FIRST QUARTER EARTH SCIENCE
the solar system; composed of rock, dust, and
Lesson 1
ORIGIN OF THE SOLAR SYSTEM
● The big bang started the universe 13.8 billion
years ago.
● Galaxies began to take shape 1 billion years
later.
● Earth is 4.54 billion years old.
● Meteorites – formed at the same time as the
rest of the solar system.
1. ENCOUNTER THEORY
- Earliest hypotheses
4.6 billion years ago…
● Rogue star passed near the Sun.
● Materials in the form of hot gas (nebula)
are tidally stripped away from the Sun and
the rogue star.
● Materials continue to spin in the same
direction as the sun, and fragments into
smaller lumps which formed the planets.
- This hypothesis explains why the planets
all revolve in the same direction and why
the inner planets are denser than outer
planets.
Problems with this theory:
1. Cannot explain how encounters between
stars would occur and;
2. How lumps of hot gas contract to form
planets.
How does the Sun produce Energy?
Fusion.
Atoms → The sun has a strong gravity. →
Gravity pulls atoms together. → When two
atoms get close together, they merge and fuse
to become a new atom.
Photon – electromagnetic wave that has
energy and expands outward as a sphere
shaped wave.
Rogue star materials — less dense. become
outer solar system plants.
Inner Solar System material — denser,
becomes terrestrial plants.
Sun — Star at the center of the solar system
Nebula — Latin for “cloud” or “fog”; interstellar
cloud of dust, hydrogen, helium, and other
ionized gases.
Orderliness of the solar system — the
members of the solar system move in a common
direction in elliptical orbits; The elliptical orbits for
all the planets lie in almost the same plane (flat).
🌱 Comet — frozen leftovers from the formation of
ice.
Bode’s Law
● Ascribed to J. E. Bode (1747-1826)
● Not a physical law but only a convenient rule
for recalling the distances of the planets from
the sun.
Angular momentum of a planet — product of
its mass, speed, and distance from the axis of
rotation.
Terrestrial planet Giant Planet
- Inner planets - Large planets of relatively
- Rocky planets low density.
- Denser than giant - Consisting predominantly
planets of hydrogen and helium,
- Earth, Venus, - Such as Jupiter, Saturn,
Mercury, Mars. Uranus, or Neptune.
Meteorite
● Remnants of materials from which the solar
system was derived.
● Solid piece of debris from an object such as a
comet, asteroid, or meteoroid.
OTHER THEORIES RELATED TO ENCOUNTER HYPOTHESIS
Collision Theory: George Buffon (1749)
● Envisioned the sun devoid of a planetary
system
● Collided with a comet that came from the
depths of interstellar space at some point
● The collision ripped several ‘drops’ from the
earth Eventually condensed into planets
Tidal Theory: Jeans-Jeffrey Hypothesis
● Replaced the earlier hypothesis by replacing
the comet with a star that supposedly came
very close to the sun.
● Its gravitational pull and resulting tidal force
ripped the sun’s body apart like a ribbon.
● The ribbon-like structure spun around the sun
as the star moved away from it, condensing
into planets.
Chamberlin-Moulton Planetesimal Theory
● Described the Sun colliding with another star.
● Force of the moving star tears a series of
bolts from the solar surface.
● Bolts from the side of the star closest to it are
flung out to great distances and form giant
planets.
● Those from the Sun’s side form terrestrial
planets.
● Initial cores of the planets were created from
the inner remains of these bolts which
eventually developed into planets by
gathering in the planetesimals.
● Outer parts expanded and cooled, creating a
vast swarm of solid particles that spread out
in a disk revolving around the Sun in a plane
defined by the motion of moving stars.
Otto Schmidt’s Accretion Theory
● The Sun went through a thick interstellar
cloud and emerged with a dusty, gaseous
envelope, which later became the planets.
● Cannot clarify how planets and satellites
were created.
M.M. Woolfson’s Capture Theory
● The Sun pulls a filament of material from a
nearby proto-star, which becomes the
planets.
Harold Urey
● Compositional studies on meteorites led to
the conclusion that meteorite constituents
have changed very little since the solar
system’s early history.
2. NEBULAR HYPOTHESIS
- Most widely accepted theory
- Consistent
- Emanuel Swedenborg, Immanuel Kant,
Pierre-Simon Laplace are the founders
(18th century)
● The Solar System began as a huge cloud of
gas and dust.
● The Solar System began 4.5 billion years
ago as a vast cloud of gas and dust that
collapses under self-gravity (gravitational
collapse) with gravitational forces
overcoming the forces associated with gas
pressure that would expand it.
