Geografiska Annaler: Series A, Physical Geography

ISSN: 0435-3676 (Print) 1468-0459 (Online) Journal homepage: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/tgaa20

Transport Velocities of Single Particles in Bed-Load

Motion

Nils Meland & John O. Norrman

To cite this article: Nils Meland & John O. Norrman (1966) Transport Velocities of Single Particles
in Bed-Load Motion, Geografiska Annaler: Series A, Physical Geography, 48:4, 165-182, DOI:
10.1080/04353676.1966.11879737

To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.1080/04353676.1966.11879737

Published online: 08 Aug 2017.

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 TRANSPORT VELOCITIES OF SINGLE PARTICLES
IN BED-LOAD MOTION
BY NILS MELAND AND JOHN O. NORRMAN
Coastal Studies Institute, Louisiana State University, and Department of
Physical Geography, Uppsala University
ABSTRACT. In order to determine the inftuence of shear
velocity (U.), bed roughness (k) and moving partide di-
ameter (d) on particle bed-load transport, velocities of
single spherical glass beads (Vp) moving over beds of
rhombohedrally packed spherical glass beads were
determined under controlied Jaboratory conditions for
scveral values of U •• k and d. A relationship between the
position of zero water velocity (z 1) and bed roughness
(k) is established.
Three "stages" of partide motion are recognized from
a plot of Vp on d. The degree of development of each is a
function of all three major variables.
An empirkal solution is offered where Vp is considered
a function of u., k and d. A more detailed consideration
of the forces which tend to propel and retard a moving
partide Jeads to the development of a semi-empirical
ex pression for the velocity of a single partide in contact-
Joad motion.
- A list of symbols is found at the end of the paper.
Introduction
At the end of 1964 a series of experimental in-
vestigations on the movement of bed-load sedi-
ments was initiated at the Geomorphology Labo-
ratory of the Department of Physical Geography,
Uppsala, Sweden. The investigations are a coop-
erative venture between the department in Upp-
sala and Coastal Studies Institute, Louisiana
State University, Baton Rouge, La. Thelaborato-
ry experiments are part of a Jong-range program
of beach process studies initiated by Coastal
Studies Institute.
There is a general need among engineers and
geologists to understand the basic processes in-
volved in sediment movement. The engineer needs
the information to prediet sediment behaviour
in his effort to contraJ the environment while the
geologist needs it to interpret the environment
both present and past.
While the theoretidan has contributed many
valuable concepts, particularly in the realm of
hydrodynamics there is a general need for more
experimental work upon which to solidly found
functions of transport rates. Experimental re-
search emphasis has been on establishing thresh-
GEOGRAFISKA ANNALER • 48 A 11966) • 4
old limits for initiation of partide motion and
determination of sediment-transport rates on a
mass-per-time basis. Much less attention has been
paid to the transport velocities of particles singly
or in groups. This in spite of the fact that differen-
tial velocities based on partide characteristics
(size, shape and density) probably is the major
factor in the sarting of sediments.
A four-part experimental program was there-
fore started in order to investigate the following:
l. The interacting effect of water velocity, bed
roughness and partide size on the transport rate
for single particles with partide shape, density,
and bed-packing constant.
2. Transport velacity and threshold limits for
the individual fractions in materials of mixed
sizes where the variables are water velocity,
median size, spread and skewness of mixture.
3. The effect of shape on transport rates and
threshold limits under the above conditions.
4. Owing to the special interest in beach-sedi-
ment processes which gave the impetus to these
series of experiments it is also desirable to deter-
mine the effect of high-turbulence flows, such as
those found in the zones of breakers and swash,
on sediment motion and the interaction of
velacity and time in the aseillatory movement of
sediments by waves.
Although the entire series of investigations as
proposed is airned at solving problems of sedi-
ment transport in the nearshore marine zone,
most of the results will apply equally well to
other hydrodynamic environments.
On the basis of known physical laws, one may
seek to define and resolve the forces acting upon
a partide in transport and from these consider-
ations develop theoretical expressions which
can be verified by observations and experimenta-
tions. This is a difficult approach because it
assumes knowledge of all physicallaws governing
partide motion and their relative importance at
165
 NILS MELAND AND JOHN O. NORRMAN
the different stages of motion. With the present
state of knowledge it is unavoidable that some
assumptions rather than physical laws enter into
the theoretical considerations contributing to the
limited success and applicability of existing
theoretically derived bed-load formulas. Another
alternative is to perform controHed experiments
and from the observations establish empirical
relationships between partide behaviour and
causative factors.
Because of the great number of variables
involved in partide transportation it is unlikely
that a strictly theoretical approach will succeed.
In practice a semi-theoretkal approach is nec-
essary where some of the variables are experi-
mentally determined. In this report the data is
applied both to a semi-theoretical and a strictly
empirical approach.
The object of this study was to determine the
interacting effect of a limited number of variables
upon particle-transport velocity which would
serve as a foundation upon which to base more
ambitious studies of mass transportation in
mixed materials. In addition, the data throws some
new light on the subject of bed-load transport
and, it is fel t, merits the attention of the sedimen-
tologist.
Variables involved
The present investigation covers only a limited
part of a vast complex and it is not our ambition
to present the complete theoretical background.
However, in our design we have naturally been
guided by previously published theories and
experimental investigations. It is therefore ap-
propriate to review a few formulas which are
considered of particular importance and discuss
the variables involved. It should be stressed that
all known formulas for initiation of motion or
bed-load transportation are based on the assump-
tion of material homogeneity, that is, the partide
in question rests on a bed composed of particles
having the same size. Thus they do not apply to
mixed materials where the partide rests on a bed
composed of particles including other sizes.
Since heterogeneity of size is common for natural
sediments and since a heterogeneous system does
not easily !end itself to theoretical solutions the
lack of basic experimental data on mixed material
is a serious hinder to the complete understanding
of processes involving erosion, transportation
and deposition of sediments.
166
Initiation of motion
The common approach to theoretical derivation
of formulas for initiation of partide motion is
made by considering the threshold balance of
fluid and resisting forces acting on a single
partide at rest on the bed. For uniform-sized,
spherical particles and fully rough flow Sundborg
(1956, p. 174) arrived at the following equation,
2
Te= 3Yl Y2 k((!p- ew) g(tan rf>cosi ±sin i) (l)
where Te = critical boundary shear, k = par-
tide diameter, g = acceleration due to gravity,
(!p = partide density, ew = fluid density, r/> =
partide angle of repose, i = angle of bed slope
( + sign refers to flow up an inclined bed), y 1 =
packing coefficient of bed particles according to
White (1940) and y 2 is a coefficient that depends
"mainly on the degree of turbulence". Quoting
Kalinske's (1943) statement that, "fluctuations
equal to twice the mean vetocity at a point in the
turbulent zone near a boundary can readily be
expected" Sundborg finds that, "since shear
stress varies as the square of the velocity, it might
be expected that y 2 for fully turbulent flow should
be of the order of 0.25". H e al so finds this value to
be in good agreement with Shields' curve, which
expresses y 2 as a function of the ra tio of partide
size to the thickness of the laminar sublayer
(Shields 1936, p. 11).
A recent review on the subject of initiation of
motion by Vanoni (1966) includes a functional
equation p roposed by Egiazaroff (1965), whi ch for
fully rough flow and in our notations reads,
4
Te= 3 ((!p- (!w) k Ci/ (8.5 + 5.75log 0.63)- 2 (2)
where Ck is the ordinary drag coefficient for
spheres determined as a function of the Reynolds
number (wk/v), w = terminal fall velocity, and
Y = kinematic viscosity.
The equation is based on the assumptions that,
"at threshold conditions the velocity that the
partide on the bed experiences is equal to its free
fall velocity", that k = ks "the characteristic
roughness size of the sediment" and that the
following equation relating fluid vetocity to shear
velocity at fully rough flow (Nikuradse 1932,
1933, Schlichting 1951),
uz =
- 8.5 + 5.75log-
z
(3)
u* ks
is applicable. Uz is the fluid vetocity at a distance
G E O G R A F JS KA A N N A L E R ' 4 8 A ( 1 9 6 6) ' 4
 TRANSPORT VELOCITIES OF SINGLE PARTICLEs
z above the bed and the shear velacity U* is
defined by To = ewu;. Finally it is assumed
that the fluid velacity which satisties the equation
occurs at a z of 0.63k. The introduction of fall
velacity is attractive, but the assumptions were
found to hamper an application to our data.
Bed-load motion
For practical use it has been of main interest to
produce formulas for bed-load transpartatian
that express the amount of material transported,
and not partide velocity.
A bed-load formula, based on assumptions
similar to Sundborg's on threshold conditions, is
given byKalinske (1947),
(4)
where M = mass transported per unit width,
expressed as weight perunit time, Te = the criti-
cal shear at which transportation commences,
and 1p ( ~) is a special function for bed-load
transportation. This function is dependent on
the state of turbulence. Thus y 1 and indirectly y 2
are included in the formula.
An approach which also in part is similar to
Sundborg's is proposed by Bagnold (1956). It
has been used by Leopold, Wolman and Miller
(1964, p. 173)-referring to an unpublished
manuscript by Bagnold (1960)-in a discussion
on "the nature of fluid force and its relation to
debris movement". In our notations the formula
may be written,
where Vb = the average velocity of the mass (M)
transported, eb = efficiency factor expressing the
effective fraction of the total available power, and
Uz is "the fluid velocity at the effective mean
height where the fluid is pushing the grains at
their average velocity".
Both right and left hand side of the equation
have the dimensions of power (force x velocity).
The equation can be said to be built on the bal-
ance of forces used in derivations offormulas for
entrainment of motion (cf. eq. l) and then
multiplied with respectively bed-load velacity
( Vb) and fluid vetocity (Uz). The definition of
Uz seems questionable as the pushing action
GEOGRAFISKA ANNALER • 48 A t1968) • 4
depends on the distribution of impulses from the
fluid and the paths of the particles. Here it is only
necessary to state that it is possible to find an
effective height above the bed with a representative
fluid vetocity which satisties the equation. The
efficiency is certainly dependent on the state of
turbulence, and thus related to y 2 (cf. eq. 1).
Concluding remarks
In flume experiments material characteristics can
readily be controlled. If only spherical particles
are considered, individual partide characteristics
can be reduced to size (particle diameter) and
density or alternatively to terminal fall velocity.
The pattern of bed-partide arrangement in-
fluences partide movement as weil as flow. A
close rhombohedral packing of uniform parti-
cles fulfills the requirements of similarity with
change of bed-partide size. The degree ofpacking
is eonstant for all sizes and can be exactly de-
fined.
With single particles in motion the average
partide velocity over a given length is easily
determined. The effect of absolute partide size
and size in relation to bed roughness can be
systematically studied by variation of bed-partide
size (k) and size of particles (d) brought into
motion. Mechanical resistance to contact-load
motion ma y be expressed as a function of packing
and d and k, or solety of d and k if packing is
kept eonstant
The partide is propelled by power that has the
dimension of force x velacity. Shear stress expres-
ses the force acting on the particles and the vetoc-
ity is that of the fluid. Shear-stress vetocity (U*)
is related to fluid vetocity ( Uz) and in an open
flume u., and so T 0 , can be calculated by deter-
mination of the velacity distribution.
For a given flow over a specific bed neither
shear nor fluid velocity for a fixed point are the
same at each moment but fluctuate considerably
because of turbutence. U* and Uz represent mean
values, but the particles experience impulses
from a distribution of forces and velocities, and
therefore it seems most IogicaJ to include a
measure of turbulence such as y 2 used by Sund-
borg in eq. (1). The most serious hindrance to a
complete understanding of sedimentary processes
is probably the lack of instrumentation by which
rapid velocity and pressure variations can be
accurately recorded.
In our planning we felt that with above men-
tioned characteristics quantitatively determined
167
 NILS MELAND AND JOHN O. NORRMAN

