

𝐹 𝐹 1.414 𝐹
𝜏= = =
𝑙𝑡 𝑙 (ℎ 𝑐𝑜𝑠45) 𝑙ℎ

 The same equation is also used to calculate the shear stress

when a fillet weld is loaded in shear.

 For a welded joint loaded with eccentric force there will be,
in general, more than one shear stress component acting
on the weldments where there will be a primary shear due to the force itself and a
secondary shear resulting from the moment or torque produced by the force.

Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering Design, 10th Ed.

CH 9 (R1) Page 3 of 6
Stresses in Welded Joints in Torsion

For a welded shear joint such as the shown there will be two
shear stress components in the weldments.

 Primary shear (due to the shear force).

𝑉
𝜏′ =
𝐴
Where 𝐴 is the total throat area of all the welds.

 Secondary shear (due to the twisting moment “the torque”).

𝑀𝑟
𝜏 ′′ =
𝐽

Where: 𝑟 is the distance from the centroid of the weld group to the point of
interest.
𝐽 is the polar moment of inertia of the weld group (based on the throat
area) about the centroid of the group.

 The centroid can be located as:

𝐴1 𝑥1 +𝐴2 𝑥2 +𝐴3 𝑥3 +⋯
𝑥̅ =
𝐴1 +𝐴2 +𝐴3 +⋯
𝐴1 𝑦1 +𝐴2 𝑦2 +𝐴3 𝑦3 +⋯
𝑦̅ =
𝐴1 +𝐴2 +𝐴3 +⋯
 To make the calculation easier, the polar moment of inertia for some common
welding patterns is given in tables.
 Table 9 - 1 gives the location of the centroid and the unit polar moment of
inertia “𝐽𝑢 ” for some common weld shapes.
 𝐽𝑢 is the polar moment of inertia for a line (assuming unit width).
 Since the minimum throat width for a fillet weld is (0.707 ℎ) then 𝐽 is found
as:
𝐽 = 0.707 ℎ 𝐽𝑢

See Example 9-1 from text

Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering Design, 10th Ed.

CH 9 (R1) Page 4 of 6
Stresses in Welded Joints in Bending

For the cantilever beam welded to a support using fillet wilds

as shown, the welds will be subjected to two components of
shear stress.

 Primary shear (due to the shear force).

𝑉
𝜏′ =
𝐴

Where 𝐴 is the total throat area of all the welds.

 Secondary shear (due to the tensile force produced by the bending moment).
𝑀𝑐
The moment will cause a bending stress of magnitude 𝜎 = . However,
𝐼
according to the conservative approach we use, all the force acting on fillet weld is
assumed to be carried as shear force on the throat area of the weld.
 Thus we can write;

𝑀𝑐
𝜏 ′′ =
𝐼

Where: 𝑐 is the distance from the neutral axis of the weld group to the point of
interest.
𝐼 is the moment of inertia of the weld group (based on the throat area)
about the neutral axis of the group.

 Table 9 - 2 gives the location of the centroid and the unit moment of inertia “𝐼𝑢 ”
for some common weld shapes.
 The moment of the inertia of the throat area is found as:

𝐼 = 0.707 ℎ 𝐼𝑢

Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering Design, 10th Ed.

CH 9 (R1) Page 5 of 6
The Strength of Welded Joints

The electrode materials (filler material) are standardized and they are usually chosen
such that they have higher strength than the parent materials.

 Table 9 - 3 gives the minimum properties for the AWS electrode classes.
 It should be noted that the table gives the “tensile” yield strength of the
electrode material.
 The “shear” yield strength is found using the distortion energy theory as:

𝑆𝑦𝑠 = 0.577 𝑆𝑦

 The welding code includes a 1.6 design factor for the allowable shear stress in
weldments: 𝜏𝑎𝑙𝑙 = (0.577 𝑆𝑦 )⁄1.6
 Table 9 - 6 gives the allowable shear stress in fillet welds for the different
electrode classes (with 1.6 design factor included).

 As mentioned earlier, the parent material in the vicinity of the weldment will be
subjected to high temperatures and thus its properties might change. Therefore, if
the parent material is Cold-Dawn it will be heat treated and thus it will have
properties similar to a Hot-Rolled material (in the vicinity of the weldment).
 According to the welding code, the allowable values of shear & normal stresses in
the base material are:

𝜏𝑎𝑙𝑙 = 0.4 𝑆𝑦 & 𝜎𝑎𝑙𝑙 = 0.6 𝑆𝑦 𝑆𝑦 of the base material

 The procedure for evaluating the strength of welded joints is as follows:

 Find the primary shear stress due to external forces.
 Find the secondary shear stress due torsion and/or bending moments.
 Add the primary and secondary shear stress components using vector summation.
 Find the strength of weldments, and thus the allowable load.
 Find the strength of the parent material and thus the allowable load.

See Examples 9-2 & 9-4 from text

Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering Design, 10th Ed.

CH 9 (R1) Page 6 of 6