Thesis Writing

15
Statistical Treatment

Module 015 Statistical Treatment

Objectives
1. To discuss the commonly used statistical tools
2. To design an appropriate statistical treatment for the study

Introduction
Statistical treatment is the culmination of the long process of
formulating a hypothesis, constructing the instrument, as well as collecting
data. It is very important to properly test the hypothesis and the answer the
questions posed by the research and to present the result of the study in a
clear and understandable manner. In a qualitative research, data are
presented in a purely verbal form, particularly in document analysis,
ethnomethodology, and observation studies. However, in a qualitative
research, in which the research is dealing with numerical data, as in not
surveys and experiments, it is logical to use statistical treatment.

Branches of Statistics
1. Descriptive statistics. It involves tabulating, depicting, and
describing a collection of data. The data are summarized to reveal
overall patterns and to make them easily manageable.
2. Inferential statistical. It involves making generalizations about
the population through a sample drawn from it. It also involves
hypothesis testing and sampling. Similarly, it is concerned with
higher degree of critical judgment and advanced mathematical
mode such as using parametric (interval and ratio scale) or non-
parametric (nominal and ordinal) statistical tools.

Course Module
Summary of Statistical Tools
No. of Variables Levels of Measurement

Nominal Ordinal Interval Ratio

Univariate

Tables Frequency and Frequency and Frequency and Frequency and

percentage percentage percentage percentage
Charts Pie chart and bar Bar graph Histogram, stem Histogram, stem
graph and leaf display, and leaf display,
and box plot and box plot

Central tendency Mode Mode and Mean, median, Mean, median,

Median and mode and mode
Variations Index of Range and Range, SD, Range, SD,
dispersion interquartile variance, variance,
range coefficient of coefficient of
variation variation

Bivariate

Tables Crosstabs Crosstabs None None

Association Lamba and Tau Gamma and Tau- Pearson’s r and Pearson’s r and
c coefficient of coefficient of
determination determination

It is also important that the researcher knows how to differentiate the

data he/she is to collect so he/she can choose the appropriate statistical
test/s.

Common Statistical Tools

Descriptive Statistics
1. Frequency distribution. In refers to the number of individuals or
cases located in each category on the scale of measurement.
2. Proportion. It is total frequency divided by the number of cases in
each category. It can be derived from the frequency distribution.
3. Percentage. It is the proportion expressed in % (proportion x
100).
4. Measures of central tendency. They indicate where the center of
the distribution tends to be located. The central tendency refers to
the typical or average score in a distribution.
a. Mode. It is the most frequently occurring score in a
distribution.
b. Median. It is the middlemost value in a distribution below or
above in which exactly 50% of cases are found is called
medium.
c. Mean. It is the exact mathematical center of a distribution. It is
equal to the sum of all scores divided by the number of cases.
5. Variability or Dsipersion. It refers to the extent and manner in
which the scores in a distribution differ from each other.
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Statistical Treatment

a. Range. It is the difference between the highest value and the

lowest value in the given distribution.
b. Average Deviation. In is a measure of variation that takes into
consideration the deviations of the individual scores from the
mean.
c. Variance. It is the square of the standard deviation.
d. Standard deviation. It is the square root of the quotient of the
total squared deviation of the mean and the total number
cases.
Inferential Statistics
1. Parametric tests. These tests require a normal distribution. The
level of measurements must either be interval or ratio.
a. t-test. This test is used to compare two means: the means
of two independent samples or two independent groups or
the means of two correlated samples before and after the
treatment. It can be used for samples composed of at least
30 elements.
b. Z-test. It is used to compare two means: the sample mean
and the perceived population mean. It can be used when
the sample has 30 or more elements.
c. f-test. Also known as the analysis of variance (ANOVA), this
is used when comparing the means of two or more
independent groups. One-way ANOVA is used when there is
one variable involved, and two-way ANOVA is used when
there are two variables involved.
d. Pearson product-moment correlation coefficient. It is
an index of relationship between two variables.
e. Simple linear regression analysis. It is used when there
is a significant relationship between x and y variables. This
is used in predicting the value of y given the value of x.
f. Multiple regression analysis. It is used in predictions. The
dependent variable can be predicted given several
independent variables.
2. Non-parametric test. It does not require the normal distribution
of scores. It can be utilized when the data are nominal or ordinal.
a. Chi-square test. It is a test of difference between the
observed and the expected frequencies.

