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Powder Technology

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Deposition of particles in the supersonic flow past a wedge

Bofeng Bai ⁎, Xing Li
State Key Laboratory of Multiphase Flow in Power Engineering, Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an, Shaanxi, 710049, China

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: In our previous research, we find three particle motion patterns when submicron particles enter a supersonic
Received 29 November 2015 laminar boundary layer over a flat plate. In these three patterns the deposition pattern is the most intriguing
Received in revised form 25 March 2016 one because it is the lateral lift force directed to the wall that results in the particle deposition, hence the lateral
Accepted 10 August 2016
deposition. In this paper, we investigate the particle motion in the supersonic flow past a wedge instead of a flat
Available online xxxx
plate. The inertial deposition mechanism is introduced when the wedge replaces the flat plate. The inertial depo-
sition is essential for the whole deposition process. Therefore, we build a two dimensional Eulerian Lagrangian
numerical model to investigate this process. Several factors including particle initial position, wedge angle, initial
Mach number and particle size are studied. It turns out that the higher particle has a more important lateral de-
position mechanism, and as the wedge angle, initial Mach number or particle size increase, the importance of in-
ertial deposition increases. Finally, as the three particle motion still exists in the wedge cases, we also propose a
non-dimensional number to describe these patterns.
© 2016 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
The issue of motion of particles in laminar boundary layers exists in
many natural and industrial processes. Aircraft icing, which can lead to
reduced performance, loss of lift, stall and even loss of control of the air-
craft, is a vital problem in aeronautical engineering [1]. It is caused by
the supercooled water droplets impacting on the surface of the aircraft.
Before the impaction, the droplet has to cross the boundary layer which
often is a laminar one because most of the impactions occur near the
leading-edge of the wing and the inlet of the jet engine. Once striking
the surface, the droplet shows various behaviors like deposition, reflec-
tion, or break-up. And those depositing on the surface probably freeze
and ice. The present de-icing methods are either of low effect or ener-
gy-consuming. If the droplets can be prevented from depositing on
the surface, the icing problem is then solved in a more efficient way.
Therefore, the deposition mechanism of the droplet has to be investigat-
ed and revealed in the first place.
In addition to the aircraft icing, the motion of particles in supersonic
laminar boundary layers is significant in many other problems. Incom-
plete combustion of the fuel in gas turbines brings many submicron
ash particles, which may deposit on turbine blades and reduce the per-
formance of the gas turbine. The particle needs to cross the boundary
layer before its deposition. Thus, the particle motion in the boundary
layer determines the deposition to a large extent. Another problem is
the motion of the tracer particles in boundary layer experiments. In
⁎ Corresponding author.
E-mail address: bfbai@mail.xjtu.edu.cn (B. Bai).
some cases, the particles do not follow the ambient gas so well. Accurate
prediction of the trace particle motion is crucial for obtaining a correct
flow field.
Particle motion in shear flows has been studied for decades. In 1961,
Segré and Silberberg discovered the lateral migration of particles in
Poiseuille flow [2]. Since then, many scholars have been tried to reveal
the underlying mechanisms, including Saffman who obtained an ex-
pression for the lift force on a particle when it's in a linear shear flow
[3]. After that, other researchers have been proposed corrections for
Saffman's lift force expression by considering the effect of the particle
Reynolds number, nonlinearity of the shear flow, effect particle size,
wall effect, particle deformability [4,5,6,7,8]. In short, there are substan-
tial researches about this issue. Laminar boundary layer is one kind of
shear flows, and the particle in a laminar boundary layer shows similar
behaviors. Most of the researches deal with the particle motion when it
is already in the boundary layer. For the case the particle is initially out-
side the boundary layer and then goes into the boundary layer some-
way, there is little research about it. This issue is important, especially
when our focus is on the leading-edge area like the case in aircraft icing.
In our previous research, it is revealed that the submicron particle in
the incoming flow may deposit on the wall when it goes into the super-
sonic boundary layer over a flat plate [9]. At the moment the particle en-
ters the boundary layer, its velocity is larger that of the ambient gas, i.e.
the particle is leading the fluid, thus the lateral lift force is directed to the
wall. Therefore, the deposition mechanism in that case is the wall-di-
rected lateral lift force on the particle, and it can be called the lateral de-
position mechanism. However, in this research, the particle enters the
boundary layer over a wedge instead of a flat wall, in which case another