● Due to conservation of angular
momentum, the nebula accelerates and
spins faster as it contracts, transforming into
a massive spinning disk with a high
concentration in the center.
● The rising temperature eventually provided
enough energy to cause nuclear fusion,
which resulted in the birth of the sun
● As the cloud of gas and dust cooled, the
nebula started to shrink. The centrifugal
force from the nebula’s rotation and the
gravitational force from the cloud’s mass
caused the nebula to spin faster, casting off
rings of gas and creating a disk-like shape.
● The sun, which has the most mass, became
luminous enough. Then the gas and dust
rings are blown into space and condensed
into planetesimals, which shape the different
densities of planets and their satellites
orbiting the sun to form the solar system.
Common Theme:
- Involves an unlikely encounter between the
Sun and another celestial body such as a
comet, a star, a protoplanet, or an
interstellar cloud;
- Neglects the premise of the Encounter
hypothesis;
- Incorporates more basic physics.
Problems with this theory:
1. The outer planets hold the majority of the
angular momentum in the Solar System. In
comparison, the Sun contains 99% of the
Solar System’s mass, but the planets
contain 99% of its angular momentum.
2. The mechanism from which the disk turns
into individual planets, if planet formation is
a natural part of star formation, most stars
should have planets.
Gravitational collapse — contraction of an
astronomical object due to the influence of its
own gravity, which tends to draw matter inward
toward the center of gravity.
From the nebula — the solar system starts.
Spinning of nebula — occurs as a result of the
conservation of angular momentum.
Sun’s temperature — allows the chemical
makeup of planets to differ.
Gravitational forces — inertial force; “fictitious”
or “pseudo” force; appear to act on all objects
when viewed in a rotating frame of reference.
Nuclear fusion — a reaction in which two or
more atomic nuclei are combined to form one or
more different atomic nuclei and subatomic
particles (neurons or protons).
Centrifugal force — an apparent force that acts
outward on a body moving around a center,
arising from the body’s inertia.
Retrograde — spins in opposite direction of its
orbit; Venus
Prograde — spins in the same direction as its
orbit; Earth Protoplanet — a large body of matter in orbit
around the sun or a star and thought to be
developing into a planet.
3. PROTOPLANET HYPOTHESIS
Chondrules — Clumps of dust larger than a
- Present working model grain of wheat, are flash-heated into droplets of
- Built on the main concepts of the nebular molten rock deep within the disc.
hypothesis and concepts based on new
knowledge on fluids and states of matter. Its transformation — difference between
planetesimal and protoplanet.
● The Solar System began with a fragment
from an interstellar cloud of gas and dust
composed mainly of hydrogen, helium, and
trace amounts of the light elements.
● Fragments of the interstellar cloud formed
the dense central region of the solar nebula
which contracted, rotated more rapidly,
conserving its angular momentum. It also
grew by accretion as material continued to
fall inward from its surroundings.
● The solar nebula eventually evolved into the
sun.
● Gravitational instabilities ruptured the thin
disk into eddies, each containing many
small particles which built up and accreted.
● As the accretion continued, larger
asteroid-sized aggregates called
planetesimals were formed, which orbited
the center of the solar nebula.
● These planetesimals further grew in size
due to the gravitational attraction they
exerted on one another, forming moon-sized
bodies called protoplanets that would later
become planets.
● Protoplanets are made up of frozen water,
ammonia, methane, silicon, aluminum, iron,
and other metals encased in hydrogen and
helium in rock and mineral grains,
depending primarily on their initial distance
from the sun as they are formed.
● Mercury’s mantle is destroyed by
high-speed collisions with huge objects, and
Venus is thrown into retrograde rotation.
The collision of the Earth with a large object
produces the moon. The moon’s
composition is quite similar to the Earth’s
mantle, which supports this theory.
● Terrestrial planets formed near the central
portion of the solar nebula, where the
temperatures were high enough to vaporize
all compounds in the dust except the
high-temperature metallic and silicate
minerals in the inner portion of the disk.
● The gas giants on the other hand, formed in
the outer disk which remained relatively
cooler, allowing them to be rich in volatile,
icy, and gaseous materials.

