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Sizing considerations for ultracapacitors in hybrid energy storage systems

Conference Paper · September 2011

DOI: 10.1109/ECCE.2011.6064159

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 Sizing Considerations for Ultracapacitors in Hybrid
Energy Storage Systems
Valentin Bolborici, Francis P. Dawson, and Keryn K. Lian
Abstract—Ultracapacitors are energy storage devices that can
be connected in parallel with batteries to create a hybrid power
system. The hybrid configuration provides a higher power density
compared to a single battery and leads to an extended life of the
batteries. One other issue is the voltage regulation of a battery
supplied dc bus subjected to a pulsed load. In the aerospace
field the bus voltage must be maintained within certain margins.
Batteries subjected to pulsed loads generate terminal voltages
with voltage dips that can exceed the voltage regulation band. The
purpose of this study is to see to what extent an ultracapacitor
placed in parallel with a battery can assist in maintaining a bus
voltage within the regulatory limits.
Index Terms—ultracapacitor, battery, storage, hybrid power
system, load, voltage, internal resistance.
I. I NTRODUCTION
There is a trend in the automotive industry to move from
gas and diesel powered vehicles to hybrid vehicles (powered
by both an engine and an electric motor) ([1], [2], [3]) with
the final goal of having complete electric powered vehicles
([4], [5]). This is due to the need of lowering CO2 emissions
as well as the increasing cost of fuel. In order to achieve the
objective of having a complete electric powered vehicle, the
power train of the vehicle has to be robust, reliable, and to have
a long life and mileage per charge comparable to that of the
internal combustion engine. The key component of the power
train in an electrical or hybrid vehicle is the power source
which usually consists of electric batteries and fuel cells ([6]
[7]). The lifetime of the battery is influenced by the rate at
which current is withdrawn from or injected into the battery
([8], [9], [10]), for example when the vehicle accelerates
or decelerates respectively. Another drawback is that, during
high currents, the battery voltage might decrease below the
minimum admissible voltage of the system. Aerospace is
another field where batteries are used. In these systems, it is
crucial that the bus voltage remains within certain margins for
varying load profiles in order to maintain the correct operation
of the avionics equipment [11].
In order to increase the battery life, and also to maintain
the system voltage above a minimum value, ultracapacitors
are often connected in parallel with batteries to create hybrid
power systems ([12], [13] [14], [15], [16], [17]) with the role
of shaping the currents in the battery.
This paper presents a study regarding the sizing of an
ultracapacitor placed in parallel with a battery under a specific
load condition. An appropriate combination of battery and
ultracapacitor, which are commercially available, are then
selected to satisfy the voltage regulation requirement. This
methodology can be extended to other load profiles and
978-1-4577-0541-0/11/$26.00 ©2011 IEEE 2900
K
is i
ic i1 i2
+ C vc
- Vs
B
P1 v P2
Rs Rc
Fig. 1. DC Power System
combinations of batteries and ultracapacitors types different
from the ones considered in this paper.
II. D ESIGN M ETHODOLOGY
Consider a dc power source made of a battery B connected
in parallel to an ultracapacitor C (refer to Figure 1). The bat-
tery model consists of an ideal voltage source Vs in series with
a resistance Rs . This simplified model is generally satisfactory
so long as the current pulses are not too large else diffusion
or rate limiting reaction phenomena will be superimposed
on the battery voltage. A Li-ion battery behaves similar to
an ultracapacitor due to the 3-d intercalation process in a
Li-ion battery [18]. The ultracapacitor model consists of an
ideal capacitor C in series with an internal resistance Rc . The
internal resistance of an ultracapacitor varies with temperature.
In this study, the internal temperature is considered constant as
the currents in the ultracapacitor last for short periods of time
and hence the core temperature of the ultracapacitor changes
only slightly. This model is sufficient so long as the current
pulses are not too large else diffusion limiting mechanisms
will result in an additional voltage drop across the battery
terminals. The porous nature of the carbon electrodes leads to
this diffusion limiting phenomenon.
The battery-ultracapacitor system supplies a load power P1 ,
and, for a very short period of time t1 , a load power P2 . The
loads P1 and P2 considered in this study are constant power
loads, since in many cases downstream, there are controllers
that try to maintain constant power at all times. One could also
consider other scenarios such as resistive loads or constant
current loads however from a worst case perspective the
constant power load is a good example to consider for the
purpose of this paper.
 Consider, initially, that the system supplies load P1 only. v2 is the bus voltage at time t1 after switch K is closed. The
The system will reach a steady state when the battery supplies term Delta in equations (3) and (4) is given by equation (53)
the load only. At some moment in time, the system supplies in Appendix B. The capacitor voltage vc in (5) is equal to
load P2 for a short time t1 . During t1 , the bus voltage has to the bus voltage when the system supplies load P1 , and is
remain above a minimum value for the loads to work properly. calculated with expression (6), which is similar to expression
Therefore, it would be of interest to find the value of the (1).
capacitance C that should be connected between the positive p
Vs + Vs 2 − 4Rs P1
bus and ground bus such that the voltage on the positive bus vc = (6)
2
with respect to ground remains above a minimum value during
Now, suppose that one wants to build a hybrid power system,
the transient.
as shown in Figure 1, which consists of a battery made
Before starting to calculate the value of the ultracapacitor
of several cells connected in series. The number of cells
connected in parallel with the battery, one has to investigate
connected in series to obtain the voltage v necessary to supply
the system without the ultracapacitor, by calculating the bus
the load P1 is calculated using expression (7):
voltage when the system supplies loads P1 and P2 . This
v
voltage is calculated with equation (1) (refer to Appendix A). ncells = (7)
q Vcell − ESRcell Pv1
Vs + Vs 2 − 4Rs (P1 + P2 ) Equation (7) is obtained from equation (2) by substituting Vs
v= (1)
2 with ncells Vcell and Rs with ncells ESRcell . In (7), Vcell is
If the voltage calculated with (1) is higher than a minimum the cell voltage and ESRcell is the cell internal resistance. If
required voltage, there is no need to connect a capacitor in the number of cells calculated with (7) is a not an integer, the
parallel to the battery. Otherwise, a capacitor will have to be number is rounded off to the next highest integer value. After
connected in parallel to the battery. By solving the system of calculating the number of cells connected in series, one has
equations for the system shown in Figure 1 one obtains the to calculate the bus voltage after the load P2 is connected in
following equations for the required battery voltage Vs and the parallel to P1 . This is obtained with equation (8).
capacitance C (refer to Appendix B). vP1 +P2 =
P1 q
Vs = Rs +v (2) ncells Vcell + ncells 2 Vcell 2 − 4ncells ESRcell (P1 + P2 )
v (8)
," ! 2
1 2 Vs
R s v 1 − R s v 1 + P1 + P2

