energies
Review
A Review on Integrated Battery Chargers for Electric Vehicles
Tiago J. C. Sousa , Delfim Pedrosa, Vitor Monteiro *






Citation: Sousa, T.J.C.; Pedrosa, D.;
Monteiro, V.; Afonso, J.L. A Review
on Integrated Battery Chargers for
Electric Vehicles. Energies 2022, 15,
2756. https://doi.org/10.3390/
en15082756
Academic Editors: Diego Bellan
and Jelena Loncarski
Received: 15 March 2022
Accepted: 7 April 2022
Published: 8 April 2022
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral
with regard to jurisdictional claims in
published maps and institutional affil-
iations.
Copyright: © 2022 by the authors.
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
This article is an open access article
distributed under the terms and
conditions of the Creative Commons
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
4.0/).
Energies 2022, 15, 2756. https://doi.org/10.3390/en15082756
and Joao L. Afonso
Department of Industrial Electronics, School of Engineering, University of Minho, 4800-058 Guimaraes, Portugal;
tsousa@dei.uminho.pt (T.J.C.S.); dpedrosa@dei.uminho.pt (D.P.); jla@dei.uminho.pt (J.L.A.)
* Correspondence: vmonteiro@dei.uminho.pt; Tel.: +351-253-510-190
Abstract: Electric vehicles (EVs) contain two main power electronics systems, namely, the traction
system and the battery charging system, which are not used simultaneously since traction occurs
when the EV is travelling and battery charging when the EV is parked. By taking advantage of this
interchangeability, a single set of power converters that can perform the functions of both traction
and battery charging can be assembled, classified in the literature as integrated battery chargers
(IBCs). Several IBC topologies have been proposed in the literature, and the aim of this paper is to
present a literature review of IBCs for EVs. In order to better organize the information presented
in this paper, the analyzed topologies are divided into classical IBCs, IBCs for switched reluctance
machines (SRMs), IBCs with galvanic isolation, IBCs based on multiple traction converters and IBCs
based on multiphase machines. A comparison between all these IBCs is subsequently presented,
based on both requirements and possible functionalities.
Keywords: integrated battery chargers; traction systems; battery charging systems; electric vehicles
1. Introduction
Electric vehicles (EVs) appear to be one of the most promising agents in the change
towards a sustainable planet, where the aim is to decrease the levels of environmental
pollution and the dependency on fossil fuels. Besides being an emissions-free system at
the utilization level, EVs can also play a relevant role in terms of power grid support,
since battery charging systems can allow bidirectional operation. Thus, from the power
grid point of view, EVs are expected to be part of the solution rather than part of the
problem, provided power grid congestion due to simultaneous charging of multiple EVs is
avoided [1–3].
In terms of its constitution at the power electronics level, an EV contains a traction
system, responsible for controlling one or more electric machines that guarantee the EV’s
propulsion, and a battery charging system, responsible for charging the battery from an
external source, e.g., the power grid [4]. Regarding the traction system, in order to energize
the electric machine windings from a battery power source, as well as to perform the
opposite process during a braking operation, a dc–ac converter is needed [5]. In addition,
in order to adapt the dc voltage of the dc–ac converter, as well as to regulate the energy
generated by the electric machine and returned to the battery during a braking operation,
a bidirectional dc–dc converter is used [6]. Regarding the battery charging system, since
power is supplied by an ac power grid (either single-phase or three-phase), an ac–dc
converter is needed. Moreover, in the traction system, a dc–dc converter is needed for
controlling the battery current and voltage during the charging operation, though this
converter can be the same as the one previously referred to. This constitution can be seen
in Figure 1a, representing the conventional power electronics structure of an EV. Regarding
conductive charging, considering that the EV must be stationary in order to charge its
battery, it can clearly be seen that the traction and battery charging systems are never used
simultaneously. Furthermore, it can also be seen that the front-end converters dedicated to
each system are very similar, interfacing an ac side (electric machine or power grid) to a
https://www.mdpi.com/journal/energies
022, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 2 of 27

Energies 2022, 15, 2756 2 of 27

converters dedicated to each system are very similar, interfacing an ac side (electric
machine or power grid) to a common dc link. Taking these two factors into consideration,
commonchargers
integrated battery dc link. Taking
(IBCs)these twowhich
arose, factorsuse
intothe
consideration,
same power integrated battery
converter chargers
for traction
(IBCs) arose, which use the same power converter for traction and for battery charging.
and for battery charging. This approach can be seen in Figure 1b,c and is advantageous in
This approach can be seen in Figure 1b,c and is advantageous in the sense that it combines
the sense that
two it combines two
functionalities functionalities
in a single system, withinthe
a single
prospectsystem, withthethe
of reducing prospect
volume, of
weight
reducing the volume,
and weight
cost of the powerand cost ofcomprising
electronics the powerthe electronics
EV [7]. comprising the EV [7].

Traction System

Electric ac
Machine dc
dc

dc Battery
ac
dc

Power Grid Battery Charging System

Electric Vehicle

(a)
Integrated Battery Charger

Electric ac dc
Machine dc dc
Battery
Power Grid

Electric Vehicle
(b)
Integrated Battery Charger

Electric ac dc
Machine dc dc
Battery
Power Grid

Electric Vehicle
(c)
Figure 1. EVFigure
power
1. EVelectronics structure:
power electronics (a) (a)
structure: conventional; (b)
conventional; (b) integrated
integrated usingusing the machine
the machine windings
windings as coupling
as couplingfilters
filters with thepower
with the power grid;
grid; (c) integrated
(c) integrated using using external
external inductors
inductors asfilters
as coupling coupling
with
the power grid.
filters with the power grid.

It can be seen that two types of IBCs are represented in the figure (Figure 1b,c). In
It can be seen that two types of IBCs are represented in the figure (Figure 1b,c). In
Figure 1b, the electric machine windings are used as coupling filters with the power
Figure 1b, the electric machine
grid, while in Figure 1cwindings are used are
external inductors as coupling
used. Therefilters with the
are several power
ways grid,
of achiev-
while in Figure 1c IBC,
ing an external inductors
as can be seen by arethe
used. Theretopologies
different are several ways ofinachieving
published an IBC,
the literature and
as can be seen by the different topologies published in the literature and patented [8].
patented [8]. Moreover, IBCs can present different specifications such as galvanic isola-
Moreover, tion,
IBCsbidirectional
can presentoperation with thespecifications
different power grid and the various
such as possibilities for power
galvanic isolation,
grid interfacing (e.g., single-phase ac, three-phase ac or dc). However, they can also add
bidirectional operation with the power grid and the various possibilities for power grid
interfacing (e.g., single-phase ac, three-phase ac or dc). However, they can also add
complexity to the general system as additional inductors may be required to interface the
converter with the power grid and/or contactors, to reconfigure the power converter. In
[9] an analysis of IBCs is presented in terms of functionalities and implementation costs
Energies 2022, 15, 2756 3 of 27

complexity to the general system as additional inductors may be required to interface

the converter with the power grid and/or contactors, to reconfigure the power converter.
In [9] an analysis of IBCs is presented in terms of functionalities and implementation costs
compared to dedicated systems that allow the same operation modes, with bidirectional
operation also considered. Additionally, some proposed IBCs require access to the neutral
point of the electric machine, which is not commonly necessary in conventional systems,
and some IBCs even require access to all winding terminals in order to operate. Further-
more, there are IBCs that can be used with any electric machine type and others that are
specifically designed for a given electric machine or for a number of given electric machines.
In this context, this paper presents a review of the IBCs proposed in the literature and
patented, as well as a comparison between them, both in terms of implementation require-
ments (e.g., the need for external inductors or contactors) and functionalities (e.g., galvanic
isolation, bidirectional operation).
The rest of the paper is organized as follows. Section 2 presents the relevant IBCs
that have been proposed in the literature or patented. Section 3 presents a comparison
between all the IBCs presented in Section 2. Lastly, Section 4 presents the conclusions of
this review paper.

2. Integrated Battery Chargers

This section presents relevant IBCs that have been proposed in the literature. In order
to better organize the presented topologies, this section is divided into five subsections,
grouping the IBCs into: (1) classical topologies; (2) IBCs especially developed for switched
reluctance machines (SRMs); (3) IBCs with galvanic isolation; (4) IBCs based on multiple
traction converters; (5) IBCs based on multiphase machines. It should be noted that the
section on classical IBCs contains some topologies that are more recent than those of some
of the IBCs presented in other sections. This is because these topologies do not match any
of the other criteria, i.e., for use with SRMs, with galvanic isolation or based on multiple
traction converters or multiphase machines.

2.1. Classical Integrated Battery Chargers

The first publication regarding EV IBCs dates back to 1983, a time when EVs were
far from having the popularity they have nowadays. This publication consists of a United
States Department of Energy report produced by NASA [10], and it was followed by
a publication by the same author, D. Thimmesch, two years later [11]. The approach
presented in both publications can be seen in Figure 2 and consists of a thyristor-based
resonant three-phase dc–ac converter, sized for a mechanical peak power of 34 kW in the
traction mode and a continuous power of 3.6 kW in the battery charging mode, which
also uses a transformer comprising four windings (T1a , T1b , T2a , T2b ). In traction mode,
the system operates as a single converter, i.e., a resonant three-phase dc–ac converter
(thyristors S1 –S6 ), where the electric machine is of the three-phase type, while in battery
charging mode the system operates with two separate converters (one ac–dc and the other
dc–dc) connected to a single-phase ac power grid. The thyristor antiparallel diodes of the
dc–ac converter (D1 –D6 ) are employed as a diode full-bridge single-phase ac–dc converter,
with the power grid connected in series in one of the converter phases (terminals a, n) and
the stator windings of the electric machine (La , Lb , Lc ) operating as coupling inductors with
the power grid. The dc–dc converter, composed of thyristors S7 and S8 and diodes D7 and
D8 , operates as a resonant converter, similarly to the three-phase dc–ac converter used in
traction mode. It should be noted that the battery charging operation is performed in an
isolated way, using four contactors (K1 –K4 ) that remain closed in traction mode and are
opened in battery charging mode, isolating the batteries from the power grid.
Energies 2022, 2022,
Energies 15, x 15,
FOR PEER REVIEW
2756 4 of 27 4 of 27

D1 D3 D5 T1a K3
S1 S3 S5 S7 C1a C1b T2b D7
La
Lb
C3 vbat
Lc van K2
a K1 n D D4 D6
Electric 2
S2 S4 S6 S8 C2a C2b D8 T1b
Machine

T2a K4
Figure 2. 2.
Figure EV EVIBC
IBCproposed
proposed by D.
D. Thimmesch
Thimmeschinin 1983
1983 [10].
[10].