Accretion — process of solid particles sticking

together to form a larger particle.

Eddy — a fast, circular movement of gas and

dust.

Planetesimal — a minute planet; a body that

could or did come together with many others
under gravitation to form a planet.
Lesson 2
Earth’s subsystems and the
flow of matter and energy
● Earth is a complex system of interrelating
physical, chemical, and biological processes.
● There are sets of interconnected components
that interact to form a whole.
● Earth is comprised of four major smaller
systems: atmosphere, geosphere,
hydrosphere, and biosphere.
Atmosphere
● Atmosphere serves as the Earth's blanket.
● Its name is rooted from the Greek word atmos
which means gas, and sphaira which means
globe or ball.
● It is composed of gases in varying amounts
and its relative abundance is also crucial in
different parts of the earth.
● The air in the atmosphere is generally
composed of 78% nitrogen, 21% oxygen,
0.9% argon, and the remaining 0.10% is made
up of different trace gases and vapor.
● The amount of oxygen we breathe in is about
21%, and the amount we breathe out is 16.4%
oxygen.
● Serves as the Earth's protection from harmful
UV rays and keeps the planet warm through
greenhouse gasses.
● Atmosphere is affected by the Earth's gravity,
so this is the reason why as the altitude
increases, the amount of gases in the
atmosphere decreases.
● Composed of layers namely: troposphere,
stratosphere, mesosphere, thermosphere, and
exosphere.
Geosphere
● Geosphere comes from the Greek word geos
meaning ground. It pertains to the solid part of
the earth.
● It is divided into three layers: crust, mantle,
and the core.
● It is composed of naturally occurring solid
aggregate of minerals, organic material, or
natural glass called rocks.
● Also composed of loose particles of rocks that
enveloped the surface of Earth, called
regolith.
● It contains all the soil, rocks, and minerals
present in the crust to the core of the Earth.
● It comprises the geologic landforms such as
mountains and hills.
Hydrosphere
● Hydrosphere comes from the Greek word
hydro which means water.
● It is composed of all the water on Earth in any
form (water vapor and liquid water).
● Another part of this subsystem is the
permanently frozen parts called the
cryosphere.
● Earth is the only planet in the solar system that
is known to contain water in all three phases.
● Water on earth is constant and consistently
moving because of temperature and salinity.
● It also plays an important role in absorption
and redistribution of solar radiation.
● It also extends to the deep parts of the oceans
where marine organisms can still survive.
● It is also in this zone that the interaction
between the different subsystems is most
dynamic. (dynamic = constant change)
Biosphere
● Biosphere comes from the Greek word bios
meaning life.
● It is composed of all living things and the areas
where they are found.
● It includes all animals, microbes, and plants. It
extends to the upper areas of the atmosphere
where insects and birds can be found.
● Matter and energy flows and cycle between
the four subsystems to sustain and make life
on Earth possible. Both of it can flow across
the boundaries of each subsystem
● The geosphere is where the rocky part of the
earth is in contact with water, air, and life.
● In the biosphere, each organism plays an
important role in the food web. If one is lost,
then the others will be affected.
It is also generally where the spheres
intersect and affect each other. The processes
that move matter and energy from one sphere
to another are called as sphere interactions.
Changes in any sphere greatly affect the other
spheres as well since all the spheres are
interconnected systems.
The four subsystems are closely linked
through the biogeochemical cycles which
involve biological, geochemical, and chemical
factors. These cycles are alleyways by which
substances move through biotic, which is
biosphere, and abiotic which are geosphere,
atmosphere, and hydrosphere, components of
earth.
It allows the circulation of important nutrients
that form and support life like carbon, oxygen,
nitrogen, phosphorus, calcium, and water. It
also maintains the balance of substances in
the different subsystems of the Earth. Any
interference and disturbances in the flow of
matter and energy may cause damage to any
of the subsystems and its components.
.
Characteristics of earth that are
necessary to support life
● Earth has existed for 4.543 billion years.
● During its early formation, life is not possible