Fig. l. Part of the rhombohedrally pack ed bed of glass beads with a diameter of. 776 cm. On to p of the bed, beads with
diameters of. 776, .393, and .209 cm. Flo w direction was parallel to the base of the pictures.

from experiments the problem of single-partide
motion could be attacked by studies of simple
part relations and compound relations. In this
way it should be possible to distinguish the
significance of different characteristics and to
present a solution for partide velacity valid at
)east within the limits of the experimental
conditions.
Experimental conditions
Flum e
The experiments were carried out in a plexiglas
flume 5.6 m Iong and 10 cm wide. The fl u me could
be tilted to any desired dip and water depth
adjusted by a sluice gate at the lower end. The
amount of water flowing through could be
accurately determined by free fall over a right-
angle sharp-crested weir.
Measurements inside the flume were carried
out from a trolley riding on harizontal rails above
the flume. With the hel p of a thin rod fastened to
a vertically oriented vernier scale movable by a
ratehet it was possible to determine water depth
and dip of the flume. W ater depth could also be
determined by two scales fastened on the outside
of the transparent flume, in either case the
accuracy was ± l mm.
Partic/e and bed characteristics
[n order to limit the number of variables to par-
ticle size, bed roughness and water flow, partide
shape, density and packing of the bed had to be
constant. This was accomplished by using
spherical glass beads with nearly eonstant
density and size arranged in dosest possible,
rhombohedral packing illustraled by Fig. l.
Table l lists the mean size d defined as partide
diameter, standard deviation s and den si ty (!p of the
material used. Partide diameter was determined
with the hel p of a micrometer. It was not possible
to determine (!p for individual particles so that
a standard deviation of (!p within sizes is not
available. The standard deviation of (!p between
sizes is, however, 0.026 and since the beads are
produced from large batches of glass it is unlikely
that the standard deviation of (!p within sizes is
larger than 0.026. Glass beads with air inclusions
were not used in the experiments.
Table l. Mean size (d) in cm, standard deviation
(s) and density ((!p) in g cm- 3 of glass beads.
d s ~
.776 .013 2.51
.700 .019 2.52
.595 .019 2.56
.510 .030 2.56
.393 .011 2.52
.315 .009 2.57
.209 .003 2.56
Bed roughness k was established by glueing
glass beads in a rhombohedral pattern onto sheets
of plexiglas and placing these on the flume bot-
tom. The glueing was most successfully accom-
plished by thinning water-resistent glass glue with
acetone and pouring it over the beads already
arranged on the plexiglas sheets in the desired
pattern. The glue applied in this manner will flow
to the bottom of the layer of beads leaving a
coating less than 0.01 mm thick on the beads
tpemselves, and the partide size is insignificantly
increased by the glue. In order to insure eonstant
ftow conditions over the test seetian the entire
length of the flume was covered with glass beads.