Severalyears
Several years later,
later, ininthe
theearly
early 1990s
1990s(1990 [12],[12],
(1990 1992 1992
[13] and[13]1994
and[14]),
1994three IBCs
[14]), for IBCs
three
forEVs
EVs were patented by W. Ripple and A. Cocconi, as shown in Figure 3. The IBC patented
were patented by W. Ripple and A. Cocconi, as shown in Figure 3. The IBC
in 1990 [12], shown in Figure 3a, consists of a bipolar-junction-transistor-based three-phase
patented in 1990 [12], shown in Figure 3a, consists of a bipolar-junction-transistor-based
three-leg bidirectional ac–dc converter (S1 –S6 ) and a diode full-bridge single-phase ac–dc
three-phase
converter (Dthree-leg bidirectional ac–dc converter (S1–S6) and a diode full-bridge
1 –D4 ). In traction mode, only the three-phase bidirectional ac–dc converter is
single-phase ac–dc converter
used, and the electric machine (Dis1–D ). Inthree-phase
of 4the traction mode, type. only the three-phase
In battery charging mode, bidirectional
the
ac–dc
diode converter
full-bridge is single-phase
used, and the ac–dcelectric
convertermachine is of the
is employed three-phase
to interface type. with
the system In battery
charging mode,acthe
a single-phase power diode
gridfull-bridge
(terminals a,single-phase ac–dc converter
n), while the three-phase is employed
bidirectional ac–dc to
converterthe
interface operates
system with only aone
with leg, acting as ac
single-phase a bidirectional
power grid buck–boost
(terminals dc–dc a, converter.
n), while the
In battery charging
three-phase mode, an
bidirectional additional
ac–dc inductor
converter (L1 ) is used
operates withto reduce
only the onebattery
leg, current
acting as a
ripple, although the authors note that it is possible to use the electric machine windings,
bidirectional buck–boost dc–dc converter. In battery charging mode, an additional
with the trade-off of a higher current ripple. The IBC patented in 1992 [13] concerns the
inductor (L1) is used to reduce the battery current ripple, although the authors note that it
application of two induction machines or, alternatively, one electric machine with two
is sets
possible to use composed
of windings, the electric machine
of two windings,
three-phase three-leg with the trade-off
bidirectional ac–dcofconverters,
a higher as current
ripple.
shown The IBC patented
in Figure in 1992
3b. In traction mode, [13]each
concerns
of thesethe application
converters of two
controls induction
one electric machines
machine
or,independently.
alternatively,Inone electric machine with two sets of windings,
battery charging mode, the two terminals of a single-phase ac power composed of two
three-phase three-legtobidirectional
grid are connected the neutral point ac–dc converters,
of each as shown
of the electric machine in Figure 3b. In traction
stator windings,
such each
mode, that the three-phase
of these bidirectional
converters controls converters
one electric operate in a three-phase
machine independently. interleaved
In battery
charging mode, the two terminals of a single-phase ac power grid are connectedtoto the
configuration of a full-bridge single-phase bidirectional ac–dc converter. In contrast
the solution patented in 1990, this IBC does not use external inductors. The IBC patented
neutral point of each of the electric machine stator windings, such that the three-phase
in 1994 [14] (Figure 3c) consists of an adaptation of the previously patented solutions
bidirectional converters operate in a three-phase interleaved configuration of a full-bridge
with the purpose of operating either in single-phase or three-phase ac power grids, using
single-phase bidirectional
eleven contactors (K1 –K11 ). ac–dc
Contactorsconverter.
K1 –K3 are Inresponsible
contrast toforthe solutionthe
connecting patented
system toina 1990,
this IBC does ac
three-phase not use external
power inductors.
grid (terminals The
a, b, c), IBC patented
whereas K4 and K5inhave 1994 the[14]
role(Figure 3c) consists
of connecting
of the
an adaptation
electric machine stator windings in a star configuration. Contactors K6 –K11 are used toeither
of the previously patented solutions with the purpose of operating
in interface
single-phase or three-phase
the system ac poweracgrids,
with a single-phase powerusing eleven contactors
grid (terminals (K1case,
a’, n). In this –K11).KContactors
6 and
K7 3remain
K1–K open and Kfor
are responsible 8 –Kconnecting
11 are closed.the Assystem
in the system patented in 1990
to a three-phase [12], an
ac power external
grid (terminals
inductor is used
a, b, c), whereas K4 and (L 1 ). Unlike the topology patented in 1992 [13], which
K5 have the role of connecting the electric machine stator windings only needs access to
the neutral points of the electric machine stator windings,
in a star configuration. Contactors K6–K11 are used to interface the system with a this topology needs access to all
six terminals in order to perform the connection to a three-phase ac power grid, with the
single-phase ac power grid (terminals a’, n). In this case, K6 and K7 remain open and K8–
stator windings behaving as coupling inductors. The three IBCs patented by W. Rippel and
K11A.are closed.
Cocconi haveAsa in the system
common patented
characteristic, in 1990
namely, the [12], an external
requirement for theinductor
power grid is peak
used (L1).
Unlike
voltage to be lower than the EV battery voltage, as is the case for any voltage source ac–dcpoints
the topology patented in 1992 [13], which only needs access to the neutral
of converter
the electricwith machine
a single stator
dc link,windings,
i.e., without this topology
being split. needs access to all six terminals in
order to perform the connection to a three-phase ac power grid, with the stator windings
behaving as coupling inductors. The three IBCs patented by W. Rippel and A. Cocconi
have a common characteristic, namely, the requirement for the power grid peak voltage
to be lower than the EV battery voltage, as is the case for any voltage source ac–dc
converter with a single dc link, i.e., without being split.
Energies 2022, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 of 27
Energies 2022, 15, 2756 5 of 27

L1
S1 S3 S5
D1 D3 La
a Lb
van C1 vbat
Lc
n
Electric S2 S4 S6
D2 D4 Machine

(a)

S1 S3 S5 S7 S9 S11
L1a L2a
L1b L2b
C1 vbat
L1c L2c

Electric Electric
S2 S4 S6
Machine a n Machine S8 S10 S12
van
(b)
va'n
a' n
S1 S3 S5 S7
L1 K8,9 K10,11
K1 La K6
a
vab K2 K4 Lb K7 C1 vbat
vca b
vbc K3 K Lc
5
c
Electric S2 S4 S6 S8
Machine

(c)
Figure 3. EV
Figure IBCs
3. EV proposed
IBCs proposedby:
by:(a)
(a)W.
W. Rippel in1990
Rippel in 1990[12];
[12];(b)
(b)
W.W. Rippel
Rippel andand A. Cocconi
A. Cocconi in 1992
in 1992 [13]; [13];
(c) A. Cocconi in 1994 [14].
(c) A. Cocconi in 1994 [14].

In 2001,
In 2001, L. Solero
L. Solero proposed
proposed ananIBC
IBCfor
foran
anelectric
electricscooter
scooter[15].
[15].This
Thissystem
system cancan be
be seen
seen in Figure 4a. It is composed of a three-phase three-leg bidirectional
in Figure 4a. It is composed of a three-phase three-leg bidirectional ac–dc converter ac–dc converter
(insulated gate bipolar transistors (IGBTs) S1 –S6 ) and a diode full-bridge single-phase
(insulated gate bipolar transistors (IGBTs) S1–S6) and a diode full-bridge single-phase ac–
ac–dc converter (diodes D –D ). In traction mode, only the three-phase bidirectional
dc converter (diodes D1–D4).1 In4 traction mode, only the three-phase bidirectional ac–dc
ac–dc converter is used, controlling the electric machine, which is of the three-phase
converter is used,
type. During controlling
battery the electric
charging mode, machine,
the diode which
full-bridge is of theac–dc
single-phase three-phase
convertertype.
During battery charging mode, the diode full-bridge single-phase ac–dc
is also used to interface the system with a single-phase ac power grid (terminals a, n), converter is also
used to the
with interface the system
three-phase with aac–dc
bidirectional single-phase ac poweras
converter operating grid (terminalsinterleaved
a three-phase a, n), with the
three-phase bidirectional ac–dc converter operating as a three-phase behave
bidirectional buck–boost dc–dc converter. In this system, the stator windings interleaved
as dc–dc converter
bidirectional buck–boost inductors,
dc–dcand the neutral
converter. pointsystem,
In this is connected to thewindings
the stator positive output
behave as
terminal of the diode full-bridge single-phase ac–dc converter.
dc–dc converter inductors, and the neutral point is connected to the positive output In this case, the power
grid peak voltage cannot be higher than the battery voltage due to the boost operation
terminal of the diode full-bridge single-phase ac–dc converter. In this case, the power grid
of the dc–dc converter from the power grid to the battery. In 2010, G. Pellegrino et al.
peak voltage cannot be higher than the battery voltage due to the boost operation of the
proposed a similar system with an additional bidirectional dc–dc converter between
dc–dc
the converter
battery and from
the dc thelink
power
of thegrid to the battery.
three-phase In 2010,ac–dc
bidirectional G. Pellegrino
converter,etendowed
al. proposed
a similar system
with power withcorrection
factor an additional
(PFC) bidirectional dc–dc
characteristics andconverter
allowing the between
batterythe battery and
charging
theoperation
dc link offromthe power
three-phase bidirectional
grids with peak valuesac–dc converter,
that can be higherendowed withthepower
or lower than batteryfactor
correction (PFC) characteristics and allowing the battery charging operation from power
grids with peak values that can be higher or lower than the battery voltage [16]. This
topology can be seen in Figure 4b. It should be noted that the authors did not specify the
dc–dc converter topology.
 Energies 2022, 15, 2756 6 of 27

nergies 2022, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 of 27

voltage [16]. This topology can be seen in Figure 4b. It should be noted that the authors
did not specify the dc–dc converter topology.

S1 S3 S5
La
Lb
C2 vbat
D1 D3 Lc
a
van C1 L1 Electric
n S2 S4 S6
Machine
D2 D4
(a)

S1 S3 S5 Bidirectional
La dc-dc
Lb Converter
C2 vbat
D1 D3 Lc
a
van C1 L1 Electric
n S2 S4 S6
Machine
D2 D4
(b)
Figure 4. EV4. IBCs
Figure proposed
EV IBCs by:
proposed by:(a)
(a)L.
L. Solero in2001
Solero in 2001[15];
[15];
(b)(b) G. Pellegrino
G. Pellegrino et al. et al. in[16].
in 2010 2010 [16].