Rs If the resulting bus voltage calculated with (8) is higher than
C = t1 Rc + ln 1 2 Vs +
2 the minimum required voltage, there is no need for a capacitor
R s v 2 − R s v 2 + P1 + P2
2 Vs
√ in parallel with the battery. If the resulting bus voltage is lower
Vs 1 R s v1 − R s − Delta than the minimum required voltage, an ultracapacitor has to
+ √ ln 2 Vs
√ /
2 Delta R s v1 − R s + Delta be connected in parallel with the battery. In order to calculate
2 Vs
√ ! # the value of the ultracapacitor one needs to know the variation
Rs v2 − Rs − Delta v2
√ + Rc ln (3) of the internal resistance of the available ultracapacitors as a
2 Vs v1
Rs v2 − Rs + Delta function of their capacitance. One can plot such a trend by
for Delta > 0 and plotting the internal resistance of ultracapacitors of different
," 1 Vs
! values as a function of their capacitances, such as the one
v1 2 − R s v1 + P1 + P2

Rs
C = t1 Rc + ln R1s 2 Vs
+ shown in Figure 8 for Maxwell ultracapacitors. From this plot
2 R s v2 − R s v2 + P1 + P2 one can derive a trend equation that gives an approximation of
the internal resistance as a function of capacitance, as shown
2 Vs 2 Vs
!
1 v −R
−1 Rs 1
v2 −
+Vs √ tan √ s
− tan−1 R√s Rs
+ in Figure 8 and repeated below as expression (9).
−Delta −Delta −Delta
 ESR = 1289C −1.06 (9)
v2
Rc ln (4) In reality, from first principles, it can be shown that equation
v1
(9) should have an exponent which is negative 1. In order
for Delta < 0.
Equation (2) represents the required no load battery voltage to find a capacitor that has an internal resistance described
Vs such that the load P1 is supplied with the nominal voltage by equation (9) but at the same time satisfies equations (3)
v. In equations (3) and (4), v1 is the initial bus voltage after or (4) and (5), one has to solve the system of transcendental
switch K is closed and is calculated with equation (5) (refer equations (3), (5), and (9), or (4), (5), and (9). By solving this
to Appendix B). system of equations, the following parameters are found: v1 ,
capacitance C, and its internal resistance Rc . Based on these
Rc Vs + Rs vc values, one can calculate a suitable equivalent ultracapacitor by
v1 = +
2(Rs + Rc ) using series/parallel combinations of available ultracapacitors
p
(Rc Vs + Rs vc )2 − 4Rs Rc (Rs + Rc )(P1 + P2 ) such that the equivalent ultracapacitor has values that are close
(5)
2(Rs + Rc ) to the calculated ones.
2901
 60 60
Load Voltage Load Voltage
Load Current Load Current
Load Current (P1+P2) Load Current (P1+P2)
50 50
Load Voltage [V] / Load Current [A]