because the environment does not permit it.
● As time goes by, microorganisms formed into
more complex organisms.
● Life on earth is possible due to the following
factors:
WATER
- Most important ingredient in biological
processes.
- Absence of water will interfere with reactions
necessary for life.
- Solid form (ice) hinders living organisms from
using it. Solid (ice) in the 2 poles and liquid
along the equator. (can be consumed.)
ATMOSPHERE
- Provides chemicals needed for life: carbon
dioxide, nitrogen.
- Provides insulation/shielding from the sun
and impact of small to medium size
meteorites.
- Greenhouse gases like carbon dioxide (CO2)
and methane (CH4) traps heat and avoid our
planet from freezing.
- The Ozone (O3) layer shields the Earth’s
surface from harmful UV radiation.
- Size and distance from the sun affects the
ability of the Earth to hold a significant
amount of atmosphere.
- Earth’s size and distance from the sun is just
right which permits it to have the right amount
of atmosphere.
- Presence of gravity also sustains the
atmosphere.
TEMPERATURE
- Influences how quickly atoms, molecules, or
organisms move.
- Low temperature: slows down chemical
reactions, produces icE.
- High temperature: breakdown of important
biological molecules.
- Earth’s temperature is just right.
NUTRIENTS
- Essential factor used to build and maintain an
organism's body structurE.
- Insufficient amounts can impede synthesis of
biological molecules.
- Volcanism helps in cycling nutrients.
- Water, carbon, and oxygen are some
examples of nutrients
ENERGY
- Earth has rich sunlight to support life.
- Living organisms like plants and
photosynthetic bacteria use light as a source
of energy.
- Chemosynthetic organisms rely on chemical
energy to support biological processes.
- Earth’s position from the sun is just right to
enable it to harness enough sunlight.
Lesson 4.1
minerals
Mineral is a naturally formed, inorganic solid
with a definite chemical composition and an
ordered crystalline structure.
Characteristics of Minerals:
1. Non-living
■ Minerals are inorganic.
■ This means that they are not made of living
things or their remains.
2. Solid
■ Minerals are not gases or liquids.
3. Have a crystalline structure
■ Minerals are crystal.
■ Each mineral has a certain crystal structure
that is always the same.
4. Forms naturally
■ Minerals are not made by people.
5. Have a defined chemical composition
■ The same mineral has the same chemical
composition that can be expressed by a
chemical formula.
COMPOUND — It is a substance made of two
or more elements that are chemically bonded.
For example, the mineral halite is a compound of
sodium, Na, and chlorine, Cl.
NATIVE ELEMENT — A few minerals, such as
gold and silver, are made of only one element. A
mineral that is made up of only one element.
Each element is made of only one kind of atom.
An atom is the smallest part of an element that
has the properties of that element.
CRYSTALS — Remember that minerals have a
definite crystalline structure. This means that the
atoms in the mineral line up in a regular pattern.
The regular pattern of the atoms in a mineral
causes the mineral to form crystals. Crystals are
solid, geometric forms of minerals that are
formed by repeating a pattern of atoms.
Shapes of Crystal:
- It depends on how the atoms in it are
arranged.
- The atoms that make up each mineral are
different. However, there are only a few ways
that atoms can be arranged. Therefore, the
crystals of different minerals can have similar
shapes.
- Although different minerals may form similar
shapes, each mineral forms only one shape
of crystal. Therefore, geologists say that a
mineral has a definite crystalline structure.
This means that crystals of a certain mineral
always form the same shape.
Lesson 4.2
PROPERTIES OF MINERALS
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF MINERALS
1. Luster
2. Hardness
3. Color and streak
4. Crystal form and habit
5. Cleavage and fracture
6. Specific gravity
1. LUSTER
- The way a surface reflects light.
- When you say that something looks shiny,
you are describing its luster.
- A mineral can have a metallic, submetallic,
or nonmetallic luster.
2. HARDNESS
- A mineral’s resistance to being scratched.
- Scientists use the Mohs hardness scale to
describe the hardness of minerals.
- The harder a mineral is to scratch, the
higher its rating on the Mohs scale.
- Talc, one of the softest minerals, has a
rating of 1.
- Diamond, the hardest mineral, has a
rating of 10.
3.1 COLOR
- The same mineral can have many different