In 2013,
In 2013, O. Hegazy
O. Hegazy et et
al.al.proposed
proposedthe the IBC
IBC presented
presentedininFigure Figure 5, 5,which
whichis based
is based on
on an eight-switch three-phase ac–dc converter (S 1 –S
an eight-switch three-phase ac–dc converter (S1–S8) and a two-phase interleaved buck– 8 ) and a two-phase interleaved
buck–boost dc–dc converter (S9 –S12 ), both bidirectional [17]. The ac–dc converter is
boostcomposed
dc–dc converter (S9–S12), both bidirectional [17]. The ac–dc converter is composed of
of three legs, one of them with two switches (S7 and S8 ) and the other two
threewith
legs,three
one switches
of them (S with two switches (S7 and S8) and the other two with three switches
1 –S6 ). This approach allows a three-phase three-leg bidirectional
(S1–Sac–dc
6). This approach
converter (S2 , allows
S3 , S5 , S6a, three-phase three-leg bidirectional
S7 , S8 ) to be simultaneously established ac–dcwith a converter
full-bridge (S2, S3,
S5, S6single-phase
, S7, S8) to bebidirectional
simultaneously ac–dcestablished
converter (Swith 1 , S 2 ,a S full-bridge
4 , S 5 or S 1 , Ssingle-phase
3 , S 4 , S bidirectional
6 connected
),
with a three-phase electric machine and a single-phase
ac–dc converter (S1, S2, S4, S5 or S1, S3, S4, S6), connected with a three-phase electric ac power grid (terminals a, n),
machine
respectively. Since the electric machine and the power grid are connected to different
and a single-phase ac power grid (terminals a, n), respectively. Since the electric machine
terminals of the ac–dc converter, no system reconfiguration is necessary in order to
and the power
change grid are connected
the operation mode between to different
machine driveterminals and battery of thecharging,
ac–dc converter,
and henceno nosystem
reconfiguration is necessary in order to change the operation
relays or contactors are used. The only additional element is an inductor (L1 ), serving mode between machine
drivetheand battery
purpose charging,the
of interfacing and hence with
converter no relays
the power or grid.
contactors
In order areto used.
guaranteeThe only
the proper operation of the converter,
additional element is an inductor (L1), serving 1the purpose IGBTs S and S 4 are kept permanently closed
of interfacing the converter
within thetraction
powermode grid.soInthat
ordercurrent flow in thethe
to guarantee three-phase
proper operation three-leg bidirectional
of the converter, ac–dc IGBTs
converter (S2 , S3 , S5 , S6 , S7 , S8 ) is allowed, while in battery charging mode IGBTs S2
S1 and S4 are kept permanently closed in traction mode so that current flow in the three-
and S5 (or S3 and S6 ) are kept permanently closed in order to allow current flow in the
phase three-legsingle-phase
bidirectional ac–dc converter (S2, S3, (S S5,, S 6, S7, S8) is allowed, while in
full-bridge bidirectional ac–dc converter 1 S2 , S4 , S5 or S1 , S3 , S4 , S6 ),
battery charging mode IGBTs S and S (or
while the third leg (S7 and S8 ) is kept permanently open.
2 5 S 3 and S 6 ) are kept permanently closed in order
to allow current flow in the full-bridge single-phase bidirectional ac–dc converter (S1, S2,
S4, S5 or S1, S3, S4, S6), while the third leg (S7 and S8) is kept permanently open.
Energies
Energies2022,
2022, 15,
15, x FOR PEER REVIEW
2756 7 of 27
7 of 27
S1 S4 S9 S11
L1
a
van
L2
n S1 S4 S9 S11
L1
a S2 S5 S7 C1
van La
L2 L3
n Lb
Lc S2 S5 S7 C1
La
L3
Lb
Electric S3 S6 S8 S10 S12 vbat
Machine
Lc

Electric S S S8 S10[17]. S12 vbat

Figure 5.Machine 3
EV IBC proposed 6 O. Hegazy
by et al. in 2013

2.2. Integrated Battery Chargers for Switched Reluctance Machines

Figure 5. EV IBC proposed by O. Hegazy et al. in 2013 [17].
Figure 5. EV IBC proposed by O. Hegazy et al. in 2013 [17].
In 2000, C. Pollock and W. K. Thong proposed an IBC based on a two-phase
2.2.
2.2. Integrated
IntegratedBattery
BatteryChargers
Chargersforfor
Switched Reluctance
Switched Machines
Reluctance Machines
[18], as shown in Figure 6. As well as the converter that is typically used for tra
In
In2000,
systems in C.
2000, C.Pollock
this typeand
Pollock W. W.
and
of K. Thong
machine K. Thong proposed an IBCanbased
proposed
(asymmetrical IBC on
dc–ac a two-phase
based SRM [18],SRM
on a two-phase
converter), in this case o
as shown
[18], as shownin Figurein 6. As well as
Figure 6. Asmetal the converter
well oxide that is typically
as the semiconductor
converter that isfieldused for
typically traction
used systems
for traction
two-phase
in this type of machine (asymmetrical dc–ac converter), in this case of the two-phase type (MOSF
type (comprising effect transistors
systems in this type of machine (asymmetrical dc–ac converter), in this case of the
S(comprising
2, S3 and diodes D6, Dsemiconductor
metal oxide 7), it also uses aneffect
field energy recovery
transistors circuitS2(inductor
(MOSFETs) , S3 and diodesL2, capacit
two-phase type (comprising metal oxide semiconductor field effect transistors (MOSFETs)
MOSFET
D6 , D7 ), it alsoS4 anduses diode
an energy D8), an additional
recovery inductor
circuit (inductor (L1) coupled
L2 , capacitor to one
C4 , MOSFET of the ma
S4 and
S2, S3 and
diode D ),
diodes
an
D6, D7),
additional
it also uses
inductor (L )
an energy
coupled to
recovery
one of the
circuit
machine
(inductor
phases
L2, this
(in
capacitor
case,
C4,
phases (in
8 this case, L a) with the respective diode (D5) and IGBT (S1) and a diode full-b
1
LMOSFET S4 and diode D8), an additional inductor (L1) coupled to one of the machine
a ) with the respective diode (D5 ) and IGBT (S1 ) and a diode full-bridge single-phase ac–dc
single-phase
phases (in this ac–dc
case, Lconverter (D1–D4) for
a) with the respective diodeinterfacing
(D5) and IGBT with
(S1)aandsingle-phase ac power
a diode full-bridge
converter (D 1 –D4 ) for interfacing with a single-phase ac power grid (terminals a, n). The
(terminals
single-phase
additional a, n). The
ac–dc
inductor additional
Lconverter inductor
(D1–D L1 is onlywith
4) for interfacing useda in battery charging
single-phase
1 is only used in battery charging mode, making the system operate
ac power mode,
grid ma
the
as asystem
(terminals
flyback a, operate
isolated as aconverter.
n). Thedc–dc
additionalflyback
inductorisolated
In dc–dc
L1 is only
addition, usedconverter.
capacitor inCbattery In addition,
charging
1 and resistor mode,
R1 form capacitor
an making
RC C
the system operate as a flyback isolated dc–dc converter.
resistor R1 form an RC snubber and are also only used in battery charging mode.
snubber and are also only used in battery charging mode. In addition, capacitor C1 and
resistor R1 form an RC snubber and are also only used in battery charging mode.

C
C1 RR11 DD 5 D6 D6 D7 D7 C4 C4S S4
1 5 4

L2 L2
DD11 D33
aa LL
1 1 La La Lb Lb
van
van CC22 C3 vbat
SRM C3 Dv8bat D8
nn SRM
D D S1 S2 S3
D22 D44 S1 S2 S3

Figure 6. EV IBC based on SRMs proposed by C. Pollock and W. K. Thong in 2000 [18].
Figure
Figure 6. EV EVIBC
IBCbased
based on on
SRMs SRMs proposed
proposed by C. Pollock
by C. Pollock and W. K.and ThongW.inK.2000
Thong
[18]. in 2000 [18].
In 2009, H. C. Chang and C. M. Liaw proposed an IBC based on four-phase SRMs, as
In 2009, H. C. Chang and C. M. Liaw proposed an IBC based on four-phase SRMs, as
shown In inin Figure
2009, H.7a,7a,Chang
C. with theand four-phase asymmetrical
C. M.asymmetrical
Liaw proposed dc–ac converter (comprising IGBTsSRM
shown Figure with the four-phase dc–acan IBC based
converter on four-phase
(comprising IGBTs
S
shown1 –S
S1 –S8 and
8 and diodes
in Figure
diodes D
D
7a, 1–D ) operating as a PFC converter in battery
with the four-phase asymmetrical dc–ac converter (comprising
8 charging mode [19]. In I
1 –D8 ) operating as a PFC converter in battery charging mode [19]. In
this
Sthis system,
1–S8system,
and diodesin traction
D1–D
in traction mode, the
8) operating
mode, unidirectional
as a PFC
the unidirectional boostboost dc–dc
converter converter
in battery
dc–dc converter formed
charging
formed by
by IGBT IGBT
mode [1
SS99,, diode
this
diode D D9 and
system,9 in
inductor
andtraction
inductormode,L
L11 is
is used
used to step
step up
up the
the tounidirectional the voltage
voltage from the
boostfrom the battery
dc–dc battery
converter
to
to the
the dc
dc link by
formed
of the asymmetric dc–ac
dc–acconverter.
converter.On On the otherhand,hand,ininbattery
battery charging mode,
the the
Slink of the asymmetric the other
9, diode D9 and inductor L1 is used to step up the voltage from the battery to the d
unidirectionalboost boost dc–dc converter is not used,
charging mode,
unidirectional dc–dc converter is not used, and and two
two of theofstator
the stator windings
windings are usedareasused
ofinput
asthe inputasymmetric
passive
passive (indc–ac
filtersfiltersthis(in converter.
casethis Lb ) ofLaaOn
La , case Lb)the
,diode aother
diodehand,
offull-bridge in battery
full-bridge
single-phase charging
single-phase
ac–dc converter ac–dcmode
unidirectional
(Dconverter (D1for
1 –D4 ) used –Dboost
) used dc–dc
4interfacing converter
for interfacing
with is not
with
a single-phase used,
a single-phase
ac power andgrid two
ac of the
power stator
grid
(terminals n). windings
One ofa, n). are
a,(terminals
asOne input passive
of the remaining filters (in this
stator windings case (inLa, this
Lb) case
of a Ldiode
d) is usedfull-bridge single-phase
as an inductor for a a
unidirectional
converter (D1–D buck–boost
4) used for dc–dc converter,
interfacing which
with is composed of
a single-phase actwo IGBTs
power (S7,(terminals
grid S8) and
Onea diode (D8) that
of the belong tostator
remaining the traction converter.
windings (in In battery
this casecharging mode, as
Ld) is used an extra diode
an inductor
unidirectional buck–boost dc–dc converter, which is composed of two IGBTs (S7, S8
 Energies 2022, 15, 2756 8 of 27