Load Voltage [V] / Load Current [A]

40 40

30 Load Voltage (P1) Load Voltage (P1+P2)

30 Load Voltage (P1) Load Voltage (P1+P2) Load Voltage (P1)
Load Voltage (P1)

20 20

Load Current (P1) Load Current (P1) Load Current (P1) Load Current (P1)
10 10

0 0
19 20 21 22 23 24 19 20 21 22 23 24
Time[s] Time[s]

Fig. 2. Bus voltage with the loads P1 and P1 + P2 , and with the calculated Fig. 3. Bus voltage with the loads P1 and P1 + P2 , and with Maxwell
capacitance ultracapacitors

III. E XAMPLE AND E XPERIMENTAL R ESULTS system has been plotted during the period when both P1 and
P1 + P2 are applied. The result in Figure 3 shows that the bus
The above methodology was applied for a case study
voltage drops to 26.2V at the end of the transient. This means
involving Li-ion batteries and ultracapacitors. The system
that the choice of Maxwell ultracapacitor-battery combination
characteristics are: nominal voltage 27V under a constant
satisfies the minimum voltage requirement.
load of power P1 = 235W and a transient load of power
The results of the example shown above have been verified
P2 = 1050W for a period of time t1 = 3s. The minimum
using an experimental setup containing a battery module with
required voltage of the system is 26V . For this configuration,
seven Yuasa LIM40 battery cells connected in series, and
a battery pack made of seven battery cells Yuasa LIM40
connected in parallel to an ultracapacitor module Maxwell
(refer to table III) connected in series with a no load voltage
BMOD0165 and two loads of power 235W and 1050W . The
of 28V when fully charged and a total internal resistance
two loads have been connected to the system without the
of 3.5mΩ (refer to table III) is used. One has to add to
ultracapacitor connected in parallel to the battery and with
this resistance the resistance of the cables that connect the
the ultracapacitor connected in parallel to the battery. Figure
battery to the load. The value of this resistance was 92.3mΩ
4 shows the voltage profile of the load when the two loads are
and represents the values of the cable’s resistance in the
connected to the battery without the ultracapacitor. It can be
experimental setup. If the second load P2 is connected to
observed that when both loads are connected to the battery,
the battery, the voltage will drop to 23.4V . Therefore, it is
the load voltage drops to 23.3V , which is a similar value to
necessary to connect an ultracapacitor in parallel to the battery.
the one calculated in the example above (23.4V ). When both
After solving the system of transcendental equations described
loads are connected to the battery connected in parallel to
above, the following values have been found: v1 = 26.84V ,
the ultracapacitor, the load voltage drops to 26.2V (refer to
C = 105.88F , and Rc = 9.2mΩ. In order to verify that the
Figure 5), which is a similar value to the one simulated in
calculated values are correct, the power system has been sim-
Simulink in the previous example (26.3V ). Figure 6 shows
ulated using Simulink simulation software and the following
the current sharing characteristics between the battery and
bus voltage profile of the system has been plotted during the
the ultracapacitor. This figure shows that during the three-
period when P1 and then P1 + P2 are applied. The result in
second transient, most of the load current is sourced by the
Figure 2 shows that the bus voltage drops to a level very close
ultracapacitor. That means the battery will see a significantly
to the minimum voltage (26V ) at the end of the transient.
smaller current than the load current. The diversion of the
An ultracapacitor with a value of 105.88F and an internal
pulsed current from the battery to the ultracapacitor provides
resistance of Rc = 9.2mΩ is not available on the market.
conditions which lead to a longer battery life.
Therefore, one has to select an ultracapacitor available on the
market that has its parameters close to the calculated ones. For
IV. C ONCLUSIONS
this purpose, a Maxwell ultracapacitor module BMOD0165
with a nominal capacitance of 165F and an internal resistance This paper presented a study regarding the possibility of
of 7.1mΩ (refer to table II) has been selected. The power using ultracapacitors in parallel with batteries to form a hybrid
system has been simulated in Simulink with the new values energy storage system. The starting point of this study was
of the ultracapacitor module and the voltage profile of the the fact that in the case of high current pulsed loads, the
2902
 60 40
Load Voltage Battery Current
Load Current 35 Capacitor Current

