FATS, LIPIDS, AND CARBOHYDRATES
LIPIDS 15. Some eicosanoids act as immune-
OCCURRENCE
- Lipids are present in humans,
animals, plants, and micro-
organisms to some extent. Animal
fat, egg yolk, butter and cheese are
lipids of animal origin, vegetable, or
cooking oils and vanaspati are lipids
are plant origin.
MEDICAL AND BIOLOGICAL
IMPORTANCE
1. Fat under skin serve as thermal
insulator against cold.
2. Fat around kidney serve as padding
against injury.
3. Fat serves as a source of energy for
man like carbohydrates.
4. Fat is an ideal form for storing
energy in the human body compared
to carbohydrates and proteins
because:
a) Energy content of fat is
higher.
b) Only fat can be stored in a
concentrated water free form
which is not possible with
carbohydrates and proteins
5. Lipids are structural components of
cell membrane and nervous tissue.
6. Some lipids serve as precursors for
the synthesis of complex molecules.
For example, acetyl-CoA is used for
the synthesis of cholesterol.
7. Lipoproteins, which are complexes
of lipids and proteins are involved in
the transport of lipids in the blood
and components of cell membrane.
8. Some lipids serve as hormones and
fat-soluble vitamins are lipids.
9. Fats are essential for the absorption
of fat-soluble vitamins.
10. Fats serve as surfactants by
reducing surface tension.
11. Eicosanoids which have profound
biological actions are derived from
the essential fatty acids.
12. Lipids present in myelinated nerves
act as insulators for propagation of
depolarization wave.
13. Some saturated fatty acids are anti-
microbial and anti-fungal agents.
14. Lipids are an important group of
antigens of parasites that cause
filariasis, cysticercosis,
leishmaniasis and schistosomiasis in
India and other Third World
countries. Anti-lipid antibodies are
found in the blood of individuals
affected with these diseases.
modulators and mitogens.
16. Saturated free fatty acids (SFFAs)
are pheromones of animals like tiger
etc.
Chemical Nature of Lipids
• Lipids are the group of greasy
organic compounds, which are
soluble in organic solvents like
chloroform, ether and benzene but
insoluble in water.
• They are fats, waxes, compound
lipids, steroids, fatty acids and fat-
soluble vitamins.
• A lipid is a fat-like substance but
need not be a fatty acid always.
SIMPLE LIPIDS- They are esters of fatty
acids with alcohols. Fats and waxes are
example for simple lipids. An ester is formed
when acid reacts with alcohol.
FATS- They are esters of fatty acids with
glycerol. They are also called as
triglycerides or triacylglycerols because all
the three hydroxyl groups of glycerol are
esterified. Fats are also called as neutral
fats.
Structure-
The chemical structure of triglyceride or fat
consist of three molecules of fatty acids
esterified with one molecule of glycerol. All
the three fatty acids can be same or
different.
Nomenclature of Triglycerides
• The carbon atoms of glycerol of
triglycerides are indicated with both
Indo-Arabic numbers and Greek
alphabets
A. Simple triglyceride. If all the three fatty
acids esterifed to glycerol are same then it
is called as simple triglyceride (Fig. 6.2a).
Example:
• Tripalmitin in which glycerol is
esterified to three molecules of
palmitic acid (Fig. 6.2a). Other
names to tripalmitin are 1,2,3-
tripalmityl glycerol or α,β,α1-
tripalmitin.
• Tristearin is another simple
triglyceride.
 FATS, LIPIDS, AND CARBOHYDRATES
B. Mixed triglyceride. If the three fatty
acids esterified to glycerol are different than
it is called as mixed triglyceride (Fig. 6.2b).
Functions of Triglycerides
1. They function as storage lipids in
animals and in plants.
2. In man adipose tissue or fat tissue
found under the skin, in the
abdominal cavity and in the
mammary gland contain
triacylglycerols. The entire
cytoplasm of adipocyte is replaced
by triacylglycerol.
3. In other animals and plant cells also
triacylglycerols are found as tiny
droplets in cytosol.
4. The fat stored under the skin serve
as energy store and as insulator
against cold.
5. Women have more fat than men.
6. In obese (fat) people, many
kilograms of triacylglycerol is stored
under the skin.
7. The Antarctic and Arctic animals like
seals and penguins appear bloated
because of high concentration of
triglycerides in their bodies
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF
TRIGLYCERIDES
• Pure fats have no color, taste and