colors.
- For example, the mineral quartz can be
clear, white, pink, or purple.
- Minerals can also change colors when they
react with air or water.
- For example, pyrite (“fool’s gold”) has a
golden color
3.2 STREAK
- The color of a mineral in powdered form.
- You can find a mineral’s streak by rubbing
the mineral against a piece of unglazed
porcelain.
- Streak plate - The piece of unglazed
porcelain.
- The mark left on the streak plate is the
streak.
- Streak is a more useful property than color
for identifying minerals. This is because the
color of a mineral’s streak is always the
same.
- For example, the color of the mineral
hematite may vary, but its streak will always
be red-brown.
4. CLEAVAGE AND FRACTURE
- Different minerals break in different ways.
- The way that a mineral breaks depends on
how its atoms are arranged.
- Cleavage - When some minerals break, the
surfaces that form are smooth and flat.
- Fracture - Other minerals break unevenly,
along curved or rough surfaces.
5. DENSITY
- A measure of how much matter is in a given
amount of space.
- It is usually measured in grams per cubic
centimeter (g/cm³). For example, the density
of water is 1 g/cm³.
- Geologists often use specific gravity to
describe the density of a mineral.
- A mineral’s specific gravity is the density of
the mineral divided by the density of water
(1 g/cm3).
- For example, gold has a density of 19
g/cm3. Its specific gravity is 19.
6. CRYSTAL FORM/HABIT
 - The external shape of a crystal or groups of
crystals.
- It is the natural shape of the mineral before
the development of any cleavage or
fracture.
special PROPERTIES OF MINERALS
1. FLUORESCENCE
- Calcite and fluorite show the property of
fluorescence.
- They glow under ultraviolet light.
2. CHEMICAL REACTION
- Calcite produces a chemical reaction when
a drop of weak acid is placed on it. It fizzes
and produces gas bubbles.
3. OPTICAL PROPERTIES
- Some minerals, such as this calcite, show
optical properties.
- Images look doubled when they are viewed
through calcite.
4. MAGNETISM
- Magnetite shows the property of magnetism.
- It is a natural magnet.
- Attracts metallic objects.
5. TASTE
- Halite has a salty taste.
- Taste can be influenced by the chemical
composition.
6. RADIOACTIVITY
- Minerals that contain radioactive elements
may show the property of radioactivity.
- The radiation they give off can be detected
by a Geiger counter
Cation – a positively charged ion.
Anion – a negatively charged ion
Lesson 4.3
CLASSIFICATIONS OF
MINERALS
● Geologists classify minerals based on the
elements or compounds in the minerals.
● Two main groups of minerals are silicate
minerals and non-silicate minerals.
1. Silicates
● They are composed of silicon-oxygen
tetrahedrons (SiO4) - the fundamental
building block of silicate minerals.
● Over 90% of the rock-forming minerals
belong to this group.
● Examples: Feldspar, Mica, Olivine, Quartz,
Pyroxene
2. Oxides
● Minerals containing Oxygen anion (O2-)
combined with one or more metal ions.
● Examples: Common oxide minerals are
magnetite (Fe3O4) and Hematite (Fe2O3).
3. Sulfates
● Minerals containing Sulfur and Oxygen anion
(SO4) - combined with other ions (metal
cation).
● They usually precipitate out of water near
Earth’s surface.
● Example: Gypsum
4. Sulfides
● Minerals containing sulfur anion (S2-)
combined with one or more ions.
● Some sulfides are sources of economically
important metals such as copper, lead and
zinc.
● Examples: Covellite (Copper Sulfide), Galena
(Lead Sulfide), Wurtzite (Zinc Iron Sulfide)
5. Carbonates
● Minerals containing the carbonate anion
(CO3)2 - combined with other elements.
● It is characterized by the presence of
carbonic acid (H2CO3) which bonds
elements such as calcium or magnesium to
form calcite or dolomite.
6. Halides
● Minerals containing halogen elements
combined with one or more elements.
● Examples: Chlorine or Fluorine which forms
Halite or Rock Salt (NaCl) and Fluorite
(CaF2)
● Other Example: Dolomite
7. Native Elements
● Minerals that form as individual elements.
● Metals and Inter-metals – minerals with high
thermal and electrical conductivity, typically
with metallic luster, low hardness (gold, lead).
● Semi-metals – minerals that are more fragile
than metals and have lower conductivity
(arsenic, bismuth)
● Nonmetals – nonconductive (sulfur, diamond)
● Examples: Gold, Arsenic, Diamond
SILICATE MINERALS
■ Silicon and oxygen are two of the most
common elements in the Earth’s crust.
■ Minerals that contain compounds of silicon
and oxygen.