50

Battery Current [A] / Capacitor Current [A]

30
Load Voltage [V] / Load Current [A]

25
40
20

30 15

10
20
5

0
10
-5

0 -10
2 3 4 5 6 7 2 3 4 5 6 7
Time[s] Time[s]

Fig. 4. Bus voltage with the loads P1 and P1 + P2 , and without Maxwell Fig. 6. Battery current and ultracapacitor current with the loads P1 and
ultracapacitor P1 + P2 , and with Maxwell ultracapacitor

is
60
Load Voltage
Load Current + i1 i2
B Vs
50 -
Load Voltage [V] / Load Current [A]

40 P1 v P2
Rs
30

20

10 Fig. 7. DC power system with a battery and two constant power loads P1
and P2

0
2 3 4 5
Time[s]
Fig. 5. Bus voltage with the loads P1 and P1 + P2 , and with Maxwell
ultracapacitor
bus voltage of a DC power system, powered by a battery,
might drop below a minimum required voltage. The study
presented the calculation, selection, and verification of the
ultracapacitors that have to be connected in parallel with a
battery such that the bus voltage remains above a minimum
voltage during constant power high current pulsed loads.
The paper concluded with an example consisting of a DC
power system containing a Li-Ion battery and an ultracapacitor.
The study showed that it is possible to use a combination
of ultracapacitors available on the market in parallel with
a Li-ion battery in order to accommodate a specific load
condition. The use of an ultracapacitor in parallel with a
battery is beneficial when the resistance of the battery path
is much larger than the ultracapacitor branch. Indeed, in the
above example, the resistance of the battery path is 95.8mΩ
6 7
while the resistance of the ultracapacitor branch is 7.1mΩ.
Because of this, most of the transient current is sourced by
the ultracapacitor. As a future study it would be interesting
to see how the diffusion limiting process in a battery, which
leads to the concentration overpotential, affects the method for
calculating the appropriate ultracapacitance value.
A PPENDIX A
T HE CALCULATION OF THE BUS VOLTAGE WHEN THE
BATTERY SUPPLIES P1 AND P2
Consider that the battery alone supplies the loads P1 and
P2 , as shown in Figure 7. The KVL equation for the circuit
in Figure 7 is given by equation (10).
Vs = Rs (i1 + i2 ) + v (10)
The current sunk by the loads P1 and P2 is calculated with
equation (11).
P1 + P2
(11) i1 + i2 =
v
By substituting equation (11) into equation (10) one obtains a
quadratic equation with the unknown v, as shown in equation
2903
(12). Adding the last two equations results in equation (29).
v 2 − Vs v + Rs (P1 + P2 ) = 0 (12) Rc Vs + Rs vc − Rc Rs (i1 + i2 ) = (Rs + Rc )v1 (29)
From equation (12) one can calculate the bus voltage v when The initial current withdrawn by the two loads after the load
the two loads P1 and P2 are connected to the battery, as shown P2 is connected is equal to:
in expression (13).
P1 + P2
q i1 + i2 = (30)
Vs ± Vs 2 − 4Rs (P1 + P2 ) v1
v= (13)
2 By substituting expression (30) for load currents into equation
A PPENDIX B (29) one obtains a quadratic equation with the unknown v1 ,
T HE CALCULATION OF THE CAPACITANCE C IN F IGURE 1 as shown in equation (31).
A. Steady state operation - switch K is open (Rs + Rc )v1 2 − (Rc Vs + Rs vc )v1 + Rs Rc (P1 + P2 ) =
The voltage and current equations for the circuit shown in 0 (31)
Figure 1 are:
From equation (31) one can calculate the bus voltage v1
vc = v (14) immediately after the load of power P2 was connected to the
ic = 0 (15) bus.
is = i = i1 (16) Rc Vs + Rs vc
v1 = ±
Vs − Rs is − v = 0 (17) 2(Rs + Rc )
P1
p
is = (18) (Rc Vs + Rs vc )2 − 4Rs Rc (Rs + Rc )(P1 + P2 )
v (32)
2(Rs + Rc )
Substituting equation (18) into (17) one obtains:
By starting with the bus voltage v1 , which appeared after
P1 the connection of the load of power P2 to the bus, one can
Vs − Rs −v =0 (19)
v calculate the value of the capacitance C such that after a period
The voltage Vs necessary to supply the load P1 with voltage of time t1 the voltage drops to the minimum value v2 . The
v is obtained from equation (19). differential equation for the capacitor voltage is:
P1 dvc
Vs = Rs +v (20) ic = −C (33)
v dt
B. Transient operation - switch K is closed for 100ms and The capacitor voltage can be expressed using equation (23)
after that is open as:
After the switch K is turned on, the current from load P2
will determine the voltage v to drop to v1 due to the resistances vc = Rc ic + v (34)
in the circuit. The current withdrawn by the load P2 is: By substituting (34) into (33) one obtains:
P2
i2 = (21) dic dv
v1 ic = −CRc −C (35)
dt dt
Immediately after the switch K is closed, the voltage and The capacitor current can be expressed using equation (24) as:
current equations are:
ic = i1 + i2 − is (36)
Vs − Rs is − v1 = 0 (22)
vc − Rc ic − v1 = 0 (23) or
is + ic = i = i1 + i2 (24) P 1 + P2 Vs − v
ic = − (37)
v Rs
The current in the voltage source is:
By substituting (37) into (35) one obtains:
is = i1 + i2 − ic (25)
P1 + P2 Vs v
Substituting (25) into (22) results in: − + =
 v Rs Rs  
Vs − Rs (i1 + i2 − ic ) − v1 = 0 (26) 1 Rc dv
CRc (P1 + P2 ) 2 − C +1 (38)
v Rs dt
Equation (26) is multiplied by Rc and equation (23) is
multiplied by Rs . or
 