odor.
• At room temperature, fat of plant
origin remains oil because it
contains more unsaturated fatty
acids whereas animal fat remains as
solid, because it contains mostly
saturated fatty acids.
• Triglycerides containing asymmetric
carbon atom are optically active.
ANTIOXIDANTS-
 Like vitamin E and ascorbic acid
prevent peroxide formation. They
are added to food fats to improve
storage quality.
 In the body also lipid peroxides are
formed. Free radicals mediate lipid
peroxide formation in the body.
 Diseases like cancer, diabetes,
atherosclerosis are due to the
formation of lipid peroxides in the
body.
Waxes
Structure
• Waxes are esters of fatty acids with
long chain alcohol.
Examples:
(a) Lanolin or wool fat is a mixture of
fatty acid esters of long chain alcohols
lanosterol and agnosterol.
(b) Cholesterol ester is wax present in
the blood (lipoprotein) and cell
membranes.
(c) Bees wax is an ester of palmitic acid
with myricyl alcohol.
Functions
• Waxes serve as protective coatings
on skin, fur and feathers of animals,
birds and on fruit and leaves of
plants. Shiny appearance of fruits
and leaves is due to waxes.
• Waxes act as water barrier for
animals, birds and insects. Further
wax is hard in cold climate and soft
in hot climate.
• Since wool is a wax woolen clothing
provides protection against cold.
Marine organisms use wax as
source of energy.
COMPOUND LIPIDS
• They are esters of fatty acids with
alcohol containing nitrogenous
bases and additional groups. Based
on alcohol compounds lipids are
subdivided into:
(a) Glycerophospholipids
(b) Sphingo lipids. Compounds lipids
are also divided into phospholipids
and glycolipids.
GLYCEROPHOSPHOLIPIDS OR
PHOSPHOLIPIDS
• They contain two molecules of fatty
acids esterified to first and second
hydroxyl groups of glycerol. The
third hydroxyl group of glycerol is
 FATS, LIPIDS, AND CARBOHYDRATES
esterified to phosphoric acid. Further
a nitrogen base or second alcohol is
also esterified to phosphoric acid.
• Glycerophospholipid without second
alcohol is known as phosphatidic
acid. Some glycerophospholipids are
named according to second alcohol
or nitrogen base and they are
considered as derivatives of
phosphatidic acid. They are
phosphatidyl choline, phosphatidyl
serine, phosphatidyl ethanolamine
and phosphatidyl inositol. The fatty
acid combinations are different in
each of these phospholipids
Phosphatidylcholine
Structure
• It contains two fatty acids esterified
to first and second hydroxyl group of
glycerol. The third hydroxyl is
esterified to phosphoric acid to
which second alcohol choline is also
esterified. Phosphatidylcholine is
also called as lecithin. Lecithin
contains a saturated fatty acid at C-1
position and unsaturated fatty acid at
C-2 position.
Function:
• It is the major phospholipid of cell
membrane. It is also present in egg
yolk and lipoproteins.
DERIVED LIPIDS
• As the name implies, they are
formed from simple and compound
lipids by hydrolysis. They are fatty
acids, steroids, glycerol and retinol.
Fatty Acids
• They are acids derived from fats.
They are monocarboxylic acids
containing long hydrocarbon side
chain. Based on the nature of
hydrocarbon side chain, they are
divided into:
A. Saturated fatty acids
B. Unsaturated fatty acids
(a) Saturated fatty acids: In which
hydrocarbon side chain is saturated
(no double bonds).
(b) Unsaturated fatty acids: In which
hydrocarbon side chain is
unsaturated (one or more double
bonds are present).
Fatty acids are also divided based on
hydrocarbon chain length. They are
(a) Short chain fatty acids Fatty acids
containing less than six carbon atoms.
(b) Medium chain fatty acids Fatty acids
containing 6-12 carbon atoms.
(c) Long chain fatty acids In which
hydrocarbon chain contains 13-20 carbon
atoms.
(d) Very long chain fatty acids In which
hydrocarbon chain contain 22-30 carbon
atoms.
Fatty acids of natural fats contain an even
number of carbon atoms. Small amounts of
fatty acids with odd number of carbon atoms
also occurs.
ESSENTIAL FATTY ACIDS
• They are not systhesized in the
body. So they must be obtained from
diet. They are also called as poly
unsaturated fatty acids (PUFA).
They are linoleic acid (LA), linolenic
acid (LNA) and arachidonic acid
(AA).
Functions
• 1. They are essential for the
synthesis of eicosanoids.
• 2. They are also required for
membrane lipids.
Medical Importance