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.powtec.2016.08.026
0032-5910/© 2016 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Please cite this article as: B. Bai, X. Li, Deposition of particles in the supersonic flow past a wedge, Powder Technol. (2016), http://dx.doi.org/
10.1016/j.powtec.2016.08.026
2 B. Bai, X. Li / Powder Technology xxx (2016) xxx–xxx

deposition mechanism, i.e. the inertial deposition, comes to play a role. heat and mass transfer between the dispersed and continuous phase is
Actually, in the Stokes limit, there is no lateral lift force. Lateral lift force not a problem to be solved in this research and is not considered. Be-
is an inertial phenomenon. But we define lateral deposition mechanism sides, since the particle-wall interaction is not our main concern, we as-
here to distinguish it from the conventional inertial deposition. So the sume that the particles stick on the wall once they touch the wall.
most obvious question is how significant the inertial deposition mecha-
nism is in this physical process. 3. Numerical method and validation
The objective of this paper is to investigate the roles the two deposi-
tion mechanisms, i.e. the lateral deposition and the inertial deposition, 3.1. Numerical model
play when the particles in the incoming supersonic flow deposit on
the surface of the wedge. We use numerical tool to reveal these mecha- The numerical method we use in this research is based on the FLU-
nisms. As the particles are submicron, a two-dimensional Eulerian-La- ENT and is similar with the one in our previous research [9], so in this
grangian model with point particle approach is applied. The effects of part we briefly introduce it. For the continuous phase, it is a two-dimen-
particle initial position, wedge angle, inflow Mach number and particle sional model with mass equation, momentum equation and energy
size are studied and discussed. Finally, we examine whether the corre- equation. The Redlich-Kwong equation of state is applied for the com-
lation function we proposed for the flow past a flat plate in our previous pressible air. For the dispersed phase, the point particle approach is ap-
research [9] still holds for the flow past a wedge in this paper. plied. The particle motion equation is
The outline of this paper is as follows. First, in the problem descrip-
2
tion part, this issue is presented in detail. As the model is similar with d x
mp ¼ FD þ FS ð1Þ
the one we used in our previous research [9], it is briefly described in dt 2
the numerical method section. In the validation section, we make sure
the model is accurate. In the results section, the factors determining in which only the drag force and lift force are considered. Tedeschi et
the two mechanisms are studied and discussed in detail. Finally, in the al. proposed an expression valid for Rep b 200, Map b 1 from continuum
discussion section, the three particle motion patterns are discussed to free molecular range [12], which agrees well with the experiment
and a dimensionless number is proposed for the wedge case. and is applied in this research. The expression of this drag model is as
follows.
2. Problem description h
0:687 i
F ¼ −6πμakΔU 1 þ 0:15 kRep ξðKnÞC ð2Þ
The problem in this research can be simplified as the gas-particle
flow past a wedge, as shown in Fig. 1. The particles are uniformly dis- or
tributed in the incoming flow and have the initial velocity the same as
the ambient fluid. Then they cross the oblique shock wave and change 24 h
0:687 i
CD ¼ k 1 þ 0:15 kRep ξðKnÞC ð3Þ
their direction. As they approach the wall, some particles go into the Rep
laminar boundary layer and some do not. Our focus is on those that
enter the boundary layer. where a is the radius of the particle; μ, the dynamic viscosity of the
We assume that the particles are spherical, monodispersed and have fluid; Δ U, the relative velocity between the particle and the fluid;
a dilute dispersion, thus the particle-particle interaction and the effect ξ(Kn), the rarefied correction coefficient and C is the correction coeffi-
of the particles on the fluid is not considered here. Because in our previ- cient for high relative Mach number. The expressions of ξ(Kn) and C are:
ous research we have proved that the thermophoretic force and
Brownian force are negligible [9], these two forces are not taken into ac- 0:851Kn1:16 −1
ξðKnÞ ¼ 1:177 þ 0:177 ð4Þ
count in this paper. The effects of unsteady forces are significant when 0:851Kn1:16 þ 1
the particle-to-gas density ratio is small, and decrease as particle-to-
gas ratio increases and the initial particle Reynolds number decreases and
[10,11]. In our research, the particle-to-gas ratio is beyond 2500 and
Rep 2
e−0:225=Map
2:5
the particle Reynolds number is below 10 in most cases, so the unsteady C ¼1þ ð5Þ
forces are neglected. Magnus force is also neglected in this research. As a Rep 2 þ 100
result, two forces, i.e. drag and lift force, are considered in this study. The
In expressions (2) and (3), the coefficient k is the solution of the fol-
lowing equations:

1:687
a1 k þ a2 k−1 ¼ 0 ð6Þ

 pffiffiffi0:687
9 dp Kn 2a S π
a1 ¼ 0:15 ð7Þ
4 a ε0 dp Kn

9 dp Kn
a2 ¼ 1 þ ð8Þ
4 a ε0
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
where dp is the particle diameter, S ¼ U 0 = 2RT ∞ is the molecular
pffiffiffi
speed ratio, ε0 ¼ 3ð π=S0Þð1 þ S02 Þerf ðS0Þ=8 þ e−S0 =4 and S ′ = (1− k)S.
2

So far Saffman's lift force expression can meet the requirement of ac-
curacy and is used in our study [13]. The expression proposed by
Saffman is:
 1=2
1 dU
F S ¼ 6:46μa2 ΔU ð9Þ
ν dy
Fig. 1. Problem description.