Rc
Rc Vs − Rc Rs (i1 + i2 − ic ) − Rc v1 = 0 (27) CRc (P1 + P2 ) v12 − C Rs +1
P1 +P2 Vs v
dv = dt (39)
Rs vc − Rs Rc ic − Rs v1 = 0 (28) v − Rs + Rs

2904
In order to calculate the value of the capacitor, the left By substituting the expression for Q(v) into equation (49),
and right terms of equation (39) will be integrated between and equation (49) into equation (45) one obtains the following
voltages v1 and v2 , and times 0 and t1 respectively. expression for the right hand side of equation (45):
   
Rc
Z v2 CRc (P1 + P2 ) 12 − C Rc + 1
v Rs
Z t1 CRc (P1 + P2 ) − C R s
+ 1 v2
dv = dt (40) Vs
=
v1
P1 +P2
v −R Vs
+ Rvs 0 ( R1s v 2 − R s
v + P1 + P2 )v
s
 1 2 Vs
( R s v − R s v + P1 + P2 ) 0

To calculate the integral on the left term of equation (40), one Rs Rc
− 2C +C 1 2 Vs
−
has to find first a primitive for the expression that is integrated. 2 Rs R s v − R s v + P1 + P2
This expression can be written as: C 1 1
− Vs   + CRc (50)
  2 1 V
v2 − s v + P + P v v
Rc 1 2
CRc (P1 + P2 ) − C R s
+ 1 v2 Rs Rs

Vs
=
( R1s v 2 − R s
v + P1 + P2 )v The primitive of the first term of the right hand side of equation
A + Bv D (50) is:
1 2 Vs
+ (41) 0
v − v + P 1 + P 2 v 
1 2 Vs
Rs v − Rs v + P1 + P2
Rs R s
 Z
Rs Rc
− 2C +C dv =
From equation (41) one can determine A, B, and D as: 2 Rs 1 2 Vs
Rs v − Rs v + P1 + P2
   
Rc Rs Rc 1 2 Vs
A=C Vs (42) =− 2C + C ln v − v + P1 + P2 +
Rs 2 Rs Rs Rs
Rc constant (51)
B = −2C −C (43)
Rs
D = CRc (44) The primitive of the second term of the right hand side of
equation (50) is:
Therefore, equation (41) can be written as: C
Z
1
− Vs   dv =
2
  Vs
1 2
Rs v − Rs v + P1 + P2 v
Rc
CRc (P1 + P2 ) − C R + 1 v2
s
= 2 Vs
√ !
Rs v − Rs −
Vs
( R1s v 2 −Rs v + P 1 + P2 )v C 1 Delta
− Vs √ ln 2 Vs
√ +
Rc
CR Vs − Rc
(2C R + C)v CRc 2 Delta Rs v − Rs + Delta
s s
1 2 Vs
+ (45) +constant (52)
Rs v − Rs v + P1 + P2 v