1. Dietary essential fatty acids have
blood cholesterol lowering effect.
2. Deficiency status of essential fatty
acids are rare with normal diet.
However, deficiency of these in rats
causes poor growth, reproductive
disorders and dermatitis.
3. Lipid transport may be impaired.
4. Infants consuming formula diets are
susceptible to deficiency of essential
fatty acids. They may develop skin
abnormalities.
STEROIDS- Steroids are complex
molecules containing four fused rings. The
four fused rings makeup
‘cyclopentanoperhydrophenanthrene’ or
‘sterane’ ring. Sterane ring is also called as
steroid nucleus. The most abundant
steroids are sterols which are steroid
alcohols.
 FATS, LIPIDS, AND CARBOHYDRATES
CHOLESTEROL
Structure
• In animal tissue, cholesterol is the
major sterol. Cholesterol is 3-
hydroxy-5, 6-cholestene. It is found
in bile (chol-bile). In a normal 65 Kg
adult, 200 gm of cholesterol is
present. Brain is rich in cholesterol.
It is also present in spinal cord and
neurons. Egg yolk is also rich in
cholesterol. Steroids are called as
non-saponifiable lipids because they
contain no fatty acids and they
cannot form soaps.
Functions
• Cholesterol and its esters are
important components of cell
membrane and lipoproteins.
• Steroids with diverse physiological
functions are derived from
cholesterol. Some of them are given
below:
a) Vitamin D 7-
dehydrocholesterol derived
from cholesterol is provitamin
of vitamin D.
b) Bile acids They are required
for the formation of bile salts.
c) Hormones of adrenal
cortex They are cortisol,
corticosterone and
aldosterone. They are
derived from cholesterol.
d) Female sex hormones They
are progesterone and
estrogen.
e) Male sex hormones They
are testosterone and
androsterone
Other Noteworthy Steroids
1. Ergosterol Provitamin of vitamin D
found in yeast and plants.
2. Sitosterol Present in plants.
3. Cardiac glycosides like ouabain and
streptomycin an antibiotic.
4. Coprostanol found in feces is
derived from cholesterol.
5. Wool fat sterols like agnosterol and
lanosterol.
EICOSANOIDS
• They are derived from
eicosapolyenoic fatty acid like
arachidonic acid. They are
prostanoids, leukotrienes (LTA) and
lipoxins (LX). The prostanoids
include prostaglandins (PG),
prostacyclins (PGI) and
thromboxanes (TXA). Often word
prostaglandins is used to indicate all
prostanoids.
Prostaglandins
• Since they are initially found in
prostate gland they are named as
prostaglandins. But later they are
identified in all cells and tissues
except erythrocytes.
Thromboxane
Structure
 They are so named because they
are identified first in thrombocytes.
FUNCTIONS OF EICOSANOIDS
• They function as local hormones.
They act on several organs and
produce physiological as well as
pharmacological effects.
1. Heart PGE class
prostaglandins increases
cardiac output and
myocardial contraction.
2. Blood vessels Prostaglandins
(PGE) maintain blood vessel
tone and arterial pressure.
3. Blood pressure PGA and
PGE class prostaglandins
lower blood pressure. So,
they may be useful as anti-
hypertensive agents.
4. Brain PGE class
prostaglandins produce
sedation and tranquilizing
effect in cerebral cortex.
5. Kidney PGA and PGE class
prostaglandins increases
excretion of Na+, K+ and CI-.
They may increase urine
volume by increasing plasma
flow.
 FATS, LIPIDS, AND CARBOHYDRATES
6. Lungs Prostaglandins dilate
bronchi, so they are useful in
the treatment of asthma.
7. Nose Prostaglandins relieve
nasal congestion.
8. Stomach Prostaglandins
decreases acid secretion in
stomach. So, they are useful
in the treatment of peptic
ulcers.
9. Uterus. Prostaglandins
induces contraction of uterine
muscle. So, they are used in
the termination of pregnancy.
Prostaglandins also has role
in fertility.
10. Metabolism Prostaglandins
influences several
metabolisms by altering
cAMP level. For example,
they inhibit lipolysis in
adipocyte by increasing
cAMP level.
11. PGE class prostaglandins
are involved in inflammation.
12. Prostacylins inhibit platelet
aggregation.
13. Thromboxanes causes
platelet aggregation and clot
formation.
14. Leukotreins are involved in
the regulation of neutrophil
and eosinophil function. They
act as mediators of
immediate hyper sensitivity
reaction. The slow reacting
substance of anaphylaxis
(SRS-A) is a leukotriene.
Some leukotrienes act as
chemotactic agents. Lipoxins
are vasoactive and immuno-