Energies 2022, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 27

the remaining stator windings (in this case Ld ) is used as an inductor for a unidirectional
buck–boost dc–dc converter, which is composed of two IGBTs (S7 , S8 ) and a diode (D8 )
(Dthat
10) is also used to avoid short-circuiting the battery when S8 is turned on. This diode
belong to the traction converter. In battery charging mode, an extra diode (D10 ) is
exists
also onusedboard the EV
to avoid but its connection
short-circuiting is performed
the battery when Sthrough an off-board shunt; hence,
8 is turned on. This diode exists
it on
is represented
board the EVwith but itsa connection
dashed line. Moreover, through
is performed two contactors are used,
an off-board shunt;one with
hence, two
it is
positions
represented (K1)with
and athe otherline.
dashed withMoreover,
three (K2two
). Contactor
contactorsK1are
remains closed
used, one withintwo
traction mode
positions
and(K1 )isand
opened in battery
the other charging
with three mode, connecting
(K2 ). Contactor K1 remainscapacitor
closed inCtraction
2 in parallel
mode with
and isthe
opened in
converter battery
legs charging
in traction mode,
mode. connecting
Contactor capacitor
K2 allows C2 xintoparallel
point with thetoconverter
be connected one of two
legs independing
points, traction mode. on theContactor
operation K2 mode, point x to
allows namely, tobe connected
point to one mode
y in traction of twoand
points,
point
on the operation mode, namely, to point y
z in battery charging mode. In 2011, the same authors proposed modifications to in
depending in traction mode and point z this
batteryallowing
system, chargingthe mode. In 2011,
battery to bethe same authors
charged through proposed modifications
a buck–boost or a buck toconfiguration,
this system,
allowing
with the battery
the latter being to be charged through
advantageous in the asense
buck–boost
that it or a buck
inserts anconfiguration, with the
inductor in series with
latter being advantageous in the sense that it inserts an inductor in series with the battery,
the battery, reducing its current ripple [20]. This topology is shown in Figure 7b, where it
reducing its current ripple [20]. This topology is shown in Figure 7b, where it can be seen
can be seen that the asymmetric dc–ac converter has a modified structure, using five IGBT
that the asymmetric dc–ac converter has a modified structure, using five IGBT legs (S1 –S10 )
legs (S1–S10) instead of four IGBT pairs and four diode pairs, reducing the semiconductor
instead of four IGBT pairs and four diode pairs, reducing the semiconductor count from 16
count
to 10.from 16 to 10.
In contrast In system
to the contrast to the system
previously proposedpreviously proposed
by the authors, onlyby the
one authors,(Konly
contactor 1)
one contactor (K 1) is used, which is responsible for connecting the capacitor C2 in parallel
is used, which is responsible for connecting the capacitor C2 in parallel with the converter
with
legs the converter
in traction mode. legs indiode
Like traction mode. Like
D10 presented diode
in the D10 presented
previous in the
topology, diode D1 previous
serves
topology,
the purpose diode D1 serves
of avoiding the purpose of
short-circuiting theavoiding short-circuiting
battery during its chargingthe battery
process whenduring
IGBT its
charging process when IGBT S10 is conducting.
S10 is conducting.

K2 y
x
z
S1 D1 S3 D3 S5 D5 S7 D7 K1
D9

L1
SRM La Lb Lc Ld C2
D10
D2 D4 D6 D8
vbat
S2 S4 S6 S8 S9 C3

C1
a van n
(a)

S1 S3 S5 S7 S9 K1 S11

La Lb Lc Ld L1
SRM C2
D1
C1 vbat
S2 S4 S6 S8 S10 S12 C3

a van n
(b)
Figure
Figure7.7.EVEV IBCs based
IBCs on on
based SRMs proposed
SRMs by by
proposed H. H.
C. Chang andand
C. Chang C. M.
C. Liaw in: (a)
M. Liaw in: 2009 [19];[19];
(a) 2009
(b)(b)2011 [20].
2011 [20].

In 2014, Y. Hu et al. proposed an IBC for plug-in hybrid vehicles based on three-phase
SRMs [21]. This topology is shown in Figure 8a. It is composed of an asymmetric dc–ac
converter based on n + 1 switches (S1–S4) and n + 1 diodes (D7–D10), where n is the number
of machine phases. This converter is also known as a Miller converter and is an alternative
 behave as output inductors and the battery current is divided between the three windings.
The input of the diode full-bridge three-phase ac–dc converter (terminals a, b, c) can be
used for interfacing either with a power grid (single-phase ac, three-phase ac or dc) or a
generator mechanically coupled with the internal combustion engine (ICE) of the vehicle
via contactors K1 and K2. These contactors are closed whenever the ICE-coupled generator
Energies 2022, 15, 2756 9 of 27
is used, as is the case for generator-only driving and hybrid driving in traction mode.
Contactor K3 is used in traction mode, either in generator-only driving, battery-only
driving or hybrid driving, and should be kept open in battery charging mode in order to
In 2014,
establish a buck Y. Hu et al.
dc–dc proposed
converter. an IBC for
Contactor K4 plug-in
is closedhybrid
whenevervehicles
the based
batteryonisthree-
used,
either in traction mode (in battery-only driving and hybrid driving modes)anand
phase SRMs [21]. This topology is shown in Figure 8a. It is composed of asymmetric
in battery
dc–ac converter based on n + 1 switches (S1 –S4 ) and n + 1 diodes (D7 –D10 ), where n
charging mode.
is the number of machine phases. This converter is also known as a Miller converter
In 2015, the same authors proposed the IBC presented in Figure 8b, for application in
and is an alternative to the more commonly used version for SRM drives, in which 2n
EVs or plug-in hybrid vehicles, based on four-phase SRMs with two sets of stator
switches and 2n diodes are used. By adding a diode full-bridge three-phase ac–dc converter
windings [22]. Two asymmetrical converters with 2n switches and 2n diodes are
(D1 –D6 ) and two contactors (K3 and K4 ), the asymmetric converter can operate as a dc–ac
employed, with each one applied to two machine phases, and a battery set is connected
converter for driving the machine or as a buck dc–dc converter, where the machine stator
towindings
the dc link of each
behave as converter. Hence,and
output inductors eachthe
of battery
these converters
current is can operate
divided independently
between the three
inwindings.
traction mode. Regarding the battery charging mode, this topology
The input of the diode full-bridge three-phase ac–dc converter (terminals allows operation
a, b,
with
c) candcbeand
usedsingle-phase ac power
for interfacing grids,a power
either with where grid
both(single-phase
converters are ac,connected
three-phase toaceach
or
other
dc) orinatwo of the phases
generator (b, c) and
mechanically the other
coupled withtwo
the (a, d) operate
internal as connection
combustion terminals
engine (ICE) of the to
the power
vehicle viagrid (terminals
contactors K1 anda, n).
K2In the case
. These of a dc power
contactors are closedgrid, the converters
whenever operate as
the ICE-coupled
two cascade-connected split-pi unidirectional buck–boost dc–dc converters,
generator is used, as is the case for generator-only driving and hybrid driving in traction whereas in
the case of a single-phase ac power grid the converters operate as a
mode. Contactor K3 is used in traction mode, either in generator-only driving, battery-only five-level cascaded
h-bridge
driving or ac–dc
hybridconverter
driving,(despite having
and should bemore
kept semiconductors than necessary).
open in battery charging mode inInorder
both
cases, due toa the
to establish buckboost
dc–dc operation
converter.ofContactor
the converter from the
K4 is closed power the
whenever gridbattery
to eachis set
used,of
batteries,
either in the power
traction grid(in
mode peak voltage should
battery-only drivingbeand
lower thandriving
hybrid the battery
modes)voltage
and for proper
in battery
charging mode.
operation in battery charging mode.

Electric K3 K4
Machine
coupled D1 D3 D5 S1 D8 D9 D10
to ICE K1 K2
a SRM
vab
vca b C1 La Lb Lc vbat
vbc
c

D2
Energies 2022, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW D4 D6 D7 S2 S3 S4 10 of 27

(a)

S1 D2 S3 D4
La1 Lb1
a La2 C1 vbat1 Lb2

SRM D1 S2 D3 S4 SRM
(phase a) (phase b)
van

S7 D8 S5 D6
Ld1 Lc1

n Ld2 C2 vbat2 Lc2

SRM D7 S8 D5 S6 SRM
(phase d) (phase c)

(b)
Figure
Figure8.8.EV
EVIBCs
IBCsbased
basedon
onSRMs
SRMsproposed
proposedby
by Y.
Y. Hu
Hu et
et al.
al. in:
in: (a)
(a) 2014 [21]; (b)
2014 [21]; (b) 2015
2015 [22].
[22].

K.W. Hu et al. proposed, also in 2015, an IBC with additional operation modes,
namely, vehicle-to-grid (V2G) and vehicle-to-home (V2H) [23] modes. This topology can
be seen in Figure 9 and is based on a four-phase SRM and an asymmetric dc–ac converter
similar to the one presented in 2011 [20] with five switch legs (S1–S6 and S8–S11) but also
Energies 2022, 15, 2756 10 of 27