The first term of the right side of equation (45) is written as if

a ratio of polynomial expressions: 
Vs
2
4(P1 + P2 )
Delta = − >0 (53)
CRRc Rc
Vs − (2C R + C)v Rs Rs
s s
P (v)
1 2 Vs
= (46)
R s v − R s v + P1 + P2
Q(v) and
Z
C 1
The derivative of the denominator is: − Vs   dv =
2 1 2
− Vs
2v Vs Rs v Rs v + P1 + P2 v
Q0 (v) = − (47) 2 Vs
Rs Rs C 1 v− R
− Vs √ tan−1 R√s s
+
To find a primitive for (46), one has to write the numerator 2 Delta Delta
P (v) as being equal to the derivative of the denominator, +constant (54)
Q0 (v), plus some residual terms. Thus, the numerator be- if
comes:  2
  Vs 4(P1 + P2 )
Rs Rc C Delta = − <0 (55)
P (v) = − 2C + C Q0 (v) − Vs (48) Rs Rs
2 Rs 2
The primitive of the last term of the right hand side of equation
Equation (46) then becomes:
(50) is:
Rc Rc
CR s
Vs − (2C R s
+ C)v P (v)
Z
1
1 2 Vs
= = CRc dv = CRc ln(v) + constant (56)
Rs v− Rs v
+ P1 + P2 Q(v) v
  0 C
Rs Rc Q (v) Vs By substituting the primitives of expression (50) into the left
− 2C +C − 2 (49)
2 Rs Q(v) Q(v) hand side of equation (40) and by integrating between voltages
2905
v1 and v2 , and times 0 and t1 respectively, one obtains the
expression for the value of the capacitor as follows:
," 1 Vs
!
2
R s v 1 − R s v 1 + P1 + P2

Rs ESR vs C
1289.x-1.06
C = t1 Rc + ln 1 2 Vs + Power (ESR vs C) y=

2 R s v 2 − R s v 2 + P1 + P2
2 Vs
√ 1000

Vs 1 R s v1 − R s − Delta 200
+ √ ln 2 V
√ /
2 Delta R s v1 − R s +
s
Delta 80

ESR [mohms]
100
42

2 Vs
√ ! #
Rs v2 − Rs −
20
Delta v2 15 14

2 Vs
√ + Rc ln (57) 10

R v2 − R + Delta v1
s s 2.2

for Delta > 0 and 1

0.8
0.58
," ! 0.47
1 Vs
v1 2 − R s v1 + P1 + P2 0.35
 0.29
Rs
C = t1 Rc + ln R1s 2 Vs
+
2 R s v2 − R s v2 + P1 + P2 0.1
1 10 100 1000 10000
2 Vs 2 Vs
!
1 v −R
−1 Rs 1
v
−1 Rs 2
− Rs Capacitance [F]
+Vs √ tan √ s
− tan √ +
−Delta −Delta −Delta

v2
Rc ln (58)
v1
Fig. 8. ESR versus capacitance for Maxwell ultracapacitors
for Delta < 0.
A PPENDIX C TABLE III
Y UASA L I -I ON BATTERY LIM40
M AXWELL ULTRACAPACITORS INTERNAL RESISTANCE
Table I and Figure 8 show the ESR of ultracapacitors from Rated capacity [Ah] 40
Maxwell versus their capacitance. Nominal voltage [V] 3.7

TABLE I Full charged voltage [V] 4.0

C APACITANCE VERSUS ESR Internal resistance [mΩ] 0.5

Ultracapacitor Capacitance [F] ESR [mΩ]

BCAP0005 P270 5 200
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
BCAP0010 P270 10 80
BCAP0025 P270 25 42 The authors would like to thank Dr. Hassan Kojori, Mr.
BCAP0050 P270 50 20 David Knight, and Mr. Yugandhar Valluru from Honeywell for
BCAP0100 P270 100 15 their help and support on obtaining the experimental results
BCAP0150 P270 150 14
presented in this paper.
BCAP0310 P270 310 2.2
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