168 GE:.OGRAFISKA ANNALER • 48 A (1966)' 4

 TRANSPORT VELOCITIES OF SINGLE PARTICLES
A series of experiments were also run with beads
of rhombohedrally packed loose beads in three
or more layers.
Measurements
Partic/e velacity
Particle-transport velocity V11 was determined by
timing the passage of a partide over a l m test
section located approximately in the middle of
the flume. In order to insure a reasonably good
estimate of the average transport rate 20 or 30
velocity determinations were made for each earn-
bination of water velocity, bed roughness and
carticle size and a mean transport velocity ( V11 )
palculated. This average includes eventual stop-
ping time. The data for this report comprises
about 260 such means or 6500 single observa-
tions. By holding the distance eonstant the par-
tide velocity was actually measured in sec./m,
which was then converted to cm/see. in order to
correspond with the water-velocity measurements.
With discontinuous partide motion it is ex-
pected that the average velocity of the partide
having the highest frequency of stops will be
somewhat doser estimated over a test section
of limited length than a partide with a lower
stopping frequency. Our data does not, however,
indicate that this etfects is significant.
In order to minimize the etfect of partide in-
sertion the particles were dropped into the flume
some distance upstream from the test section
and allowed to trave! on the bed in to the test area.
To reduce side-wall etfects particles travening
doser than ca. l cm to the wall were not included
in the sample. The dip of the flume was never
more than 0.5° which is only about l % of the
angle of repose for the particles and probably
does not influence the results significantly.
Fluid velacity
The velocity measurements were carried out with
a Filess pitot tube with a 3 mm outside diameter.
By means of double wall construction both the
dynamic and static pressure tubes are included in
the same unit. The dynamic-pressure tube has an
inside diameter of l mm. The pitot tube is con-
nected by flexible plastic hose to glass tu bing with
3 mm inside bore resting on an inclined plate
with a graduated scale. Since this is an open sys-
tem the static pressure is simply a measure of the
water leve! in the flume and the manometer must
be raised or lowered in accordance with this
G E O G R A F l S K A A N N A L E R ' 4 8 A 11 9 8 8)
leve!. The system was calibrated with an O. H.
Kempten propeller-type laboratory velocity me-
ter. Due to the small opening in the dynamic
pressure tube and the relatively !arge volume of
water in the plastic hose and glass tubes the
system reacts rather slowly to velocity changes.
This has the disadvantage that about five mi nu tes
must be allowed fo ~ the system to reach ist final
position after a change in velocity, but the
dampening etfect minimizes the influence of
velocity fluctuations and eases determination of
a mean velocity. In our experiments observed
variations about the mean never exceed ± 1.5
cm/see. The manometer readings were obtained
by calculating a mean value from the fluctuating
readings observed during a couple of minutes.
The maximum reading error is less than ± 0.5
cm/see.
Velocity readings were made in the middle of
the flume. The lowest reading was taken as near
the boundary as possible. On the roughest bed
where portions of the tube could be placed be-
tween the roughness elements it was possible to
make the first reading 0.05 cm above the tops of
the roughness elements, otherwise lowest readings
were made 0.15 cm above the tops of the rough-
ness elements. Readings made doser than 0.25 cm
to the boundary, however, deviate somewhat
from the straight-Iine velocity gradient and are
not included in determination of the velocity
gradient. This deviation is at !east partly due to
the interaction of pitot tube dimension and
velocity gradient. The average of the velocity field
subtended by the opening of the pitot tu be occurs
in the middle of the opening only if the velocity
gradient is linear. Near the boundary where tht:
gradient deviates extremely from the linear the
average velocity occurs some distance above the
middle of the tube opening tending to give
velocity readings which are too high.
Side-wall etfects on the velocity gradient are
significant only within l cm of the wall. Velocity
readings made in the middle of the flume were
therefore taken to represent that portion of the
transverse section used in the experiments.
Relations between fluid velocity, bed roughness
andshear
Velacity gradient
The velocity gradient in turbulent flow near a
fixed boundary is described by the formula
(Rouse 1946, p. 193),
• 4 169
 NILS MELAND AND JOHN O. NORRMAN
(6)
where U* is the boundary shear velocity, Uz is
the velacity at height z above the hydrodynamic
zero velacity reference surface and z1 is the dis-
tance above the reference surface where the
velacity curve erosses the ordinate. All properlies
of the semi-logarithmic velacity gradient depend
upon the choice of reference surface. In the case
of a smooth surface the reference plane may be
taken as the interface of wall and liquid hut with
a rough boundary the choice of reference surface
is more complex, especially when the roughness
elements are non-uniform in size, shape and
packing.
In this experiment the surface is constructed of
hexagonall y packed spherical particles of unitarm
size and the problem issimpler. Schlichting(1936)
suggested that the free-flow reference surface
could be considered as the plane formed by the
equivalent melted volume of the roughness ma-
terial. For our experimental surface this plane
would be slightly higher than one partide radius
above the bottom of the partide layer. Such
observations as could be made on the flow pat-
tern suggest, however, that free flow can be ex-
pected above the contact points or radius of the
particles and a reference surface corresponding
to this leve] was therefore chosen.
Additional evidence that this choice ofreference
is reasonably correct is that near the boundary
the velacity gradient follows the straight Iine
logarithmic relationship described by farmula
(6), (cf. Fig. 2). If the reference surface was not
nearly correct the velacity gradient would deviate
from a straight Iine and farmula (6) would no
longer apply. From Fig. 2 we also see that the
velacity gradient deviates markedly from a straight
Iine at some height above the boundary. Since
partide transport in this experiment is as bed
load we are, however, only interested in the flow
characteristics close to the bed and the conditions
in the upper part of the flow may be ignored.
In no case is the Froude number greater than
0.9 indicating tranquil flow for the entire experi-
mental series.
Laminar sublayer
In turbulent flow past a smooth boundary a
laminar sublayer exists which is related to z 1 in
farmula (6) in the following manner:
170
b' 0.108v
z 1 = - = - - (Rouse 1946 p. 194) (7)
107 u.
substituting for z 1 in farmula (6) we then get:
u.z
U2 = U* 5.75 log--+ 5.5 (8)
v
which is known as the Kårmån-Prandtl equation
for the velacity distribution in turbulent flow
near smooth boundaries.
In the case of rough boundaries the laminar
sublayer will be disrupted in part or entirely by
the roughness elements. It is commonly assumed
that the flow is fully rough, that is no laminar
sublayer exists when k > 14 15' or expressed as a
boundary Reynolds number
u. k
Rc=-->70 (9)
v
the flow is considered transitional when 70> Rb>
>5 and smooth when 5>Rb>O(Schlichting 1951,
p. 381). In smooth flow, surface drag is trans-
mitted to the flow in the form of viscous frietian
through the laminar sublayer. In rough flow,
however, the roughness elements are in direct
contact with the turbulent flow and the drag is
due entirely to their form resistance.
According to our velacity measurements z 1
varies only slightly for each specific roughness at
all flows except the two lowest (U* = 2.02 and
1.73) on the .209 cm bed (cf.Fig.2a). The bound-
ary Reynolds number is also greater than 70 in
all cases except the same two. It was therefore
concluded that but for the two exceptions men-
tioned the flows of the experiments were fully
rough.
Bed roughness as a function of particle size
Owing to the absence of a laminar sublayer on a
fully rough surface z1 in farmula (6) no longer
depends upon b' instead it has been shown by
Nikuradse and others that z 1 is a function only
of the roughness elements k so that for a given k,
z 1 is constant. In transitional flow bed roughness,
and with it z 1, is reduced by the presence of a
partially developed laminar sublayer. Based on
Nikuradses experiment it has been shown that
z 1 in the transition region is a function of the ratio
k!b' (Rouse 1946, p. 206).
While the constancy of z 1 with eonstant k has
been convincingly demonstrated, the rate of
GEOGRAFISKA ANNALER • 48 A 11966) • 4
 U2 (cm/sec.l U z (cm/see.)
o 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 BO 90 100 110 120 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 BO 90 100 110 120
ro - ,-,--,--,-,--,--,--,-,--,--,-,--,--,--,-,--,--,-,--,--,-,--,--,--,-,10
o
o
o oce ib o o
o o o o o g 'bl 'b 8 o ~
o o o o o o o 88 -15
o o o
g q J/
'{' <f ,o co o/ o /o o
o o o
g!fg d6 d
g1i/ ~ojIYJo'8/ ~ ~ o/
Y-
9 g w "bl o o o ci v~ .t' '{~8 ~ cf gl ~d .0/0
ol ol o o o' o d
o o 6 o' ol o ol o'
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f f l l l l l /o /o
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~ l l l l l l l / p ,o . p',{{ 9' 09' ...-o
~?~,o,: 9 <3'oo o /o
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§ ....:?1"\il ~g ~~'p/ ?>/ o o ooo p o&' .oo o/
'lit ...,.p v·Pv·Pv·/ 'o\{ 0/0 00.0000 0/ /o
:::l of ol o o o o o p l oo o o l / o· /o
l l l l 6 o o o o· do ,o o·
o o o'l o o o o j /0
l l l l l l 0/0
9' ,d // ,ci ,d ,cio ,0.0 o/o
o o o pO O 0 ,0 1 0 1 o 0
/ o/ 5
l l l o o' 1 1 °/o 10 o
o o o 0 0/
l l /0/0/0
o lo l o l o 6::1 --6
l ' /
llll /
o o o o o o o o /o l f /O O O O /v 0 /
l l l l l l l .5
o o o o o o o d ro o /o/L .o/o o
l l l l l l l l /o .4
o .o
o l /o
.O o
l ////
o o .o o o
.2