regulatory substances.
15. Thromboxane A2 regulates
acquired immunity. It causes
construction of smooth
muscle cells. It is a mitogen.
LIPOPROTEINS
• They are lipid protein complexes
found in plasma. They are non-
covalent assemblies. The protein
part of lipoprotein is called as
apolipoprotein or apoprotein. The
apoprotein and lipids are held
together by non-covalent forces.
Functions of Lipoproteins
• Lipoproteins are involved in the
transportation of lipids in the body.
• Chylomicrons They transport
dietary or exogenous triglycerides
from intestine to liver.
• Very low density lipoproteins
(VLDL) They are involved in the
transport of endogenous
triglycerides from liver to extra
hepatic tissues.
• Low density lipoproteins (LDL)
LDL is the major vehicle for the
transport of cholesterol from liver to
extra hepatic tissues.
• High density lipoproteins (HDL)
HDL is the major vehicle for the
transport of cholesterol from extra
hepatic tissues to the liver.
CARBOHYDRATES
Occurrence
• Carbohydrates are present in humans,
animal tissues, plants and in micro-
organisms. Carbohydrates are also present
in tissue fluids, blood, milk, secretions and
excretions of animals.
MEDICAL AND BIOLOGICAL
IMPORTANCE
1. Carbohydrates are the major source
of energy for man. For example,
glucose is used in the human body
for energy production.
2. Some carbohydrates serve as
reserve food material in humans and
in plants. For example, glycogen in
animal tissue and starch in plants
serves as reserve food materials.
3. Carbohydrates are components of
several animal structure and plant
structures. In animals,
carbohydrates are components of
skin, connective tissue, tendons,
cartilage and bone. In plants,
 FATS, LIPIDS, AND CARBOHYDRATES
cellulose is a component of wood
and fiber.
4. Some carbohydrates are
components of cell membrane and
nervous tissue.
5. Carbohydrates are components of
nucleic acids and blood group
substances.
6. Carbohydrates are involved in cell-
cell interaction.
7. Derivative of carbohydrates are
drugs. For example, a glycoside
ouabain is used in clinical medicine.
Streptomycin an antibiotic is a
glycoside.
8. Aminosugars, derivatives of
carbohydrates are components of
antibiotics like erythromycin and
carbomycin.
9. Ascorbic acid, a derivative of
carbohydrate is a water-soluble
vitamin.
10. 10. Bacterial invasion involves
hydrolysis of mucopolysaccharides.
11. . Survival of Antarctic fish in icy
environment is due to presence of
anti- freeze glycoproteins in their
blood.
Classification of Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates are classified into three
major classes based on number of carbon
chains present. They are:
1. Monosaccharides
2. Oligosaccharides
3. Polysaccharides
MONOSACCHARIDES - Monosaccharides
are those carbohydrates which can not be
hydrolyzed to small compounds. Their
general formula is Cn(H2O)n. They are also
called as simple sugars. Monosaccharides
containing three to nine carbon atoms occur
in nature.
Nomenclature
 Monosaccharides have common
(trivial) names and systematic
names.
 Systematic name indicates both the
number of carbon atoms present
and
aldehyde or ketone group.
 For example, glyceraldehyde is a
simple sugars containing three
carbon atoms and a aldehyde group.
 Simple sugars containing three
carbon atoms are referred as
trioses.
 In addition, sugars containing
aldehyde group or keto group are
called as aldoses or ketoses,
respectively. Thus, the systematic
name for glyceraldehyde is
aldotriose. Similarly, a simple sugar
with three carbon atoms and a keto
group is called as ketotriose.
GLUCOSE - The most abundant
monosaccharide found in nature is in
fact glucose. It is the most abundant
organic compound on earth.
We can find glucose in varies fruits,
honey and even in starch and cane
sugar. We obtain a large part of the
energy in our bodies from glucose
through the foods we eat. It is an
aldohexose, which means it has six
carbon atoms in its molecule. Its
C H O
chemical formula is 6 12 6
FRUCTOSE - Fructose is a simple ketonic
monosaccharide. We mostly find fructose in
plants and their fruits, flowers and root
vegetables, hence earning it a moniker of
fruit sugar.
It is also abundantly present in honey and
corn syrup. Generally, fructose bonds with
glucose to form a disaccharide we know as
sucrose. Fructose was first discovered by a
 FATS, LIPIDS, AND CARBOHYDRATES