In 2015, the same authors proposed the IBC presented in Figure 8b, for application
in EVs or plug-in hybrid vehicles, based on four-phase SRMs with two sets of stator
windings [22]. Two asymmetrical converters with 2n switches and 2n diodes are employed,
with each one applied to two machine phases, and a battery set is connected to the dc link
of each converter. Hence, each of these converters can operate independently in traction
mode. Regarding the battery charging mode, this topology allows operation with dc and
single-phase ac power grids, where both converters are connected to each other in two
of the phases (b, c) and the other two (a, d) operate as connection terminals to the power
grid (terminals a, n). In the case of a dc power grid, the converters operate as two cascade-
connected split-pi unidirectional buck–boost dc–dc converters, whereas in the case of a
single-phase ac power grid the converters operate as a five-level cascaded h-bridge ac–dc
converter (despite having more semiconductors than necessary). In both cases, due to the
boost operation of the converter from the power grid to each set of batteries, the power
grid peak voltage should be lower than the battery voltage for proper operation in battery
charging mode.
K.W. Hu et al. proposed, also in 2015, an IBC with additional operation modes, namely,
vehicle-to-grid (V2G) and vehicle-to-home (V2H) [23] modes. This topology can be seen in
Figure 9 and is based on a four-phase SRM and an asymmetric dc–ac converter similar to
the one presented in 2011 [20] with five switch legs (S1 –S6 and S8 –S11 ) but also with an extra
leg comprising a diode (D1 ) and a switch (S7 ). Moreover, a bidirectional buck–boost dc–dc
converter is used (IGBTs S12 , S13 and inductor L4 ), which may be reconfigured to operate
in buck or boost mode in each direction, depending on the states of the three-position
switches K3 and K4 . In traction mode, these switches are configured in order to connect
points x1 , x2 to points y1 , y2 , respectively, linking the higher voltage side (leg formed by
S12 , S13 ) to the battery and linking the lower voltage side (inductor L4 ) to the asymmetrical
dc–ac converter dc link. In this regard, when the intention is to drive the machine, the
bidirectional buck–boost dc–dc converter operates in buck mode during regular traction
mode and in boost mode during regenerative braking, and hence the battery voltage must
be higher than the dc link voltage of the asymmetrical dc–ac converter. On the other hand,
in battery charging mode, the switches K3 , K4 are configured in order to connect points x1 ,
x2 to points z1 , z2 , respectively, linking the higher voltage side (leg formed by S12 , S13 ) to the
asymmetric dc–ac converter dc link and linking the lower voltage side (inductor L4 ) to the
battery. In battery charging mode, the bidirectional buck–boost dc–dc converter operates
in buck mode during the conventional battery charging operation, i.e., in grid-to-vehicle
(G2V) mode, and in boost mode during V2G or V2H operation modes, and therefore the dc
link voltage must be higher than the battery voltage. The battery charging operation can be
performed via a single-phase or a two-phase (using only one phase-to-phase voltage) ac
power grid, where a single-phase three-wire bidirectional ac–dc converter is used, which
is implicit in the asymmetric dc–ac converter (S1 –S6 ). In order to connect the system to
the power grid, two contactors (K1 , K2 ), three inductors (L1 , L2 , L3 ) and two capacitors (C1 ,
C2 ) are used, where the three-wire interface (terminals a, n, b) allows two phase-to-neutral
voltages (van , vbn ) and a phase-to-phase voltage (vab ) to be obtained.
In 2018, M. Ma et al. proposed an IBC for plug-in hybrid vehicles based on SRMs, as
shown in Figure 10 [24]. This topology consists of the asymmetric dc–ac converter typically
used in SRMs (IGBTs S2 –S7 and diodes D9 –D14 ) with the addition of a boost PFC stage
(diodes D1 –D6 , capacitor C1 , inductor L1 and MOSFET S1 ) to connect to a three-phase ac
power grid (terminals a, b, c) or to a generator mechanically coupled to the ICE of the
vehicle, using contactors K1 –K3 . Both stages are linked through a bridge formed by the
diodes D7 and D8 and two battery sets (vbat1 , vbat2 ), each with the respective capacitor
connected in parallel (C2 , C3 ) and a contactor connected in series (K4 , K5 ), behaving as
an energy recovery circuit. The contactors present in this topology have the purpose of
enabling or preventing the use of the power provided by the generator (K1 –K3 ) or by the
batteries (K4 , K5 ), making it possible to use the former, the latter or a combination of both,
as required in a hybrid vehicle.
 4

La Lb Lc Ld
SRM C3 C4 vbat

nergies 2022, 15, 2022,

Energies x FOR 15,PEER
2756 REVIEW 11 of 27 11 of 27
S2 S4 S6 S7 S9 S11 S13

K1 K2 y2 z2
z1 K4 x2
L1 L2 L3 K3 xy1
C1 C2 1

S1 Sa3 van nS5 vbn b D1 S8 S10 S12 L4

vab
La Lb Lc Ld
Figure 9. EV SRM CHu
IBC based on SRMs proposed by K. W. 3 et al. in 2015 C
[23].
4 vbat

In 2018, M. Ma et al. proposed an IBC for plug-in hybrid vehicles based on SRMs, as
shown in Figure 10 [24]. This topology consists of the asymmetric dc–ac converter
S2 S4 S6 used S
typically
S9 S2–S7 and
in7 SRMs (IGBTs
S11 diodes D9S –D1314) with the addition of a boost PFC

stage (diodes D1–D6, capacitor C1, inductor L1 and MOSFET S1) to connect to a three-phase
K1 K2 ac power grid (terminals a, b, c) or to a generator mechanically coupled to the ICE of the
vehicle, using contactors K1–K3. Both stages are linked through a bridge formed by the
L1 L2 D7 and
diodes L3D8 and two battery sets (vbat1, vbat2), each with the respective capacitor
C1 connected
C2 in parallel (C2, C3) and a contactor connected in series (K4, K5), behaving as an
a van energy
n vbnrecovery b circuit. The contactors present in this topology have the purpose of
enabling
vab or preventing the use of the power provided by the generator (K1–K3) or by the
batteries (K4, K5), making it possible to use the former, the latter or a combination of both,
asFigure
Figurerequired
9. EV EVinIBC
9. IBC a hybrid
based
based vehicle.
onon
SRMs
SRMsproposed byK.K.W.W.
proposed by HuHu et in
et al. al.2015
in 2015
[23]. [23].

L1 et al. proposed an IBC for plug-in hybrid vehicles based on SRMs, as

In 2018, M. Ma
Electric
shown in Figure 10 [24]. This topology consists of the asymmetric dc–ac converter
Machine
coupled
D7 C3S2–S7 andvbat2
typically used in SRMs (IGBTs diodes D9–D14) with the addition of a boost PFC
to ICE K1 K2 K3 stage (diodes D1–D6, capacitor C1, inductor L1 and MOSFET S1) to connect to a three-phase
K5
D1ac D
power
3 D5grid (terminals a, b, c) or to a generator mechanically coupled to the ICE of the
vehicle, using contactors K1–K3. Both stages are linked through a bridge formed by the
diodes D7 and D8 and two battery sets S2 (vbat1D, 9vbat2),S4eachDwith
11 Sthe
6 D13
respective capacitor
a connected in parallel (C2, C3) and a contactor connected in series (K4, K5), behaving as an
vab energy recovery circuit. The contactors present in this topology have the purpose of
vca b enabling orCpreventing
1 S1 the use SRM La provided
of the power Lb by the generator
Lc (K1–K3) or by the
vbc batteries (K4, K5), making it possible to use the former, the latter or a combination of both,
c as required in a hybrid vehicle. D10 D12 D14
S3 S5 S7
L1
Electric D2 D4 D6
Machine
C2 D7 C3vbat1 D8 vbat2
coupled
to ICE K1 K2 K3 K4
K5
D1 D3Figure
D5 10. IBC for plug-in hybrid vehicles based on SRMs proposed by M. Ma et al. in 2018 [24].
Figure 10. IBC for plug-in hybrid vehicles based on SRMs proposed by M. Ma et al. in 2018 [24].
S 9 D
In 2020, H. Cheng et al. proposed the 2IBC for plug-in 4
hybrid 11 S
vehicles 6
based
D
on13SRMs
S D
a presented in Figure 11a [25]. Like the previously presented IBC, this proposal comprises a
vab connection to an electric machine coupled to the ICE of the vehicle or to a power grid, in
this case not three-phase ac but SRM
single-phase ac. As well as allowing the connection to the
vca b C1battery,
traction Laconnection to L
S1 this topology also allows the Lc The front-
b auxiliary battery.
the
vbc end converter employed in this case is a diode full-bridge ac–dc converter (diodes D1 –D6 ),
c while the converter for driving the machineD10 is formed by D12IGBTs S1 –S4 , D
diodes D7 –D10 ,
14
capacitor C3 and inductor L1 . Like the IBC for SRMs first presented in this section, this
S3 S5 S7
D2 D4 D6
C2 vbat1 D8
 Energies 2022, 15, 2756 12 of 27

IBC uses an energy recovery circuit, which is based on IGBT S4 , diode D10 , capacitor C3
and inductor L1 . The converter used to charge the auxiliary battery is a unidirectional
isolated half-bridge dc–dc converter, which is formed by IGBTs S5 and S6 , a high frequency
transformer to step down the voltage, diodes D11 and D12 , inductor L2 and capacitor C4 .
The series connection of capacitors C1 and C2 establishes a midpoint available to this
converter. In terms of operation modes, this IBC allows charging the traction battery from
the power grid, charging the auxiliary battery from the electric machine coupled to the ICE
or charging the auxiliary battery from the traction battery. In order to change the operation
mode, five contactors are used (K1 –K5 ), where the first three (K1 –K3 ) have the purpose of
Energies 2022, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW disconnecting the electric machine coupled to the ICE (when the power grid is connected), 13 of 27
K4 is used when the vehicle is driving in hybrid mode, using the electric machine coupled
to the ICE and K5 is used when the traction battery is used in traction mode.

Electric SRM
Machine K5
coupled
D1 D3 D5 K4 La Lb Lc
to ICE K K K
1 2 3
C1 D7
L1
a
van D8
n D9 S4
C2
D2 D4 D6 S1 S2 S3 C3 D10 vbat1

S5 D11 L2
n:1:1

C4 vbat2
D12

S6

(a)
K5
Electric
Machine
coupled D1 D2 D3 S4 S6 D5 S8 D7 S10 D9
K1 to ICE
K6
van a K3 C1
n K L1 La Lb Lc SRM
2

K4 D4 D6 D8

S1 S2 S3 vbat1 S5 S7 S9 S11 vbat2

(b)
Figure 11.11.
Figure IBCs
IBCsforfor
plug-in hybrid
plug-in vehicles
hybrid vehiclesbased
basedon
onSRMs
SRMsproposed
proposed by
by H.
H. Cheng et al.
Cheng et al. in 2020:
in 2020:
(a) (a)
[25]; (b)(b)
[25]; [26].
[26].

In the same
2.3. Integrated year,
Battery the same
Chargers authors
with proposed
Galvanic a similar system in which the electric
Isolation
machine coupled to the ICE is also an SRM (Figure 11b) [26]. In this case, the converter
In 2005, F. Lacressonniere and B. Cassoret proposed two IBCs with galvanic isolation
used to drive the ICE-coupled machine is the same as the converter used to drive the
for industrial EVs [27]. One of these systems aims at application in pallet trucks based on
main machine in the previous proposal, with the main difference that the windings can be
1.5 reconfigured
kW dc machines (Figureto12a),
to be connected a commonwhere galvanic
neutral isolation
or isolated is achieved
via contactor through a
K3 . Similarly,
bidirectional isolated
interfacing with Cuk dc–dc
a single-phase converter
power grid is(inductors
feasible, andL1the
, L2topology
, capacitors
alsoC1, C2, IGBTs
allows S1, S2
charging
andofaboth
transformer
the traction and auxiliary batteries. As well as the converter for driving the ICE- is
with turns ratio N 1 :N 2). As a dc traction drive system, this converter
responsible for both the battery interface and the machine drive. As well as this converter,
it also uses a diode full-bridge single-phase ac–dc converter (D1–D4) to interface the system
with a single-phase ac power grid (terminals a, n) in battery charging mode, with the dc–
dc converter operating as a PFC converter. In order to switch between operation modes,
Energies 2022, 15, 2756 13 of 27

coupled electric machine (IGBTs S1 –S3 and diodes D1 –D3 ), this system uses a typical
asymmetrical dc–ac converter to drive the main SRM (IGBTs S6 –S11 and diodes D4 –D9 ) and
a bidirectional buck–boost dc–dc converter (IGBTs S4 and S5 and inductor L1 ) interfacing
with the traction battery (vbat1 ). The system uses six contactors, where K1 and K2 are used
to interface the converter with a single-phase ac power grid, K3 is used to create the neutral
point of the ICE-coupled SRM as noted, K4 is used to charge the traction battery from
the ICE-coupled SRM, K5 is used to drive the main SRM and K6 is used to charge the
auxiliary battery (vbat2 ). On this basis, there are five possible operation modes during
traction operation, namely: (1) battery-only driving, where the vehicle behaves as an EV;
(2) ICE-coupled SRM-only driving, where the power generated by the SRM is sufficient to
drive the main SRM; (3) ICE-coupled SRM and battery hybrid driving, where the power to
the main SRM comes from the two sources mentioned; (4) ICE-coupled SRM driving and
battery charging, where the power generated by the SRM is more than the power required
to drive the main SRM, and thus the surplus power is used to charge the traction battery;
(5) regenerative braking, where the main SRM acts as a generator and charges the traction
battery. Furthermore, during the battery charging operation (when the vehicle is stationary)
there are three possible operation modes: (1) traction battery charged from the power grid;
(2) auxiliary battery charged from the power grid; (3) auxiliary battery charged from the
traction battery.