.1

b
L____l_____L___[__j___j__l____L__l__j___l__L_l__L__]_____L__l___j__l____j__L__L__L__L__i_] . 05

Fig. 2. Velecity distributions for flow over beds of .209 cm glass beads (a)
and .776 cm beads (b). The velocities (Uz) are measured at heights (z) above
the centre of the bed particles.
•02

.01

,_.
-....l
,_. l , l , L, l , c_, l , l , ~~
 NILS MELAND AND JOHN O. NORRMAN

change in z 1 with change in k is not that clear. vestigated. The importance of these additional
Nikuradse in his experiments with sand roughness variables is obvious and it is therefore not
found z 1 to be directly proportional to k according realistic to extend the findings from a surface of
to the relationship tightly packed spheres directly to a natural sedi-
ment surface. On the other hand it is useful to
(lO) have a standard reference for hydrodynamic
roughness comparisons. The Nikuradse sand
roughness equivalent which is commonly used
substituting for z 1 in farmula (6) we get: for this purpose is unsatisfactory for two pri-
uz = z
5.75 log-+ 8.5 (Il)
mary reasons. Firstly, it has been demonstrated
by this experiment and others that the ra tio ~ is
U* k
3
which is the much quoted Kårmån-Prandtl not universally applicable to all roughnesses and
equivalent for fully developed rough flow. For environments. Secondly, a sand surface can nev-
transitional flow the formuta is er be accurately duplicated neither with respect
to the shape of the individual grains nor packing
uz
-
z
5.75 log k- + 8.5 (12)
u. = 0.: z 1 (cm)
.10 ,-----,----,--,--,--,-.,----u,
.09
where o.: is a correction factor which depends upon
the ratio of k to the thickness of the laminar .OB

sublayer. Since Nikuradse's experiments were .07 o

published other relationships of z 1 and k have
been determined. According to Woodruff and .06

Chepil (1965) Bagnold found the value of z 1 =

.os
~ while Z. M. White found z 1 to be approxi- log z 1 =log .115 + 1.95 log k

.04
mately l t1mes
. . d'Iameter, an d A . W.
t h e gram
9
Zingg found z 1 to vary as the logarithm of the
roughness diameter according to the relationship:
k
z1 = 0.81 log 0.1 (13)
8

From our experiments we find that the logarithm

of z1 is related to the logarithm of k (cf. Fig. 3)
according to the following formula:

log z1 = 1.950 log k- 0.939 (14)

Rewriting and substituting for z 1 in formuta (6)
we get

Uz z
U*= 5.75 logkl. 95 + 5.4 (15)

which expresses the velacity gradient for fully

developed rough flow for our experimental con- o
ditions. .005 : - - - - - : : - - - - ; - - - ; - - ; - - - - : ; - - - ; - - - - : : - - : ; ' .
.2 .3 .4 .5 .6 .7 .B .9 1.0
Roughness is presently defined only by the k(cm)

dimension k and the effect of such variables as Fig. 3. Relation between bed-partide size (k) and the bed-
packing and shape of grains has not been in- roughness parameter z 1 for fully rough ftow.