■ Silicate minerals make up more than 90% of
the Earth’s crust.
■ Most silicate minerals also contain elements
other than silicon and oxygen, such as
aluminum, iron, or magnesium.
The most stable and least ambiguous basis for
classification of minerals is based on their
chemical composition.
The elements listed below comprise almost 99%
of the minerals making up the Earth’s crust.
Lesson 5.1
rocks
Rocks are:
● naturally occurring, coherent aggregate of
various types of minerals or solid materials
such as natural glass or organic matter.
● naturally occurring solid aggregate of
minerals sometimes with nonmineral solid
particles.
Bedrock
● mass of consolidated rock that has not been
weathered
● may be exposed at the surface of the Earth
or may be overlain by the broken and
decomposed rock fragments (regolith).
These rock fragments, either removed by
erosion or some other surface processes, can
expose bedrocks, which are typically referred to
as outcrops.
Lesson 5.2
Classification of rocks
Igneous Rock
● Magmatic rocks
● “parent rock”
● Formed through the cooling and
solidification of magma or lava.
1. Intrusive or Plutonic igneous rocks
○ formed from solidification of magma
below the surface
○ have large crystals of minerals that
formed overtime through slow process
crystallization in a magma.
○ Granite, diorite, gabbro, pegmatite,
peridotite
 2. Extrusive or Volcanic igneous rocks 2. Non Foliated
○ formed through faster rate of ○ has no foliation or bands
solidification of lava on the surface of the ○ hornfels, marble, quartzite, novaculite
Earth
○ become glassy in appearance due to
less crystallization or vesicular like
Scoria due to the air that was trapped
inside when they solidified and formed
on the surface of the Earth
○ andesite, basalt, dacite, obsidian,
pumice, rhyolite, tuff