2.3. Integrated Battery Chargers with Galvanic Isolation

In 2005, F. Lacressonniere and B. Cassoret proposed two IBCs with galvanic isolation
for industrial EVs [27]. One of these systems aims at application in pallet trucks based
on 1.5 kW dc machines (Figure 12a), where galvanic isolation is achieved through a bidi-
rectional isolated Cuk dc–dc converter (inductors L1 , L2 , capacitors C1 , C2 , IGBTs S1 , S2
and a transformer with turns ratio N1 :N2 ). As a dc traction drive system, this converter is
responsible for both the battery interface and the machine drive. As well as this converter,
it also uses a diode full-bridge single-phase ac–dc converter (D1 –D4 ) to interface the system
with a single-phase ac power grid (terminals a, n) in battery charging mode, with the dc–dc
converter operating as a PFC converter. In order to switch between operation modes, two
three-position switches are used (K1 , K2 ) to change the dc–dc converter connections (points
x1 , x2 ), connecting it either to the machine (points y1 , y2 ) or to the dc link of the ac–dc
converter (points z1 , z2 ). On the other hand, the second IBC proposed by the authors aims
at application in forklifts based on a 6 kW wound rotor induction machine (Figure 12b).
In this case, galvanic isolation is ensured by the machine itself in battery charging mode,
where a three-phase ac power grid (terminals a, b, c) is connected to the rotor windings (Lra ,
Lrb , Lrc ), whose nominal voltage is 400 V, and a three-phase three-leg bidirectional ac–dc
converter (S1 –S6 ) is connected to the stator windings (Lsa , Lsb , Lsc ), whose nominal voltage
is 48 V. In order to switch between operation modes, three three-position contactors are
used (K1 , K2 , K3 ), which short-circuit the rotor windings in traction mode (points y1 , y2 , y3 ),
connecting them in a star configuration and leaving them independent in battery charging
mode in order to connect to the power grid (points z1 , z2 , z3 ). In this way, the bidirectional
ac–dc converter operates as a dc–ac converter in traction mode and as an ac–dc converter
in battery charging mode, controlling the currents absorbed from the power grid and the
charging process of the battery. It should be noted that no additional inductors are used,
with the machine stator windings behaving as inductive filters. It is also important to note
that, in battery charging mode, the rotor must be mechanically braked since the machine is
asynchronous and torque is created whenever its windings are energized.

Energies 2022, 15, 2756
as an ac–dc converter in battery charging mode, controlling the currents absorbed from
the power grid and the charging process of the battery. It should be noted that no
additional inductors are used, with the machine stator windings behaving as inductive
filters. It is also important to note that, in battery charging mode, the rotor must be
mechanically braked since the machine is asynchronous and torque is created 14whenever
of 27

its windings are energized.

y1 K1 L1 C1 N1:N2
C2 L2
Electric x1
z1
Machine La S1 S2 vbat
y2 K
2
z2 x2
D1 D3
a
van
n
D2 D4
(a)

S1 S3 S5
y1 x1
Lra Lsa
a Lrb Lsb
vab z1 y2 K1 x2
vca b C1 vbat
vbc z2 y3 K2 x3 Lrc Lsc
c z3 K3
Electric Machine S2 S4 S6

(b)
Figure 12.12.
Figure EVEVIBCs with
IBCs withgalvanic
galvanicisolation
isolationfor
forindustrial
industrial EVs proposedby
EVs proposed byF.F.Lacressonniere
Lacressonniereandand
B. Cassoret in 2005 [27] for application in: (a) pallet trucks; (b) forklifts.
B. Cassoret in 2005 [27] for application in: (a) pallet trucks; (b) forklifts.

In In2011,
2011,S.S.Haghbin
Haghbinet et al.
al. proposed
proposed an anIBC
IBCwith with galvanic
galvanic isolation
isolation based based on stator
on stator
winding reconfiguration of a three-phase electric machine
winding reconfiguration of a three-phase electric machine [28]. The machine referred [28]. The machine referred to is to is
composed of four stator windings per phase, with all 24
composed of four stator windings per phase, with all 24 winding terminals being winding terminals being externally
accessible. As can be seen in Figure 13a, the only converter present in this topology is
externally accessible. As can be seen in Figure 13a, the only converter present in this
a three-phase three-leg bidirectional ac–dc converter (S1 –S6 ), which is responsible for
topology is a three-phase three-leg bidirectional ac–dc converter (S1–S6), which is
interfacing the battery and the machine. However, 12 relays and a three-phase contactor are
responsible
used in order fortointerfacing
reconfigure the thestator
battery and the
windings. machine.
In Figure 13b, it However,
is possible to12 seerelays
in detail and a
three-phase
the stator windings referring to phase a (La1 , La2 , La3 , La4 ), as well as one of the phases of 13b,
contactor are used in order to reconfigure the stator windings. In Figure
it isthe
possible
three-phaseto see in detail
contactor (K1 )the
andstator windings
the four associated referring
relays (Kto2 –Kphase
5 ), witha each
(La1, relay
La2, Lbeing
a3, La4), as

well as one ofofthe

composed phases opened
a normally of the three-phase
contact and acontactor
normally closed(K1) and one.the In four associated
traction mode, therelays
(K2–Kwindings
5), with of each
each phase
relay are connected
being composed in a series–parallel
of a normally arrangement
opened contact phasea a,normally
(e.g., in and La1
and
closed one.L are connected in series,
a2 In traction mode, the windings as well as L and
a3of eachL , with the two groups being connected
a4 phase are connected in a series–parallel
in parallel with each other), and the machine is connected using a delta configuration. This
arrangement (e.g., in phase a, La1 and La2 are connected in series, as well as La3 and La4, with
configuration is respective to the normally closed state of the four relays. In the case of
the two groups being connected in parallel with each other), and the machine is connected
phase a, its windings are connected to phases a and b of the converter (terminals ca, cb,
using a delta configuration.
respectively). This configuration
In battery charging mode, the windings is respective
of each tophase the are
normally
connected closed
and state
of the four relays. In the case of phase a, its windings are connected
isolated in pairs, where two of them are connected to the converter and the other two to phases a and b of
theareconverter
connected (terminals ca, cb, respectively).
to the respective In battery
phase of a three-phase ac charging
power grid mode, the windings
(terminals a, b, c), of
each phase
while the are connected
neutral and isolated
point is connected to theinpower
pairs,gridwhere two(terminal
neutral of themn). areForconnected
instance, into the
phase a, and
converter La1 andtheLa3 are connected
other in parallel, with
two are connected to theonerespective
of the resultingphase terminals connected ac
of a three-phase
power grida of
to phase the converter
(terminals (terminal
a, b, c), whileca) and
the the other to
neutral a point
point is common
connected to the
to other phases grid
the power
(terminal cn), i.e., the winding Lca is formed by the parallel connection of La1 and La3 . On
neutral (terminal n). For instance, in phase a, La1 and La3 are connected in parallel, with one
the other hand, La2 and La4 are connected in series, where one of the resulting terminals is
of the resulting terminals connected to phase a of the converter (terminal ca) and the other
connected to phase a of the power grid (terminal a) through contactor K1 and the other is
to aconnected
point common to the
to a point common othertophases
the other (terminal cn), i.e.,
phases, which the winding
in turn is connected Lca to
is formed
the power by the
parallel connection
grid neutral (terminalof Ln), andthe
a1 i.e., La3winding
. On theLother hand, La2 and La4 are connected in series,
ga is formed by the series connection of La2 and
where one of the resulting
La4 . Accordingly, terminals
it can be seen that theismachine
connected to phase
operates a of the power
as a transformer, grid (terminal
since there is no
galvanic connection between the two sets of stator windings for the same phase. In 2013,
the same authors analyzed this approach from a practical point of view [29], also giving
Energies 2022, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 15 of 27

a) through contactor K1 and the other is connected to a point common to the other phase
which in turn is connected to the power grid neutral (terminal n), i.e., the winding Lga
a) through
formed by thecontactor K1 and the other
series connection of La2isand
connected to a point common
La4. Accordingly, it can betoseen
the other
that phases,
the machi
Energies 2022, 15, 2756 which in turn is connected to the power grid neutral (terminal n), i.e., the winding 15 of 27Lga is
operates as a transformer, since there is no galvanic connection between the two sets
formed by the series connection of La2 and La4. Accordingly, it can be seen that the machine
stator windings for the same phase. In 2013, the same authors analyzed this approa
operates as a transformer, since there is no galvanic connection between the two sets of
from aattention
statorpractical
windings point
to the for of view
electric
the same[29],
machine also
design
phase. Ingiving
and attention
to the
2013, the phase to the
same shift usedelectric
authors betweenmachine
analyzed both
this sets design an
of
approach
to the
from phase
stator shift used
windings
a practical between
[30]. of
point both
view [29], alsosets of stator
giving windings
attention [30]. machine design and
to the electric
to the phase shift used between both sets of stator windings [30].