Three Functions of the Chi-square Test

1. The test of goodness of fit. The is a test of difference between the
observed and the expected frequencies.
2. The test of homogeneity. It is concerned with two or more
samples with only one criterion variables. This test is used to
determine if two or more populations are homogenous.
Course Module
 3. The test of independence. The sample used in this test consists
of members randomly drawn from the same population. This test
is used to look into which measures are taken or if two criterion
variables are either independent or associated with one in a given
population.

Examples of Statement of the Problem with its Corresponding Statistical

Tool.
1. What is the demographic profile of the elementary pupils in terms
of:
a. Age
b. Civil status
c. Age
Statistical Tool: percentages
2. What is the level of effectiveness of information, education, and
communication in the awareness of nursing mothers considering
the following variables:
a. Academic institutions
b. Media
c. Health workers
Statistical Tool: weighted mean

3. What is the significant relationship between religious belief and

the effectiveness of information, education, and communication on
natural family planning?
Statistical Tools: frequency, percentage, weighted mean, t-test, chi-
square test.
4. What is level of performance of engineering students in their
licensure examination?
Statistical Tool: average weighted mean
5. How varied are the scores of the secondary students in their final
examinations?
Statistical Tool: measures of variability
6. How significantly different are the performances of private
institutions and the governmental institutions?
Statistical Tool: t-test for two independent samples
7. How significantly different is the effect of anesthesia on the length
of time it takes for a patient to fall asleep?
Statistical Tool: t-test for independent samples
8. What is the significant relationship between the pre-test and
posttest scores of accounting students in their qualifying
examinations?
Statistical Tool: Pearson product-moment correlation coefficient
9. How does the number of hours spent for reviewing significantly
relate to the performance in licensure examination?
Statistical Tool: Spearman rank order correlation coefficient
10. What is the level of practicum performance of students as
compared to their academic performance in major subjects?
Statistical Tool: simple regression
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Statistical Treatment

11. How will the nursing students perform in the hospital based on
their academic and RLE grades and their nursing licensure exam
ratings?
Statistical Tool: multiple regression
12. What is the significant difference in the weights of newly bred
animals in the four different cages?
Statistical Tool: f-test (one way ANOVA)
13. How significantly different are the three pedagogical methods in
teaching Related Learning Experience to four groups of students?
Statistical Tool: two-factor ANOVA
14. What is the significant difference in the evaluation between the
clinical instructors and the student participants?
Statistical Tool: chi-square test
15. What are the factors affecting the productivity of employees in
textile factories at the Subic Bay Freeport?
Statistical Tool: factor analysis

Statistical Treatment Example 1 (Cristobal, 2003)

The data gathered were presented in tabular forms to answer the
specific problems in Chapter I. The tabulated data were submitted to the
programmer at the University of the Philippines Computer Center, UP,
Diliman, Quezon City. The Statistical analysis system (SAS) model was used.
Appropriate statistical treatment was used to analyzed the data.
1. Profile- frequency and percentages
2. Levels of Intrapersonal and interpersonal competencies and
school effectiveness- mean and standard deviation.
3. Relationships and interrelationships- correlation procedures
` Pearson product-moment correlation coefficient was utilized to
obtain r, which was shown by the correlation matrix to establish the
relationships and interrelationships of the school manager’s profile,
intrapersonal and interpersonal competencies, and school effectiveness. It
likewise utilized the Garret’s verbal description in interpreting the obtained r
as shown below.