3. Pyroclastic rock
○ hybrid of igneous and sedimentary
○ relevant in Philippine setting because it
is a common eruptive product

Sedimentary Rock
● Formed by the deposition and cementation
of mineral or organic particles on the floor
of oceans and other bodies of water at the
Earth's surface.

CLASSIFICATION OF SEDIMENTARY ROCKS

1. Clastic sedimentary rock
○ formed from the mechanical weathering
debris of rocks
○ breccia, conglomerate, sandstone,
siltstone, shale

2. Chemical sedimentary rock

○ formed when dissolved materials
precipitate from solution
○ rock salt, iron ore, chert, flint, dolomites

3. Organic sedimentary rock

○ formed from the build-up of plant or
animal debris

Sediment — naturally occurring material that is

broken down by processes of weathering and
erosion.

Cementation — occurs when silica, calcium

carbonate, or iron oxide bonds the fragments
together

Metamorphic Rock
● Forms from existing rock types called
“parent rock” in the process called
metamorphism (change in form)
● The original rock, which can be an
igneous, sedimentary, or another
metamorphic rock is subjected to heat and
pressure causing a profound chemical or
physical change.

1. Foliated metamorphic rocks

○ formed through pressure due to
compression of rocks that create bands
called foliation
○ gneiss, phyllite, schist, slate
Lesson 6
Important minerals to
society
In households
● toothpaste contains fluoride from fluorite
● face powder containing talc
● salt to enhance flavor of food
● aluminum for kitchen utensils
● stainless wares containing mostly iron,
chromium, and carbon
● gadgets are composed of silicon, silver, and
gold
● copper is used in electrical wiring because it
is less expensive
In construction
● iron steel - iron and carbon
● concrete - limestone, lime, chalk
● glass - quartz and silica
● floors - granite and marble
● window and door panels - aluminum
In dental health
● titanium - strong, light metal used for teeth
transplant
● Gypsum - plaster cast
● Stainless steel - iron, chromium, carbon
Power plants
● nuclear power plants - uranium
● coal power plants - coal
● batteries for electric cars - nickel, copper,
lithium
Agriculture
● NPK Fertilizers - nitrogen, phosphorus,
potassium
● Lime - lowers acidity of soil
Health
● Supplements - calcium, magnesium, zinc
Minerals can also cause harm
● Talc - may contain asbestos that causes
cancer
● Nuclear power plants using radioactive
materials produce radioactive waste
● Burning of coal releases high amounts of
Carbon dioxide and other gases
● Overusing synthetic fertilizer causes
eutrophication
Lesson 7
Ore minerals: how they are
found, mined, and
processed for human use
Mining
■ Process of mineral extraction from a rock
seam or ore (a natural rock or sediment
containing one or more valuable material).
■ These minerals range from precious metals
and iron to gemstones and quartz
■ Modern mining technology uses geophysical
techniques that involve measuring the magnetic,
gravity, and sonic responses of rocks above and
around a prospective mineral ore body.
1. Surface Mining
● Used to extract minerals near the surface of
the Earth
● Soil and rocks that covered the ores are
removed through blasting
● Blasting is a controlled use of explosives and
gas exposure to break rocks
1.1 Open Pit Mining
- Most common type
- Open pit means a big hole (or pit) in the
ground.
- The pit in mine is created by blasting with
explosives and drilling.
- Used to mine gravel and sand and even
rock.
1.2 Strip Mining
- Involved the removal of a thin strip of
overburden (earth or soil) above a desired
deposit,
- Dumping the removed overburden behind
the deposit,
- Extracting desired deposit,
- Creating a second, parallel strip in the
same manner,
- And depositing the waste materials from
that second (new) strip onto the first strip
- Used for coal, phosphates, clays, and tar
mining
1.3 Dredging
- The process of mining materials from the
bottom of a body of water, including
rivers, lakes, and oceans.

2. Underground Mining
● Used to extract the rocks, minerals, and
other precious stones found beneath the
Earth’s surface.
● Miners need to create a tunnel so they
can reach the ore minerals.
● More expensive and dangerous because
miners need to use explosive devices to
remove the minerals from the rocks that
cover them.

Mineral Processing
■ It is the process of extracting minerals from the
ore, refining them, and preparing these minerals
for use. The primary steps involved in processing
minerals include:

1. Sampling – removal of a portion which

represents a whole needed for the analysis
of this material.

2. Analysis – is important to evaluate the

valuable component in an ore. This includes
chemical, mineral and particle size analysis.

3. Comminution – process where the valuable

components of the ore are separated
through crushing and grinding. This process
begins by crushing the ores to a particular
size and finishes it by grinding the ores into
a powder.

4. Concentration – involves the separation of

the valuable minerals from the raw
materials.

5. Dewatering – uses the concentration to

convert it to usable minerals. This involves
filtration and sedimentation of the
suspension and drying of the solid materials
harvested from this suspension.