172 G E O G R A F l S K A A N N A L E R • 4 8 A 11 8 8 8) • 4
 TRANSPORT VELOCITIES OF SINGLE PARTICLEs
of the surface. It seems more logical to establish
a standard where both shape of the particles
(spheres) and packing (hexagonal) is constant,
leaving size as the only variable. Such a surface
has the advantage that it can be duplicated and
the functional relationship between partide size
and hydrodynamic roughness is a straight Iine as
demonstrated by our experiment. More experi-
mental data is needed and in investigations now
under way to determine particle-transport rates
in materials of mixed size attention is being paid
to this problem.
Partide transportation
Effect of partide size on VP
Figs. 4a and 4b illustrate several interesting facts
about the influence of size upon partide velacity
with change in shear velacity and bed roughness.
The most obvious relationship demonstrated is
that for a given bed roughness and shear velacity
a !arge partide rnaves faster than a small, an
observation made by among others Gilbert (1916),
Hjulström (1935), Nevin (1946), lppen and Verma
(1953) and Byrne (1965). We also see that the
rate of increase in partide velacity with size is
indirectly related to u. and directly related to k
so that at high velocities and small bed roughness
the influence of size is a minimum.
The prime factor responsible for the phenom-
ena described is the geometric partide to bed
relationship which influences both rolling resis-
tance and the partide position in the vetocity
field.
Rolling resistance due to bed geometry can be
expressed by the tangent of the angle of repase cp
(cf. p. 178)
tan cp= 0.866[(d/k) 2 + 2d/k -1/3] -o.s (16)
and the difference in height (y) of the tops of two
particles with diameters d1 and d2 at rest on a bed
of particles with diameter k by
y = (dl - d2) (dl + d2 + 2k) (17)
The greater vetocity achieved by the targer
partide for a given roughness and shear vetocity
is evidently due to its position higher off the bed
where it is exposed to greater current velocities
and the decrease in rolling resistance (tan cp)
with increase in d (formula 16).
Formulas (16) and (17) show that both differ-
ence in tan cp and difference in height of the
partide tops for different-sized particles increases
GEOGRAFISKA ANNALER • 48 A (1 9881 • 4
with bed roughness. This explains why, as k
increases, partide size has a growing influence on
vp.
As U* in creases the particles ten d mo re and
more to trave! near the top of the bed without
descending completely into the depressions.
Consequently the partide is subjected to de-
creasing roughness and d has successively less
influence on rolling resistance.
sediment sarting by size is a function of both
differential partide threshold limits and transport
velocity. Our data suggests that on the basis of
absolute partide velacity differences, the inten-
sity of sarting should increase away from the
threshold limits for motion and become less
effective again at high transport velocities. The
sarting effect should also increase with increase
in bed roughness. Although our data applies to a
simplified system, the trend described may with
some modification apply to natural conditions.
E.ffect of fixed ~·ersus loose bed
In an initial series of experiments only the end
seetians of the bed was glued on while the middle
2 meter section where the timing took place was
built up of three or more layers of tightly packed
loose glass beads. White this was possible with
particles 0.4 cm and larger it was not possible
with particles less than 0.4 cm because the loose
bed would erode at relatively low water velocities
and could not support !arge particles. Thus in
order for our observations to include bed rough-
ness down to 0.2 cm we had to glue even the
middle two meter section. In order to determine
whether transport rates obtained over a loose
versus solid bed could reasonably be compared,
experiments were run with the middle seetian
alternately loose and glued for beds camposed of
the sizes 0.393 cm and 0.776 cm.
As Fig. 4b clearly demonstrates, the rigidity
of the bed is a determining factor in the transport
rate of spherical particles. A reasonable explana-
tion of the higher transport velocities obtained
over a solid bed is that it offers greater elastic
rebound to the partide in motion thus helping
to keep it on the move and bring it higher off the
bed into greater water velocities. As expected the
effect is less pronounced with lower velocities,
indeed on a bed roughness = 0.776 cm and U*
= 6.36 the situation is reversed and particles
trave! samewhat faster on a loose than on a solid
bed. This is probably due to slight vibration and
movement in the loose bed which will assist a
173
 NILS MELAND AND JOHN O. NORRMAN
d (cm) d (cm)
.2 .3 .4 .5 .6 .7 .8 .9 .2 .3 .4 .5 .6 .7 .8
70

6.89 • • • • • •
•
-<?- -<?--<:>- 50

• 5.71 • • • • • • \J., cmfseC·

-<?-
-<?-
-<?-
• • • • • • -<?-
l!-08
-<?--<?-
40

• 4.88
-<?- -<?-
• • • • • -<?-
-<?-
• 4.1,8 • • • 30

• • • • -<?-
g.2B

-9--9-
• • •
4.13
-9- -9-
• • • -9-
• -9- •
•
• • o• o
3.68
20
8-'~
• o
• • • • ••
• .
u
• o -!!?
.u
2.82 • • 1.~..~
•
E
..':!
-!!?
g • Il A
>
a.

>
a. •
o
Il
• • Il 0
• • o A
•
• • • • q'o
<o·
Il
0
~-~1
• A A
•
• 0
1!.
•
A

Fig. 4. Partide velocity (Vp) as a function of the size 0

(d) of particles transported, plotted for various fixed
shear velocities (U.). The diagram ab o ve (a) re fers
to a rigid bed of .209 cm particles, the diagram to the
right (b) to a rigid bed of. 776 cmparticles (circles). In
the latter diagram some velocities obtained for a loose
bed are included (triangles). Circles and triangles
marked the same way indicate identical shear velocity.

• b

174 G E O G RA F l S KA A N N AL E R • 4 8 A {1 9 8 8) • 4
 TRANSPORT VELOCITIES OF SINGLE PARTICLES
partide in commencing movement and thus re-
duce stopping time. These observations suggest
that elastic rebound which has been discussed
at length by among others Bagnold (1941) in
connection with wind transported sand may be a
force to reckon with in fluvial transport as weil.
The effect of bed elasticity is probably most
closely dependent upon packing of the material.
In order to elimirrate the variable elasticity, only
data from solid beds was included in the final
analysis.
Transport stages
When VP is plotted against d for eonstant k and
fixed values of u* it is possible to discern three
different "stages" of partide motion as illustrated
by Fig. 4b for a bed roughness of 0.776 cm. The
initial stage immediately above the threshold
for partide motion shows very rapid increase in
partide velocity with increase in d illustrated by
the big jump between the 0.209 and 0.315 cm
particles at U* = 7.48 and 8.15. This stage is
active only within a very narrow size range and is
replaced by a stage of more moderate increase
best developed in our experiment for U* = 6.36.
A narrow transition zone separates this stage from
one where the increase in partide velocity with
increase in d is considerably slower.
The mode of transport is continuous for the
upper stage but discontinuous, that is the partide
experiences one or more stops while traversing
the test section, for the lower two stages.
The degree of development of the various
stages is thus a function of the mode of transport.
At high U* and small k motion tends to be con-
tinuous shortly after the critical partide size is
reached and consequently the seeond stage is
poorly developed or absent as shown by Fig. 4a
for k = .209.
In order to determine whether stopping account-
ed for all the difference in slope between the
continuous and "stop-and-go" stages, the num-
ber and length of stops were recorded. By
subtracting stopping time from total time it was
possible to determine the velocity for the partide
only while moving. Surprisingly enough only
about 30 % of the difference in slope between the
continuous and discontinuous stage can be
accounted for by stopping time. Acceleration and
deceleration between stops probably play a role
but such visual observations as are possible
suggest that this effect is small. In all prohability
the largest factor contributing to this "efficiency
G E O G R A F l S K A A N N A L E R • 4 B A C1 9 6 6)
loss" is the relationship between the particles
criticallimits and the water velocity fluctuations.
As pointed out by Hjulström (1935) a partide
has two limits. One is the velocity required to
initia te motion uci and the other is that required
to sustain the motion ucs· ucs has been estimated
by Schaffernak (1922 p. 13), Hjulström (1935 p.
323), Menard (1950, p. 151) and others as
approximately 2/3 Uc;· Because of turbulence
the velocity applied to a partide is not eonstant
but continuously changing according to a normal
(Kalinske, 1943) or slightly skewed velocity
frequency distribution (Einstein and El Samni,
1949).
It is easy to see that the highest velocity in the
distribution must equal or exceed Uc1 for a given
partide in order for the partide to move at all.
It is equally obvious that if even the weakest
pulse available exceeds that required to keep the
partide moving, continuous motion results. The
problem is more complex when one or both
critical limits lie within the range of velocity
fluctuations. As the critical limit Uc1 is exceeded
Ucs lies within the velocity frequency distribution
and the prohability of sustained motion is a di-
rect function of the percentage of velocity pulses
which exceed Ucs· Only velocity pulses which
exceed VP are efficient in moving the partide and
conversely, all velocity pulses less than VP will
resist partide motion. This may weil account for
the relatively slow partide velocity in the stop-
and-go stage even when stopping time is subtract-
ed. The steeper slope in the stop-and-go stage
should then be a reflexion of the gain in efficiency
as a greater percentage of the velocity pulses
exceeds VP. In the stage of continuous motion full
efficiency is reached where all velocity pulses
contribute to partide motion.
Owing to the lack of instrumentation with
which to measure turbulence the relationships just
discussed can only be inferred. More detailed
studies are needed to clarify these problems.
Effect of U*, k and d on VP
With packing, partide density and shape eon-
stant and assumed eonstant turbulence the
variables in our experiment are all a function of
three major variables, namely U*, k and d. It is
possible, therefore, to empirically determine the
interacting effect of only these three variables on
vp.
d and k are both independent variables while
U* is not independent but varies directly as a
• 4 175
 NILS MELAND AND JOHN O. NORRMAN