French chemist Augustin – Pierre

Debrunfaut.

GALACTOSE
• Galactose is a monosaccharide produced
in many organisms, especially mammals.
 Mammals use galactose in milk, to
give energy to their offspring.
Galactose is combined with glucose
to form the disaccharide lactose.
 The bonds in lactose hold a lot of
energy, and special enzymes are
created by newborn mammals to
break these bonds apart. Once
being weaned of their mother’s milk,
the enzymes that break lactose
down into glucose and galactose Lactose
monosaccharides are lost. Structure
 It contains one glucose and one galactose.
OLIGOSACCHARIDES
• They consist of 2-10 monosaccharide Source for lactose
units. The monosaccharides are joined Lactose is synthesized in mammary gland
together by glycoside bonds. Most important and hence it occurs in milk.
oligosaccharides are disaccharide
Sucrose
DISACCHARIDES Structure
•They provide energy to human body. They It contains glucose and fructose.
consist of two monosaccharide units held
together by glycosidic bond. So, they are Source of sucrose
glycosides. Most common disaccharides are Ripe fruit juices like pineapple, sugar cane,
maltose, lactose and sucrose juice and honey are rich sources for
sucrose. It also occurs in juices of sugar
beets, carrot roots and sorghum.

Other Disaccharides

Isomaltose- It contains two glucose units.

Glycosidic linkage is α(1→6). Isomaltose is
the disaccharide unit present in glycogen,
amylopectin and dextran.