Electric Machine
S1 S3 S5
LgaElectric Machine
Lca ca S1 S3 S5
a Lga L
vab va Lgb Lcbca ca
vca bvab an van Lgb cn L cb
C1 vbat
vvca b v Lgc cn L cb cb
bc cc cc C1 vbat
vcbc bn
vbn Lgc Lcc cc
c
n n vcnv
cn SS2 SS44 S6S6
2

(a)
(a)
ca ca cn
cn a cbcb n n

KK2 K
K55
La12
La1 K11
K L
La2a2
KK
4
4
KK33
L La4
La3a3 La4
Electric Machine (phase a)
Electric Machine (phase a)
(b)
(b)
Figure 13. EV IBC with galvanic isolation proposed by S. Haghbin et al. in 2011 [28]: (a) topology;
Figure 13. EV
(b)Figure
stator IBC
winding
13. with galvanic
arrangement
EV IBC with isolation
galvanicfor phase a.
isolation proposed
proposed byHaghbin
by S. S. Haghbin et2011
et al. in al. in 2011
[28]: [28]: (a) topolog
(a) topology;
(b) stator winding
(b) stator windingarrangement
arrangementfor phasea.a.
for phase
In 2020, Z. Wang et al. proposed the galvanically isolated IBC presented in Figure 14
[31]. In 2020,
This Z. Wang
topology et al. proposed
is et
composed of a the galvanically
four-leg isolatedac–dc
three-phase IBC presented
converter in Figure
(S1–S8),14an [31].
In 2020, Z. Wang al. proposed the galvanically isolated IBC presented inactive
Figure
This
snubber topology
in the dcis composed
link (S of a four-leg three-phase ac–dc converter (S
9 and C2) and a dual active bridge dc–dc converter (S10–S17), where1 –S 8 ), an active
[31]. This topology
in the dcislinkcomposed ofand
9 and C2 ) In
a four-leg three-phase ac–dc converter
(S10 –S17(S 1–S8), an acti
thesnubber
galvanic isolation is(Sensured. a dual active
traction mode, bridge dc–dc converter
the ac–dc converter only operates ), where
with
snubber in the dc
the galvanic link (Sis9 and
isolation C2) and
ensured. a dual
In traction active
mode, the bridge dc–dc converter
ac–dc converter only operates (S10 –S17), whe
with
three legs during normal conditions; the fourth leg (S7 and S8) is only used in fault-tolerant
three legsisolation
the operation,
galvanic during normal
in in
which contactor
conditions;
is ensured. the fourthmode,
In traction
K1Kis kept closed.
leg (S7 and
In In
theScharging
battery
8 ) is only
ac–dc used in fault-tolerant
converter
mode, the
onlyneutral
operates
point
wi
operation, which contactor is kept closed. battery charging mode, the neutral
three legs
of point during normal
the machine windings conditions;
is used
1
to the fourth
connect totoleg
the (S7 andterminal
S8) is onlyaused in fault-tolera
of the machine windings is used to connect thephase
phase terminal ofof single-phase
a single-phase ac ac
operation,
power in
grid, which
where contactor
the midpoint K 1 is
ofkept
the closed.
fourth legIn isbattery
connected charging
to
power grid, where the midpoint of the fourth leg is connected to neutral. This IBC allows mode,
neutral. This the
IBC neutral
allows poi
of the machineoperation
bidirectional
bidirectional windings
operationwith is used
with the to connect
the power
power andto
gridand
grid has
has the phase
a asmall
small terminal
capacitance
capacitance of
valuevalue aforsingle-phase
for dc
the the dc
power
link grid,
capacitor
link where
capacitor CC2 2the
due
duetomidpoint
tothe
the active
activeofsnubber.
the fourth
snubber. leg is connected
Inaddition,
In addition, owing
owing theto
to to theneutral.
voltage
voltage This IBC allow
conversion
conversion
ratio
ratio of of
thethe dual
dual active
active bridge
bridge dc–dc
dc–dc converter,
converter, a low-voltage
a low-voltage
bidirectional operation with the power grid and has a small capacitance value for the battery can
battery be
can used.
be used.
link capacitor C2 due to the active snubber. In addition, owing to the voltage conversi
ratio of the dual active bridge dc–dc converter, a low-voltage battery can be used.
La S1 S3 S5 S7 S10 S12 S14 S16
Lb n:1
a S9
van C1 K1 La Lc S1 S3 S5 S7 S10 S12 S14 S16C3 vbat
n C2
LbElectric n:1
a Machine S2 S4 S6 S8 S11S 9 S13 S15 S17
van C1 K1 Lc C3 vbat
n Electric C2
Figure 14.
Machine S2Figure S EV IBC with galvanic
14. EV IBCSwith galvanic isolation proposed by Z. Wang et al. in 2020 [31].
4 6 S8 isolationSproposed
11 S13Z. WangS15
by et al. S17 [31].
in 2020

Figure 14. EV IBC with galvanic isolation proposed by Z. Wang et al. in 2020 [31].
5, x FOR PEER REVIEW 16 of 27

Energies 2022, 15, 2756 16 of 27

2.4. Integrated Battery Chargers Based on Multiple Traction Converters

In 1995, S. K. Sul and S. J. Lee proposed an IBC for an all-wheel-drive EV, containing
2.4. Integrated Battery Chargers Based on Multiple Traction Converters
four electric machines and four three-phase three-leg bidirectional ac–dc converters, as
well as a switch with In 1995, S. K. Sul and S. J. Lee proposed an IBC for an all-wheel-drive EV, containing
two terminal pairs used for selecting the connection point of the
four electric machines and four three-phase three-leg bidirectional ac–dc converters, as well
positive battery terminal [32]. This topology can be seen in Figure 15. In traction mode,
as a switch with two terminal pairs used for selecting the connection point of the positive
each ac–dc converter controls
battery each
terminal electric
[32]. machinecan
This topology independently,
be seen in Figure endowing the EVmode,
15. In traction witheach ac–dc
all-wheel drive, with K1 connecting
converter the electric
controls each batteries to the independently,
machine dc link terminals of all converters
endowing the EV with all-wheel
(terminals a1, a2). In battery
drive, charging
with K 1 mode,
connecting the each group
batteries to the formed
dc link by two
terminals ac–dc
of all converters
converters (terminals a1 ,
and two electric machines
a2 ). In is used to employ two bidirectional interleaved converters,two electric
battery charging mode, each group formed by two ac–dc converters and
namely, a buck–boostmachines is used
dc–dc to employ
converter (S1–S two
12)bidirectional interleaved
and a full-bridge converters, ac–dc
single-phase namely, a buck–
boost dc–dc converter (S –S ) and a full-bridge single-phase
converter (S13–S24) for interfacing with a single-phase ac power grid (terminals a, n). In this
1 12 ac–dc converter (S13 –S24 ) for
interfacing with a single-phase ac power grid (terminals a, n). In this case, the neutral points
case, the neutral points of two of the electric machines are used for interfacing with a
of two of the electric machines are used for interfacing with a single-phase ac power grid,
single-phase ac power grid, while the neutral points of the other two electric machines are
while the neutral points of the other two electric machines are connected to the positive
connected to the positive batterybyterminal
battery terminal means ofby themeans of the switch
switch (terminals b1 , b2(terminals b1, b2of
). The utilization ). The
two converters
utilization of two converters in battery
in battery charging modecharging
allows mode allows
the power gridthe
peakpower gridtopeak
voltage voltage
be higher or lower than
to be higher or lower than the battery voltage, provided it is lower than the dc link voltage
the battery voltage, provided it is lower than the dc link voltage due to the boost operation
due to the boost operation
of the dc–dc of converter
the dc–dcfrom
converter fromtothe
the battery thebattery
dc link. to the dc link.

S1 S3 S5 S7 S9 S11
L1a a1 a2 L2a
L1b K1 L2b
C1
L1c b1 b 2 L2c

S2 S4 S6 Electric Electric S8 S10 S12

Machine Machine
vbat

S13 S15 S17 S19 S21 S23

L3a L4a
L3b L4b
L3c L4c

Electric Electric
S14 S16 S18
Machine
a n Machine S20 S22 S24
van
Figure 15. EV IBC proposed
Figure 15.by
EVS.IBC
K. proposed
Sul and S.byJ.S.Lee in 1995
K. Sul [32].
and S. J. Lee in 1995 [32].

In 2015, D. G. Woo In 2015, et D.

al.G.proposed
Woo et al. proposed an IBC based
an IBC based on two on two electric
electric machines for
machines for interfacing
with single-phase ac power grids, as shown in Figure 16a [33]. This topology is composed
interfacing with single-phase ac power grids, as shown in Figure 16a [33]. This topology
of two three-phase three-leg bidirectional ac–dc converters (S –S and S –S12 ), with each
is composed of two three-phase three-leg bidirectional ac–dc converters (S11–S66 and S77–S12 ),
ac side connected to the stator windings of each electric machine, and the dc link is shared
with each ac side between
connected to the stator windings of each electric machine, and the
these converters and connected to a bidirectional buck–boost dc–dc converter dc
link is shared between
(IGBTstheseS13 , Sconverters and connected to a bidirectional buck–boost dc–
14 and inductor L3 ), which in turn interfaces with the battery. In battery
dc converter (IGBTs S , S and inductor
charging mode, the three-phase
13 14 L3), which
ac–dcin turn interfaces
converters operatewith thedc–dc
as boost battery. In
converters, with
battery charging each
mode,
converterthe operating
three-phase ac–dcgrid
in a power converters operate
half cycle, and as windings
the stator boost dc–dcof each machine
are used
converters, with each as inductors
converter in each in
operating converter.
a power Furthermore, between
grid half cycle, the the
and neutral point of each
stator
windings of each machine are used as inductors in each converter. Furthermore, between(K1 and K2 ),
electric machine and the connection terminals to the power grid, two contactors
two
the neutral point of inductors
each electric 1 and L2 ) and
(Lmachine andtwothediodes (D1 and
connection D2 ) are used,
terminals to thewhere
powerthe grid,
diodes are used
to reduce the common-mode noise, connecting the system ground to neutral (terminal n)
two contactors (K1 and K2), two inductors (L1 and L2) and two diodes (D1 and D2) are used,
during the power grid positive half cycle or to the phase (terminal a) during the power
where the diodes are used to reduce the common-mode noise, connecting the system
ground to neutral (terminal n) during the power grid positive half cycle or to the phase
(terminal a) during the power grid negative half cycle. The inductors are applied in order
to compensate for the small common-mode inductance values of the stator windings.
 isolated from each other, and one of the converters (S1–S6) is connected to the traction
battery (vbat1) and the other (S7–S12) to the auxiliary battery (vbat2). The traction battery is
used as the main power source for the electric machine, while the auxiliary battery can be
used in high-speed operation, by adding its voltage to the main battery voltage and
Energies 2022, 15, 2756 increasing the voltage supplied to the machine windings. The auxiliary battery 17 of can
27 be
bypassed, producing a zero-voltage vector in its connected converter (S7–S12), and it can
also be charged from the traction battery while the electric machine is being powered,
provided the converter
grid negative half cycle.connected to are
The inductors the applied
tractionin battery
order to (S 1–S6) has for
compensate enough voltage
the small
margin to produce
common-mode the desired
inductance torque
values instator
of the the machine
windings. and to charge the auxiliary battery.