Please cite this article as: B. Bai, X. Li, Deposition of particles in the supersonic flow past a wedge, Powder Technol. (2016), http://dx.doi.org/
10.1016/j.powtec.2016.08.026
 B. Bai, X. Li / Powder Technology xxx (2016) xxx–xxx 3

where ΔU is the particle slip velocity, ν is the fluid kinematic viscos-

ity and dU/dy is the velocity gradient of the shear flow.

3.2. Computational parameters

For this issue, the flow field is symmetry about the horizontal plane
that contains the leading-edge, so for simplicity we only research the
upper half of the flow. The inflow boundary is 2.0 mm before the lead-
ing-edge of the wedge, and this is also where the particles are injected.
The half wedge angle ranges from 2°to 20°. We keep the length of the
side wall of the wedge as 50.0 mm and constant as the wedge angle
changes. The inflow Mach number is set as 1.58 and 2.0, and the diam-
eter of the particles is from 0.5 μm to 1.0 μm. The gas is air and the ma-
terial of the particle is water. The total pressure and total temperature of
the inflow is 101 kPa and 421 K, respectively. The cases that are studied
are listed in Table 1. In each case, a set of particles are tracked in order to
observe the particle motion patterns.

3.3. Mesh and validation

In this paper, the mesh we use is a structured one. As we want to

capture the fine details of particle entering the laminar boundary layer
and deposition, the mesh is locally refined near the leading-edge and
the wall, as shown in Fig. 2.
In our previous research, we examined our mesh carefully by grid-
independence check and comparing the velocity profiles of the super-
sonic laminar boundary layer. This mesh is similar with the one used
in our previous research [9], except that the flat plate is replaced by
the side wall of the wedge. Therefore, in this research, we only check
the mesh when the wedge angle is the largest, i.e. 20°. As the element
number of the mesh we use in our previous research is 119,201, in
this paper, we choose 126,962 as the smallest number of mesh elements
when the grid-independence check is being operated. The other two el-
ement numbers are 254,562 and 350,262. In fact, in our case, when we
Fig. 2. Computational mesh.
refine the mesh, we have to make sure that the local grid near the wall is
refined, because the flow near the wall is dominant for particle deposi-
tion process. Therefore, the height of the first element from the wall is layer and some will not. Our focus is on the former ones. For those par-
examined for the three meshes. The mesh with the largest element ticles, they enter the boundary layer at different moments due to their
number should have the smallest first element height, as shown in different initial positions. We know that the particle injected from a
Table 2. higher position enters the boundary layer and deposits on the wall
For the three meshes, the trajectory of the particle injected from the later, and both lateral deposition and inertial deposition play roles in
same initial position is examined. The result is shown in Fig. 3, from this process. However, it is not clear how important the inertial deposi-
which we can notice there is hardly difference among these three trajec- tion mechanism is as the particle initial position varies. In order to an-
tories. Actually the deviation of the trajectories is within 4%. So the mesh swer that question, the trajectories of particles injected from different
with 126,962 elements is used in the simulation. initial vertical positions are plotted in Fig. 5, and the particle trajectories
without Saffman's lift force are also plotted. In this figure, the half wedge
4. Results angle δ = 2°, the initial Mach number Ma0 = 2.0, and the particle diam-
eter dp = 1.0 μm.
4.1. Effect of initial positions of particles Fig. 5 shows that once the particle enters the boundary layer, there is
a departure of the particle without Saffman's force from the one with it.
After particles cross the oblique shock wave, they move away from The particle with Saffman's force is much easier to deposit on the wall.
the wall as there exists a shock wave from the leading edge, which is The reason is that the lift force is directed to the wall because of the larg-
shown in Fig. 4. In this figure, the inflow Mach is 2.0 and the half er velocity of the particle compared with its ambient fluid velocity when
wedge angle is 12°. Then some particles will go into the boundary it enters the boundary layer, which has been discussed in [9]. In order to
quantify the degree of the departure, the deviation distance, which is
Table 1
the distance between the particle with Saffman's force and the one
Cases studied. without it at the time the former deposits on the wall, is proposed. For