Maltose Cellobiose - It also contains two glucose

Structure
• It contains two glucose units. The
anomeric carbon atom of first glucose and
carbon atom 4 of the second glucose are
involved in glycosidic linkage.
Source for maltose
• Maltose is present in germinating cereals
and in barley. Commercial malt sugar
contains maltose. It may be formed during
the hydrolysis of starch.
units but they are joined in β(1→4) linkage.
It is formed from cellulose.
Trehalose - It also contains two glucose
units. The glycosidic linkage is α(1→1). So,
it is a non-reducing Disaccharide. It is a
major sugar of insect hemolymph. In fungi it
serves as reserve food material.
Other Oligosaccharides
 Beans and peas contain some
oligosaccharides. These
oligosaccharides contain 4 to 5
monosaccharide units.
 FATS, LIPIDS, AND CARBOHYDRATES
• Stachyose and verbascose are a
few such oligosaccharides. Usually
these oligosaccharides are not
utilized in human body.
• Oligosaccharide chains are also
found in glycoproteins where they
have important functions.
Oligosaccharides are also important
constituents of glycolipids present in
cell membrane.
POLYSACCHARIDES
• •They are polymers of
monosaccharides. They contain
more than ten monosaccharide
units. The monosaccharides are
joined together by glycosidic linkage.
Classification of Polysaccharides
• Polysaccharides are classified on
the basis of the type of
monosaccharide present. The two
classes of polysaccharides are
homo-polysaccharides and hetero-
polysaccharides.
(a) Homopolysaccharides.
They are entirely made up of
one type of
monosaccharides. On
hydrolysis, they yield only
one kind of monosaccharide.
(b) Heteropolysaccharides.
They are made up of more
than one type of
monosaccharides. On
hydrolysis they yield more
than one type of
monosaccharides.
Homopolysaccharides
• Important homopolysaccharides are
starch, glycogen, cellulose, dextran and
inulin and chitin. All these contain glucose
as repeating unit. Other name for
homopolysaccharides are homoglycans.
Starch
Structure
• It consists of two parts. A minor amylose
component and a major amylopectin
component.
• Amylose is a straight-chain polymer of
glucose units. α(1->4) glycosidic linkage is
present between glucose units.
Function
1. It is the major polysaccharide
present in our food.
2. It is also called as storage
polysaccharide because it serves as
reserve food material in plants.
3. It is present in food grains, tubers
and roots like rice, wheat, potato and
vegetables.
Glycogen
Structure
 The structure of glycogen is similar
to that of amylopectin of starch.
However, the number of branches in
glycogen molecule is much more
than amylopectin
 There is one branch point for 6-7
glucose residues.
Function
1. It is the major storage polysaccharide
(carbohydrate) in human body.
2. It is mainly present in liver and
muscle.
3. It is also called as animal starch.
Cellulose
Structure
 It has linear chain of glucose
residues, which are linked by B (1--
>4) glycosidic linkage.
 It occurs as bundle of fibres in
nature.
 The linear chains are arranged side
by side and hydrogen bonding
between adjacent stands stabilizes
the structure.
Function
1. It is the most abundant
polysaccharide in nature.
2. It is found in fibrous parts of plants
like wood, cotton and straw.
Dextran
Structure
 It has structure similar to
amylopectin.
 In the linear part, glucose units are
linked by a(1- >6) glycosidic bond
and a(1->3) glycosidic linkage is
present between glucose unit at
branch points.
Function
• It is polysaccharide present in bacteria.
Medical importance
 FATS, LIPIDS, AND CARBOHYDRATES
 To maintain plasma volume dextran
is used in clinical medicine.
 Dental plaque is due to dextran
synthesized from sucrose by oral
bacteria.
Inulin
 (a) Structure. It is a polysaccharide
composed of fructose. b(1->2)
glycosidic linkage is present
between fructose units.
 (b) Function. It is present in tubers of
chicory, dahlia and in the bulb of
onion and garlic.
 Inulin is used to determine
glomerular filtration of kidney.
 • It is present in vitreous body of eye.
Medical importance
Chitin
 (a) Structure. A polysaccharide
composed of N-acetyl glucosamine.
Glycosidic linkage is b(1->4).
 (b) Function. It is an important
structural polysaccharide of
invertebrates like crabs, lobster and
insects.
HETEROPOLYSACCHARIDES
 They are also called as
mucopolysaccharides and
glycosaminoglycans.
Mucopolysaccharides consist of
repeating disaccharide units. The
disaccharide consists of two types
monosaccharides.
 The mucopolysaccharides are
component of connective tissue.
Hence, they are often referred as
structural polysaccharides.
 The mucopolysaccharides are also
found in mucous secretions. The
mucopolysaccharides combines with
proteins like collagen and elastin
and forms extracellular medium or
ground substance of connective
tissue.
 Mucopolysaccharides are also
components of extracellular matrix of
bone, cartilage and tendons. The
complex of mucopolysaccharide and
protein is called as proteoglycan.
 Mucopolysaccharides also function
as lubricants and shock absorbers.
Hyaluronic Acid (HA)
Structure
• The repeating disaccharide of
hyaluronic acid consist of glucuronic
acid and N- acetylglucosamine.
Functions
• It is present in synovial fluid and
function as lubricant.
• It is also present in skin, loose
connective tissue, umbilical cord and
ovum.
1. As the age advances hyaluronic acid
is replaced by-dermatan sulfate in
synovial fluid. Dermatan sulfate is
not a good lubricant, hence age-
related pains develop in old people.
2. In young people, vitreous is clear
elastic gel in which hyaluronic acid is
associated with collagen. As the age
advances the elasticity of vitreous is
reduced due to decreased
association between collagen and
hyaluronic acid. As a result, vision is
affected in older people.
3. Hyaluronic acid of tumor cells has
role in migration of these cells.
4. Hyaluronic acid is involved in wound
healing (repair). In the initial phase
of wound healing (repair), hyaluronic
acid concentration increases many
folds at the wound site.
5. It allows rapid migration of the cells
to the site of connective tissue
development.
6. Hyaluronic acid helps in scar less
repair. If suitable levels of HA are
maintained during wound healing
scar formation is reduced or even
prevented.
7. HA content of skin decreases as age
advances this is the reason for
increased susceptibility of aged
people for scar formation.
8. Pneumonia, meningitis and
bacteremia causing pathogenic
bacteria contains hyaluronte lyase.
Hydrolysis of HA by this enzyme
facilitates invasion of host by these
bacteria.
 FATS, LIPIDS, AND CARBOHYDRATES