, "; •• " function of both current velocity and bed rough-

>ooi--r---,--r-rTTrr!ril=----,l__::_r--1.-llri'---v-r_,:-r----r-r--i neSS (formula 15), Vp iS a direC( fUnCtiOn Of
current velocity but varies inverse/y with bed
+ .r
.776cm
roughness. Thus current velocity affects U* and
6 .393cm
.- VP in the same direction while bed roughness
• .209cm ...~:
affects u* and vp in opposite directions sothat
100
- VP may relate directly, indirectly or not at all to
= U* depending on the relative current velocity and
_ bed roughness. Therefore, sediment behaviour
cannot be related to U* without considering the
.·(. - effect of bed roughness as weil. Unsuccessful
- attempts have been made to relate sediment
discharge rates in rivers to U* and as pointed out
- by Vanoni and Brooks (1957) the reason isthat as
-;-' ,.--------,
..t-;- current velocity increases, bed formschange with
~;
.· accompanying reduction in bed roughness.
?4'
~-~
Consequently, if the effect of variable bed rough-
) ness on U* is not accounted for a nonsense
t· - relationship results.
The empirical solution induding all available
data presented graphically in Fig. 5 was arrived
at by first considering VP a function of U* d with
k constant. It became apparent that by raising d
- to a power n such that the rate of change in VP
with d corresponded with the rate of change in
-;-;.
. '
a vp with u* all the points would fall on a single
Iine. As previously discussed the influence of size
-;-
4 on VP is not eonstant but varies as a function of
- both U* and k. Bed roughness k affects partide
..... ~ velocity directly through frictional resistance to
..,•.·,
?-;- partide motion and indirectly through its in-
fluence on the velocity gradient, so that as bed
roughness increases partide velocity decreases
not only due to increased frictional resistance but
also because the rougher boundary dissipates
-;-
- more energy from the flow in the form of tur-
o• bulence, leaving less available to move a given
..
,.'
partide. k must therefore appear in the denomi-
-;-
U
natoron the abscissa term giving k* dn where the
~
-
exponen t n varies as a function o f ku* in the
o,
following manner

o t~
. ,,..-;-,

.5-

.
-;-
-;-o
-

Fig. 5. Vp plotted as a function of U* dn where Vp =

km k
-;--;-• partide velocity, k= diameter of particles composing the
bed, U• = sh ear velocity and d= diameter of transported
+ '• ' particle. The exponent n is a f unetio n of U •, m is a f une-
k
-;- ' c
·' L.L..L-J......L..L.LL.l..LL.C....i...Li-L...l_.l........lli_ _L.L.__.t_I...Li-L_.1........11L-.J
tion of u. dn.
k

176 GEOGRAF1SKA ANNALER • 48 A (1988)' 4

 TRANSPORT VELOCITIES OF SINGLE PARTICLES

c·~. kr3l
stages described by the above formulas. lt is not
when ~· > 11.1 n= (18) possible to write a separate equation for this
initial stage because it includes such a narrow

k
and when u*<11.1 n= c-014
--
u.
ky· 26
(19) u.
range of kdn and only two observations fall
within it. Neither is it possible to accurately
We see that the tota l term ku*d n mcreases
· on1y determine threshold limits of motion.
The empirical solution presented applies only
in response to increased water velacity or de- to our special experimental conditions and the
creased k, while an increase in k leads to decrease eonstants appearing in the formulas are there-
in the term to earrespond with the loss in velacity fore of no particular importance. Only the ar-
applied to a given particle. rangement of the variables is of interest.
The resistance to partide motion due to bed
roughness is accounted for by placing k in the A semi-empirical formula for particle velocity
.
denaminatar of the or dmate term g1vmg -
. . vv
km starting from the bed-load farmula (5) on p.
167 an attempt was made to derive a farmula for
where the exponent m varies as a function of
partide velocity. lt was primarily assumed that
U* d" in the following manner turbulence affects the motion and that efficiency
k can be taken in to account by a function related to
the state of turbulence, f(turb.), and a height
when U* dn> 8 5 above the bed (z.) related to the effective fluid
k . '
(20) velocity. For a harizontal bed, equation (5) may
m= -
u
24.05 + 23.391og k* d" then be rewritten as,

u r.v - f! w M g Vb tan -l.= f (turb.) f! w lf2 Uz (25)

(}p 't' • e
when 8.5 < k* dn< 10,

u. (21) By the general formul a for fluid-velacity distri-

m= - 1.33 + 2.08log k dn bution (eq. 6, p. 170) the right-hand side of the
equation can be changed to,
m= 0.75 (22)
5.75 /(turb.) f! w (log~) u~ (26)