Case no. Half wedge angle Inflow Mach Particle diameter(μm)

1 2° 1.58 0.5, 0.7, 1.0

2 2° 2.00 0.5, 0.7, 1.0 Table 2
3 6° 1.58 0.5, 0.7, 1.0 Grid-independence check information.
4 6° 2.00 0.5, 0.7, 1.0
Mesh no. Element number First element height (mm)
5 12° 1.58 0.5, 0.7, 1.0
6 12° 2.00 0.5, 0.7, 1.0 1 126,962 0.005
7 20° 1.58 0.5, 0.7, 1.0 2 254,562 0.0042
8 20° 2.00 0.5, 0.7, 1.0 3 350,262 0.003

Please cite this article as: B. Bai, X. Li, Deposition of particles in the supersonic flow past a wedge, Powder Technol. (2016), http://dx.doi.org/
10.1016/j.powtec.2016.08.026
4 B. Bai, X. Li / Powder Technology xxx (2016) xxx–xxx
Fig. 3. Grid-independence check.
example, the deviation distance is the length of segment AB, which is
vertical to the wall, in Fig. 5.
We can notice in Fig. 5 that for the two particles injected from differ-
ent initial positions, their deviation distances are different. The particle
injected from higher initial position has a larger departure distance,
which means lateral deposition mechanism plays a more important
role. The reason is that the higher particle enters the boundary layer
later and the boundary layer thickness is bigger at the position where
the higher particle enters it. In this way, the particle feels a longer action
of the lift force. But like the case in our previous study [9], as the particle
initial position is larger than the equilibrium initial position, the particle
doesn't deposit on the wall, and it's meaningless to talk about the two
deposition mechanisms.
4.2. Effect of wedge angle
The wedge angle is the main parameter that affects the deposition
mechanisms we investigate in this paper. We can infer that as the
wedge angle increases, the inertial deposition mechanism becomes
more important. The result is shown in Fig. 6. In this figure, the initial
Mach number is 2.0 and the particle diameter is 1.0 μm. The deviation
distance of the particle depositing on the surface of the wedge with
half wedge angle δ = 6°is much smaller than the one of the same parti-
cle deposit on the wedge with half angle δ = 2°. Actually we can picture
two limits, which are δ = 0°and δ = 90°. In the former case, inertial de-
position is absent, while it is dominant deposition mechanism when
Fig. 4. Pressure contour of the flow over inclined plate.
Please cite this article as: B. Bai, X. Li, Deposition of particles in the supersonic flow past a wedge, Powder Technol. (2016), http://dx.doi.org/
10.1016/j.powtec.2016.08.026
Fig. 5. Effect of initial positions of particles.
δ = 90°. In fact, owing to that the boundary layer still exists when
δ = 90°, lateral deposition plays a role in the deposition process.
4.3. Effect of inflow Mach number
The deposition mechanisms are affected by the inflow Mach number
in two aspects. On one hand, a larger inflow Mach number means bigger
particle inertia, thus a more important inertial deposition. On the other
hand, the boundary layer is thinner as the inflow Mach number in-
crease, and as a result, the lift force acts on the particle for a shorter pe-
riod of time. Although the velocity gradient in the boundary layer is
larger which leads to a larger lift force, action time overwhelms magni-
tude and is the main factor that influences the role of lift force, i.e. the
role of lateral deposition. Therefore, as a result of the two aspects, the in-
crease of inflow Mach number makes the inertial deposition mecha-
nism more important. In Fig. 7, the deviation distances of the same
particle with two different inflow Mach numbers are shown. We can
notice that the deviation distance in case Ma0 = 2.0 is much smaller
than the one in case Ma0 = 1.58, which means a much more important
role of inertial deposition. In this figure, the particle diameter is 1.0 μm
and the half wedge angle δ = 6°.
4.4. Effect of particle size
For the point particle approach, the change of the particle size main-
ly causes the inertia of the particle. So in this part, the effect of particle
inertia caused by the changing size of the particle is investigated. As
Fig. 6. Effect of wedge angle.
 B. Bai, X. Li / Powder Technology xxx (2016) xxx–xxx 5