r from 0.00 to .20 = Denotes indifferent or negligible relationship

r from 0.20 to .40 = Demotes present but slight relationship

r from 0.40 to .70 = Denotes marked or substantial relationship

r from 0.70 to 1.00 = Denotes high to very high relationship

r of 1.00 = Denotes perfect relationship

Course Module
 Factors that affect school effectiveness- Factor analysis
Factor analysis was used to identify underlying traits or construct
called “factors” to which observed measures are related. Observed measures
correlated to the same underlying factors. The correlations of the observed
measures to underlying factors are called factor loadings. The appreciable
factor loading used in this study was 0.30.
Statistical Treatment Example 2 (Abergas, 2006)
To answer the research problems, the following statistical methods
are to be employed:
1. Percentage. This is to get the proportion of the whole.
Formula: Percentage (%)=f/N x 100
Where: f - stands for the frequency of responses
N– number of participant
2. Weighted Mean. This is to arrive at a verbal description of each
item in the three (3) selected checklist.
Formula: WM = TWF/N
Where: WM – weighted mean
TWF- total weighted frequency of responses
N –number of responses
The interpretation of means is based on this table:

Unit Class Interval Interpretation

4 3.4 – 4 Strongly Agree

3 2.6 – 3.3 Agree

2 1.8 – 2.5 Moderately Agree

1 1.0 – 1.7 Disagree

2. The chi-square is to be used to find out if there are significant

differences in the variation of clinical instructors and that of the
students.

Formula: (Calmorin, 1996):

Where: – chi-square
O – observed frequency
E – expected frequency
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Statistical Treatment

3. The Pearson product-moment coefficient of correlation

formula is to be adopted to test whether the three constructs of
leadership are interrelated:
Formula:
√ ∑ ∑ ∑
r= ∑ ∑ ∑ ∑
Where: r - coefficient of correlation
x and y – scores
N – size samples

References:
Books and Journals

Bakas, T., Champion, V., perkins, S., Farran, C., & William, L. (2006).
Psychometric testing of the revised 15-otem Bakas Caregiving Outcomes
Scale. Nursing Research, 55 (5), 346-355.

Briggs, A.R. J., & Coleman, M. (Eds.). (2002). Research methods in

educational leadership and management. London: Sage Publications

Calmorin, L. P., & Calmorin, M. A. (2003) Methods of Research and thesis

writing. Manila: Rex Bookstore.

Catane, J. A. (2000). Conducting research: A practical application (rev. ed).

Quezon City: JMC Press Inc.

Coleman, M., & Briggs, A. (2002). Research methods in educational

leadership and management. London: Paul Chaplan Publishing

Glatthorn, A. A. (1998). Writing the winning dissertation. A step-by-step

guide. Corwin Press, Inc.Katkuvienė, L. E., & Šeškauskienė, I. 1999. Writing
a research paper. The student’s guide. Vilnius

Grodner, M. Roth, S., & De Young, S. (2005). Foundations and clinical

application of nutrition: A nursing approach. Singapore: Elsevier Pte. Ltd.,
Health Service Asia.

Kubiszyn, T., & Borich, G. (2007). Educational testing and measurement:

Classroom application and practice (8th ed.) USA: John Wiley and Sons, Inc.

Lileikienė, A., Šaparnis, G., & Tamošiūnas, T. (2004). Magistro darbo

rengimo metodika. Šiauliai: Šiaulių universiteto leidykla.

Course Module
McMillan, J. H. (1996). Educational research: fundamentals for the
consumer (2nd ed.). New York: HarperCollins.

Nieswiadomy, R. (2004). Foundations of nursing research (4th ed.). Upper

Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.

Parel, C. (1973). Sampling design and procedures. New York: Agricultural

Development Council, p. 53

Polit, D., & Beck, C. T. (2004). Nursing research: Principles and methods.
Philadelphia, PA: Lippinocott Williams & Wilkins, Inc.

Sanchez, C. A. (2002). Methods and techniques of research (rev. ed.) Quezon

City: Rex Printing Co. Inc.

Sevilla, C. G et al. (2003). An introduction to research methods. (rev.ed.).

Quezon City: Rex Publishing Co.

Treece, E. W. & Treece, J. W. (1986). Elements of research in nursing.

Toronto: The C. V. Mosby Company.

Verikaitė, D. (2006). Writing an MA paper. Guidelines for students of

English Philology. Vilnius: VPU.