It is now possible to express partide transport

As defined z. must assume values within the
velocities for the stage of stop-and-go motion,
height interval of the actual partide motion in
that is when ~* dn< ca. 8.25, by the farmula order to be physically meaningful. Neither z.
nor f(turb.) could be experimentally determined
in our investigation and there are no formulas
vp= (u* dn)l9.24 (23) known from other flume experiments which
km k0.14 could be directly applied. Therefore f(turb.) has
to be approximated by same established general
and for the transitional and continuous stages,
function.
U*d"
when - - > ca. 8.25 the following farmula Following Kalinske, Sundborg used the factor
k y 2 in order to express the influence of turbulence
applies for threshold conditions (cf. p. 166). y 2 is related
to shear and its numerical value for fully rough
(24) flow is on the order of0.25. A function ofy 2 was
assumed to possibly approximate f(turb.). When
y 2 is introduced in eq. (25) it should have the
Close to the threshold limit of motion V" power of 1.5, because the right-hand side of the
km equation indudes shear x velocity, and velacity
increases much more rapidly than for the two varies as the square roat of shear.
GEOGRAFISKA ANNALER' 48 A (1966) • 4 177
 NILS MELAND AND JOHN O. NORRMAN
With ?' 2 = 0.25 the farmula for partide velac-
ity will include log(~) /0.25 1 •5 • The numerical
value must be Jooked upon as a first approxima-
tion, but according to our experimental data it is
of the right order. Because of the logarithmic
expression the ratio is very sensitive to changes
in y 2 • Anticipating the discussion of our data
this may be demonstrated by a numerical exam-
ple. With d and k = 0.40 cm and y 2 = 0.25 we
lind that ze = 0.50 cm, which is in good agree-
ment with our qualitative observations of partide
motion. If y 2 is increased by 1/10 to 0.35, Ze
must be 4.20 cm to fit the experimentally deter-
mined partide velocities. A fluid velacity at this
height cannot be reasonably related to partide
motion in close contact with the bed.
In the present investigation we are not working
with a mass of bed material but with single
spherical particles travelling with the velacity vp
over a bed of spherical particles. The effective
surface of the bed particles that ma y be subjected
to stress is nk 2!4 and their immersed weight is
nk 3 ((lp - ew)/6. As T0 is the mean stress per unit
area of the exposed particle, packing has to be
taken into account (White 1940, p. 323). With
close rhombohedral packing it is easy to define
and campute a packing coefficient (y 1) taken as
the ra tio of the area of the harizontal projections
of the particles to the total area. Thus y 1 =
n3°· 5 f6 = .907. In practice y 1 can beexpected to
be somewhat lower because of some imperfect-
ness in the packing.
Our computations of U* (p. 172) apply to the
fixed bed alone as the introduction of a single
movable partide will not affect the hydraulic
conditions of the channel. But as the size of the
movable partide (d) is varied in relation to bed-
partide size (k), d has to be included in the equa-
tion. From the experimental data partide veloc-
ity was fo und to vary as d 0 •5tan 4> with k and U*
constant. This is in accordance with the assump-
tion that shear is proportional to a length dimen-
sion and thus velocity is proportional to the
square root oflength, and because shear x velacity
appears on the right-hand side of eq. (25) and
shear is balanced by k on the left-hand side
the additional factor having the dimension of
square root of Iength must be included on this
side.
The angle of repose (cf>) for a spherical partide
at rest on a bed of rhombohedrally packed sphe-
178
res without surface adhesion or influences of any
irn:gularities can be easily calculated when the
path which the partide takes when rnaving out
of its stable 3-point contact position is known.
The possible extremes are over the great circle of
a bed partide and through the saddle between
two bed particles. According to Miller and Byrne
(1965) "the most Iikely path of rolling is consid-
ered to lie midway between these extremes".
With this path the angle of repase will be defined
by formula (16). Rather crude experiments per-
formed by t il ting beds showed the angle of repase
in our setup to be in agreement with this formula.
If the factors of the preeecting discussion are
inserted in eq. (25) the explicit expression for
partide velacity is
- ew 5.15 log-z.
2
(27)
v = 3 zl u3
p Yl y~·s k do.s (ev - ew) g tan cP •
where for a rhombohedrally packed bed y 1
.907, tan cp is defined by eq. (16), and for fully
rough flow y 2L 5 is of the order of 0.125. z1 is
known from eq. (14) but z. still remains unknown.
If ze is eonstant for each specific combination of
d and k, VP as a function U* will, according to
eq. (27), in a logarithmic scale be a straight Iine
with a eonstant slope of 3.
From a diagram (Fig. 6) where partide veloci-
ties for different d/k are plotted against u* it is
obvious that there are three different functions for
each combination of d and k. These earrespond
to the transport stages previously discussed (p.
175). The lowest very steep part, which curves
gradually, earresponds to the sta ge of stop-and-go
motion.
The middle part which earresponds to the stage
of continuous contact-Ioad transportation is
linear. Contrary to eq. (27) the slope varies
considerably with d and k. As Fig. 6 shows the
slope changes rather abruptly near the top of
the diagram. Although this part is represented by
only a few points, it can be concluded that the
slope of the Iines here is close to l. Thus in this
part increase in Vp is approximately proportional
to inerease in U* and the function is of the same
character as that for suspended load. At these
high veladties the particles rush over the top of
the bed or make Iong jumps, and the consider-
ations of eq. (25) no longer apply.
Of primary interest is, therefore, the develop-
ment of a function which reduces the exponent 3
G E0 G R A F l S KA A N N A L E R • 4 B A (1 9 6 6) • 4
 TRANSPORT VELOCITIES OF SINGLE PARTICLEs

u* (cm/sec.l
4 5 10 12 14 16

10

,g

.SL--L~--L-------~------L---~--~---LJ-L--L~--~---L~

Fig. 6. Partide velocity (Vp) in relation to shear velocity (U.) for specific combinations of bed-partide size (k) and
size of partide Iransported (d).