dimensional parameter, the expression of Ω is

!
y0 ρg0
Ω ¼ φ Rep0 ; Ma0 ; ; ;θ ð10Þ
d p ρp

where θ is the half wedge angle. Ma0 is the initial Mach number, Rep0
is the initial particle Reynolds number, and ρg0/ρp is the density ratio.
In order to determine the range of Ω for each particle motion pat-
tern, the range of Ω for equilibrium pattern must be determined first.
Once the Ω for equilibrium pattern is determined, the range of Ω for de-
parture pattern and deposition pattern can be inferred.
From Eq. (10) it can be inferred that the ratio of equilibrium initial
position y0e to the particle diameter, i.e., y0e/dp, is the function of Ma0,
Rep0 and ρg0/ρp. So it is assumed that the formula has the form of Eq.
(11). With various simulation cases, we get a fitting formula (Eq.
(12)) of these four factors.
Fig. 7. Effect of inflow Mach number. !n3
y0e ρg0
¼ pMan01 Renp02 θn4 þ q ð11Þ
dp ρp
the particle size increases, the particle's tendency to follow the ambient
gas declines and it tends to go into the boundary layer and hit the wall !0:0308
more quickly. Because the particle enters the boundary layer earlier, y0e 0:1516 ρg0
¼ 637:6Ma4:14
0 Rep0 θ1:175 þ 179:1 ð12Þ
the action time of the lift force is shortened, which also weaken the im- dp ρp
portance of lateral deposition mechanism. Fig. 8 shows that the devia-
tion distance of 1.0 μm particle is too small to distinguish, but the one In Fig. 9 we can see the good performance of the fitting formula
of 0.7 μm particle is much larger than it. The initial Mach number is within the error of 10%. When both sides in Eq. (12) are divided by
2.0 and the half wedge angle is 6°. y0e/dp and y0e is replaced by y0, we get
2 !0:0308 3
 −1
y0e ρg0
5. Discussion Ω¼ 4637:6Ma Re
4:14 0:1516
θ 1:175
þ 179:15 ð13Þ
0 p0
dp ρp
In our previous research, we found three particle motion patterns,
and a non-dimensional number is proposed to describe the particle lat- when 0.8 b Ω b 1.2 is for equilibrium pattern. So when Ω b 0.8 and
eral migration process in the boundary layer over a flat plate [9]. We can Ω N 1.2, departure pattern and deposition pattern occurs, respectively.
predict the particle motion before it enters the boundary layer with this The proposed dimensionless number is the tendency of a particle to
non-dimensional number. Similarly, there are also three particle motion deposit on the wall. Large Ω means a strong tendency for the particle to
patterns for the wedge case in this paper. The departure pattern is the move towards the wall, and vice versa. With Ω, a particle's motion pat-
one that particles do not deposit on the wall and the deposition pattern tern can be predicted before it crosses the shock wave.
means the particle deposit on the wall. The particle injected from the
equilibrium initial position finally moves along the stream, but the dis- 6. Conclusions
tance between the particle and the wall is about zero. Also, we can pro-
pose such a number for the wedge case in this paper. We define the Two deposition mechanisms, which are inertial deposition and lat-
number as Ω. However, the difference is that another factor, the eral deposition, are investigated when submicron particles in the super-
wedge angle, must be considered. In fact, as the wedge angle is a non- sonic flow deposit on the surface of the wedge. A two-dimensional
Eulerian-Lagrangian model with point particle approach is built to
solve this problem. We use the deviation distance to quantify the roles
the lateral deposition and inertial deposition play in this process. In

Fig. 8. Effect of particle size. Fig. 9. The simulation value and the fitting value.

Please cite this article as: B. Bai, X. Li, Deposition of particles in the supersonic flow past a wedge, Powder Technol. (2016), http://dx.doi.org/
10.1016/j.powtec.2016.08.026
6 B. Bai, X. Li / Powder Technology xxx (2016) xxx–xxx
this way, we can understand whether it is the inertial deposition mech-
anism or lateral deposition mechanism that dominates the particle de-
position. Several factors, like the particle initial position, wedge angle,
initial Mach number and particle size, are studied. It turns out that the
particle injected at a higher position is influenced by the lateral deposi-
tion to a larger degree. The increase of the wedge angle, initial Mach
number or particle size is beneficial for the dominance of the inertial de-
position. Finally, we find that three particle motion patterns still exist
for the wedge case, and a dimensionless number taking into the
wedge angle into account is proposed for this case. This research gives
us a basic understanding on the integrated effect of the inertial and lat-
eral deposition mechanism, and helps us to know which mechanism is
dominant at certain conditions. Actually near-wall effect for particles
may affect the process, but this effect is not considered in this research.
Future work will take the near-wall effect into account and deal with
the establishment of proper criteria for evaluating the importance of ei-
ther mechanism.
Acknowledgements
This work was financially supported by the China National Funds for
Distinguished Young Scientists under the Contract No. 51425603.
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10.1016/j.powtec.2016.08.026
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