CHONDROITIN from pancreatic trypsinogen like

Functions protease.
Chondroitin sulfates are components of
cartilage, bone and tendons.
• They are also present in the cornea
and retina of the eye.
• Chondroitin sulfate content decreases

in cartilage as age advances.

HEPARIN
Structure
 The repeating disaccharide unit of
heparin consist of glucosamine and
either iduronic acid or glucuronic
acid.
 Majority of uronic acids are iduronic
acids. Further amino groups of
glucosamine is sulfate.

Functions
1. Heparin is a normal anti-coagulant
present blood.
2. It is produced by mast cells present in
the arteries, liver, lung and skin.
3. Unlike other glycosaminoglycans, heparin
is an intracellular component.

GLYCOPROTEINS

• They are found in mucous fluids, tissues,

blood and in cell membrane. They are
proteins containing short chains of
carbohydrates. The carbohydrate chains are
usually oligosaccharides.

1. Oligosaccharide present on the

surface of erythrocytes are
responsible for the classification of
blood groups. They determine blood
group and hence they are called as
blood group substances.
2. Oligosaccharides determine the life
span of proteins.
3. Cell-cell recognition depends on
oligosaccharide chains of
glycoproteins.
4. Glycoproteins of some invertebrates
function as anti-freezing agents.
They are known as antifreeze
glycoproteins (AFGPs). One such
glycoprotein is identified in Antarctic
fishes. It is very essential for their
survival in such sub zero
environment that exist at Antarctica.
It is present in the blood of the
Antarctic fishes. It prevents freezing
by binding to ice, which enables
these fishes to survive in the
surrounding icy environment. It is
surprising that this protein arose