GEOGRAFISKA ANNALER • 48 A 11966! • 4 179

 NILS MELAND AND JOHN O. NORRMAN
of U* in eq. (27) to the empirical values of the
lower straight Iine stage. The eonstant slope for a
given d and k indicates that the function is not
correlated to flow but to bed geometry and parti-
de characteristics. If all characteristics are in-
duded the exponent of U* ma y be written
ex p. (U*)= 3 - /(y1 , ta n~. d, k) (28)
The function /(y 1 , tan ~. d, k) was empirically
determined from the slope of the Iines in Fig. 6,
and the function was found to be
As only one type of bed packing is induded in the
experiments the meaning of y 1 in the function
is somewhat uncertain.
It is not possible to determine the representa-
tive height z. by direct observation of partide
motion. Instead a z. was determined that would
satisfy the intersection of U* = l and the em-
pirically determined straight-line function of the
lower stage. The solution must also be combined
with a quantitative packing coefficient appearing
as well in the exponent of U*.
If similarity is to hold, it must be possible to
express z. solely as a function of d and k. The
simplest geometrical arrangement of d and k
within the expected range of z. is that where the
movable partide is situated in the saddle between
two bed partides. In this position the centre of the
movable partide is situated at a height of
l 2
(d + 2dk) 0• 5 over the zero plane through the
2 d and k. For all data available the upper limit
centre of the fixed bed particles.
As previously mentioned the packing coef-
ficient of the experimental beds could be expected
to be somewhat lower than the theoretical of
.907. The height z. and the packing coefficient
y 1 were determined from the beds of .209, .393,
and .776 cm and all combinations of movable
particles of the same sizes. The small differences
in density of the moving particles according to
Table l (p. 000) were also taken into account.
Water density was taken as l.
For the .209 and .776 cm beds z. was found to
be
05
z l ( d 2 + 2dk )
=-
•
+ 0.75d
-2- (30)
e 2
with a y 1 of 0.900 ± 0.004, where the limits refer
to the extreme values.
180
The .393 cm bed deviated slightly with a z. of
05
z = -
l ( d 2 + 2dk ) ·
+ 0.50d
-2- (31)
e 2
and a y 1 of 0.863.
In the first case z. earresponds to a height of
3!8d above the middle of the moving partide
when situated in saddle position. In the seeond
case the figure is 2/8d. For the coarsest partide
(.776 cm) this means an absolute difference of
0.097 cm. The packing coefficient of the .209 and
.776 cm beds deviates by 0.77% from the theore-
tical of dosest possible packing and the coefficient
of the .393 cm bed is 4% lower. The conclusion is
that for a fixed bed with perfeet rhombohedral
packing, full y rough flow and contact-load motion,
the partide vetocity of single particles can be
expressed by,
~ (! 5.75(log~) ua-y, d k-1.5 tan"'
2 w z1 • (32)
v= ~---
p Yl Y2!.5 do.s k((!p- f!w) g tan rP
where y 1 = .907, y 2 = 0.25, tan ~is expressed by
eq. (16), z. by eq. (30), and z 1 by eq. (14).
Limits of contact-load motion
An examination of Fig. 6 reveals in a qualitative
way some of the limits of contact-load motion.
The range of this motion with respect to partide
vetocity decreases with decrease in d/k, and for a
specific d!k the range decreases with increase in
earresponds to a partide vetocity of about 0.4
m/see., and thus the variation of range is mainly
due to variation of the upper limit of stop-and-go
motion. For the smallest d/k investigated (d =
.209, k = .776 cm) there is apparently no true
contact-Ioad motion. The direct change from stop-
and-go motion to a motion mainly above the bed
can be ascribed to the high angle of repose and
the low vetocity affecting particles situated in a
deep, stable 3-point position. The present data
does not permit a general quantitative determi-
nation of this limit, nor can the upper limit of
contact-load motion be functionally expressed.
With increase in d/k or decrease in d and k for
a specific d!k the slope ofthelogarithmic straight-
line contact-load function will decrease and
approach unity. For unity slope the motion will
be near the to p of the bed roughness irrespective
of partide velocity. This limit is defined by the
G E O G R A F l 5 K A A N N A L E R ' 4 8 A (l D 6 6) ' 4
 TRANSPORT VELOCITIES OF SINGLE PARTICLES
exponent of u. in eq. (32) being equal to l,
(33)
According to this equation the smallest partide
size possible in contact-Ioad motion is 0.058 cm,
if the material is uniform (d = k) and y 1 = .907.
This figure may look big, but the special condi-
tians must be remembered. Their significance is
shown by the following comparison.
In a natural bed of sand there are no fixed
particles and thus the "mass angle of repose"
applies (Miller and Byrne 1965). Slightly differ-
ent figures for the mass angle of repose of well
rounded sand have been proposed: 33° (Chepil
1959), 34° (Bagnold 1964), 35° (Sundberg
1956). Under natural conditions the packing is
also different. According to White's experiment
y 1 for natural sand varies between 0.30 and 0.40
(White 1940).
If a y 1 of 0.35 and a tf> of 35° are introduced in
eq. (33) the partide size of uniform material will
be 0.015 cm. The extremes of y 1 and tf> given above
set the limits at 0.020 and 0.010 cm. These figures
agree well with the lower limit of true bed load
according to Inman (0.018 cm) and Sundborg
(0.015-0.018 cm), (Inman 1949 p. 57, Sundborg
1956 p. 219).
Sommary
Over a bed of rhombohedrally packed spheres
the straight-line logarithmic velacity gradient
with von Kårmån's eonstant = 0.40 applies for a
zero-reference surface through the center of the
top layer of bed particles. With this distribution
the experimental data for fully rough flow does
not agree with the concept of an "equivalent sand
roughness" in which bed roughness is proportio-
nal to the diameter of the bed particles. Instead
bed roughness is found to be closely proportional
to the square of bed-partide diameter.
Single partide bed-load transpartatian can be
divided into two main stages characterized by
discontinuous versus continuous motion. These
stages are equally well demonstrated by a plot of
VP on d with u. and k eonstant and with VP on
u. for eonstant d and k.
The two stages of motion earrespond to sig-
nificantly different transport velacity functions, a
difference that is only partly explained by the
duration and number of partide stops in the
discontinuous stage.
In any bed-load formuta bed roughness has to
GEOGRAFISKA ANNALER • 48 A (1888) • 4
be included because the active force and velacity
represented by shear and fluid velacity are de-
pendent on bed roughness.
The conditions of absolute threshold of motion
cannot be determined by extrapolation of the
empirical partiele-vetocity relations because of
their logarithmic character which excludes finite
reach of zero velocity.
Within the represented range of continuous
motion there is a rather abrupt change in the
accumulated increase in VP with u. with d and k
constant. In the lower part this increase is found
to be a function of bed geometry and partide
characteristics but independent of shear velocity.
In the upper part partide velacity is proportional
to shear velocity. The limit between these sub-
stages is interpreted as the upper limit of true
contact load motion.
It is possible to express partide velacity of
continuous contact-Ioad transpartatian by one
semi-empirical farmula which includes partide
size, bed roughness and packing, angle of repose
for the transported partide in relation to the bed,
boundary shear velocity, height above the bed
corresponding to the effective fluid vetocity and a
coefficient expressing the state of turbulence.
This experiment was conducted under simpli-
fied conditions and the results do not apply
directly to natural conditions where such added
factors as irregular packing and partide shape
tagether with interaction between particles in
motion must be considered. With the hel p of the
results presented here it is expected that the
additional factors mentioned will be more easily
defined for the investigations on mass transpar-
tatian and sorting processes now in progress.
Acknowledgements
We are grateful to Dr. R. J. Russen who as
Director of Coastal Studies Institute initiated this
project and has offered continued support.
Thanks are also due to Dr. F. Hjulström,headof
the Department of Physical Geography in Upp-
sala who most graciously made available the
facilities of the department, and to Dr. Å. Sund-
borg whose advice throughout the investigation
and critical review of the manuscript has been
invaluable. Mr. E. Zetterström, Senior Techni-
cian at the laboratory, helped construct the
experimental equipment. The experiments were
performed with the assistance of Mr. K. Linde
and Mr. E. Meland. Illustrations were made by
Mrs. H. Mattsson at the Geography Department.
181
 NILS MELAND AND JOHN O. NORRMAN
List of symbols
d = diameter of transported particles (cm)
eb = efficiency factor for bed-load mass trans-
portation
/(x) = function of x
g = acceleration due to gravity (cm/sec. 2)
g = mass (weight) in grams
i = angle of bed slope
k = diameter of bed particles (cm)
log n = log10n
M= mass (g)
Rb = boundary Reynolds number
s = standard deviation
Uc1 = fluid velocity required to initiate motion
(cm/see.)
Ucs = fluid velocity required to sustain motion
(cm/see.)
Uz = fluid velocity at the height z above bed
reference surface (cm/see.)
u. = boundary shear velocity (cm/see.)
Vb = transport velacity of mass of bed load
(cm/see.)
VP = mean transport vetocity of single particles
(cm/see.)
z = height above bed reference surface (cm)
z 1 = roughness parameter (cm)
IX = coefficient dependent on the ratio of bed
roughness to thickness of laminar sublayer
y 1 = bed packing coefficient
y 2 = coefficient dependent on the state ofturbu-
lence
c5' = thickness of laminar sublayer (cm)
11 = kinematic viseosity (cm 2/sec.)
(!p = partide density (g/ 3cm)
(!w = fluid density (g/cm3)
T 0 = boundary shear (g/cm sec. 2)
Te = critical boundary shear at which motion is
initiated (g/cm sec. 2)
cp = angle of repase for individual particles on a
fixed bed
tp (x) = function of x
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G E O G R A F 1S K A A N N A L E R • 4 8 A tt g 6 8) • 4