Electric Electric
Machine Machine
S1 S3 S5 S7 S9 S11 S13
L1a L2a
L1b L2b L3
C1
L1c K1 K2 L2c

S2 S4 S6 L1 L2 S8 S10 S12 S14 vbat

a n
D1 van D2
(a)
Electric
Machine
S1 S3 S5 S7 S9 S11
La
Lb
vbat1 C1 C2 vbat2
Lc

S2 S4 S6 S8 S10 S12

(b)
Figure 16.16.
Figure EVEVIBCsIBCsbased
basedon
ontwo
twotraction convertersproposed
traction converters proposedinin 2015
2015 by:by:
(a) (a) D.Woo
D. G. G. Woo
et al.et al. [33];
[33];
(b) J.
(b)Hong et al.
J. Hong [34].
et al. [34].

In the same
In 2018, year, J.etHong
S. Semsar et al. proposed
al. proposed an IBC
a similar based on
system, asan electricinmachine
shown Figurecontrolled
17a [35]. This
system is capable of charging both batteries from a single-phase ac power gridpower
by two converters for auxiliary battery charging, as shown in Figure 16b [34]. The (terminals
grid
a, n), interface
using is not considered
an additional diodeinfull-bridge
this topology; instead, the interface
single-phase between the
ac–dc converter (Dtraction
1–D4) and a
and auxiliary batteries is considered. The dc links of both converters are isolated from
contactor (K1) that should be closed in battery charging mode. In traction mode, K1 is open,
each other, and one of the converters (S1 –S6 ) is connected to the traction battery (vbat1 ) and
andthetheother
resulting power electronics system is the same as in the IBC previously shown. In
(S7 –S12 ) to the auxiliary battery (vbat2 ). The traction battery is used as the main
battery
powercharging
source for the mode, themachine,
electric voltagewhile after
the the diode
auxiliary full-bridge
battery can be usedsingle-phase
in high-speedac–dc
converter,
operation, by adding its voltage to the main battery voltage and increasing theshared
i.e., the rectified v an is the sum of the voltages produced by each voltageleg of
the supplied
two three-phase
to the machineac–dcwindings.
converters, Thewhich,
auxiliaryin battery
this case,
canoperate as PFC
be bypassed, converters
producing a in
zero-voltage
conjunction with vector in its connected
the diode bridge. The converter
authors(Snote –S
7 12 ),
thatand it can
interleaved also be charged
operation from
is possible
the traction
in order to reducebatterythewhile
currentthe electric
ripple, machine
but do not is being
presentpowered,
detailsprovided the converter
of this operation. Hence,
connected to the traction battery (S –S ) has enough voltage
when connected to a single-phase ac power grid, the currents in both batteries contain a
1 6 margin to produce the desired
torque in the machine and to charge the auxiliary battery.
high ac component, which is not desirable in these types of elements. In order to absorb a
In 2018, S. Semsar et al. proposed a similar system, as shown in Figure 17a [35].
sinusoidal current from the power grid, each converter is responsible for each half cycle,
This system is capable of charging both batteries from a single-phase ac power grid
with(terminals a, n),converter
the upper (S1–S6) synthesizing
using an additional diode full-bridge thesingle-phase
positive current half cycle
ac–dc converter and
(D1 –D 4)
the
bottom
and aconverter
contactor (K (S17–S 12) synthesizing
) that should be closed theinnegative current mode.
battery charging half cycle.
In traction mode, K1
is open, and the resulting power electronics system is the same as in the IBC previously
shown. In battery charging mode, the voltage after the diode full-bridge single-phase ac–dc
converter, i.e., the rectified van is the sum of the voltages produced by each shared leg of
the two three-phase ac–dc converters, which, in this case, operate as PFC converters in
conjunction with the diode bridge. The authors note that interleaved operation is possible
in order to reduce the current ripple, but do not present details of this operation. Hence,
when connected to a single-phase ac power grid, the currents in both batteries contain a
 grid. The traction operation is the same as in the IBC previously described; only the power
grid front-end converter is different. Regarding the battery charging operation, in order
to achieve a sinusoidal current in the power grid side, the traction converters operate with
a square-wave modulation, i.e., with the same frequency as the power grid, while the
front-end converter operates with a modified sinusoidally modulated signal. This allows
Energies 2022, 15, 2756 five voltage levels to be produced, contributing to a reduction in the harmonic distortion 18 of 27
of the current absorbed or provided to the power grid. The machine winding currents
must be in phase with each other in order to prevent the machine from producing torque
and thus
high rotating, and
ac component, if correctly
which balanced,
is not desirable in each
thesemachine
types of phase onlyIncarries
elements. order one third of
to absorb a
the amplitude of the power grid current. As happens with the topology
sinusoidal current from the power grid, each converter is responsible for each half cycle, previously
presented
with by these
the upper authors,
converter this
(S1 –S topology hasthe
6 ) synthesizing also the problem
positive currentof a high
half cycleacand
component
the bottom in
the battery
converter (Scurrents.
–S
7 12 ) synthesizing the negative current half cycle.

K1
S1 S5 S7 S9
S1 S3 S5

a vbat1 C2
D1 D3 vbat1 C1

S2 S6 S8 S10
a S2 S4 S6
van C1 Electric Machine La Lb Lc
van Electric Machine La Lb Lc
S3 S11 S13 S15
n S7 S9 S11

n vbat2 C3
D2 D4 vbat2 C2

S4 S12 S14 S16

S8 S10 S12

(a) (b)
Figure17.
Figure 17. EV
EVIBCs
IBCsbased
based on
ontwo
twotraction
traction converters
converters proposed
proposed by
by S.
S. Semsar
Semsar et
et al.
al. in:
in: (a)
(a) 2018
2018 [35];
[35];
(b) 2020 [36].
(b) 2020 [36].

2.5. Integrated
Two yearsBattery Chargers
later, in Based
2020, the sameonauthors
Multiphase Machines
proposed a similar system using an active
In 2016,
front-end ac–dc M.converter,
Diab et al.asproposed
shown inan IBC based
Figure on aThe
17b [36]. nine-switch ac–dc converter
diode full-bridge single-
phase
capableac–dc converter and
of controlling contactor machine
a six-phase were replaced by two
[37]. This IBC half-bridge single-phase
is represented ac–dc
in Figure 18,
converters
where it can (Sbe–S
1 4 )
seenand a
that capacitor
the (C
nine-switch 1 ), allowing
converter bidirectional
(S 1–S 9 ) is operation
based on threewith
legsthe
withpower
three
grid. The tractioneach,
semiconductors operation
similar is to
thetwo
same as in the
regular IBC previously
three-leg three-phase described; only the power
ac–dc converters on top
grid front-end converter is different. Regarding the battery
of each other, where the bottom semiconductors of the upper converter are the charging operation, in order
same toas
achieve
the uppera sinusoidal
semiconductors current ofin
thethe powerconverter
bottom grid side,(Sthe
2, S5traction converters
, S8). Hence, operatecan
six midpoints with
be
afound,
square-wave
to whichmodulation,
the windingsi.e., withsix-phase
of the the same frequency
machine as the power
are connected. grid,
This IBCwhile thea
has also
front-end converter
bidirectional operates
buck–boost withconverter
dc–dc a modified sinusoidally modulated
(semiconductors S10 and Ssignal. This allows
11 and inductor L1)
five voltage levels to be produced, contributing to a reduction in the
interfacing the dc link capacitor C1 with the battery, as well as three sets of three-phase harmonic distortion
of the current
contactors absorbed or the
to reconfigure provided
system.toIn thetraction
power mode,
grid. The machine
contactors K1winding currents
–K6 are closed, in
must be in phase with each other in order to prevent the machine
order to connect the neutral points of each group of machine windings, creating from producing torque
two
and thuspoints
neutral rotating,
in theand if correctly
six-phase balanced,
machine. each machine
In battery chargingphase mode,onlythesecarries one third
contactors must
of
bethe amplitude
kept open, andofKthe power grid current. As happens with the topology previously
7–K9 are closed. The intermediate semiconductors of each leg (S2, S5,
presented
S8) are keptby these
closed, authors,
so thatthis thetopology
nine-switchhas also the problem
converter of a as
operates high ac component
a regular in
three-leg
the battery currents.

2.5. Integrated Battery Chargers Based on Multiphase Machines

In 2016, M. Diab et al. proposed an IBC based on a nine-switch ac–dc converter ca-
pable of controlling a six-phase machine [37]. This IBC is represented in Figure 18, where
it can be seen that the nine-switch converter (S1 –S9 ) is based on three legs with three
semiconductors each, similar to two regular three-leg three-phase ac–dc converters on
top of each other, where the bottom semiconductors of the upper converter are the same
as the upper semiconductors of the bottom converter (S2 , S5 , S8 ). Hence, six midpoints
can be found, to which the windings of the six-phase machine are connected. This IBC
has also a bidirectional buck–boost dc–dc converter (semiconductors S10 and S11 and
inductor L1 ) interfacing the dc link capacitor C1 with the battery, as well as three sets
of three-phase contactors to reconfigure the system. In traction mode, contactors K1 –K6
 Energies 2022, 15, 2756 19 of 27

are closed, in order to connect the neutral points of each group of machine windings,
Energies 2022, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 19 of 2
creating two neutral points in the six-phase machine. In battery charging mode, these
contactors must be kept open, and K7 –K9 are closed. The intermediate semiconductors
of each leg (S2 , S5 , S8 ) are kept closed, so that the nine-switch converter operates as
athree-phase ac–dcthree-phase
regular three-leg converter, ac–dc
with converter,
each pair with
of machine
each pairwindings being
of machine connected in
windings
parallel
being (La withinLparallel
connected d, Lb with(LaLwith
e, Lc with
Ld , LbLwith
f). This topology
Le , L c with L f allows
). This bidirectional
topology operation
allows
bidirectional operation
with the power grid. with the power grid.

vca
vab vbc
S1 S4 S7 S10
K1 a b c La
K2 Lb
K3 Lc
K7 K8 K9
L1
S2 S5 S8 C1
K4 Ld
K5 Le
K6 Lf vbat
Electric S3 S6 S9 S11
Machine

Figure18.
Figure 18.EV
EVIBC
IBC proposed
proposed by Diab
by M. M. Diab
et al.et
inal. in [37].
2016 2016 [37].

In
In2016,
2016,I. I.Subotic
Suboticet al. proposed
et al. proposed an IBC an based on a five-phase
IBC based machinemachine
on a five-phase [38]. The[38]. Th
same authors analyzed slow [39] and fast [40] battery charging operations using IBCs based
same authors analyzed slow [39] and fast [40] battery charging operations using IBC
on five-phase, six-phase and nine-phase electric machines. In the same year, the authors
based on five-phase, six-phase and nine-phase electric machines. In the same year, the
presented an IBC with galvanic isolation based on six-phase machines, where they simply
authors
added presentedtransformer
a three-phase an IBC with galvanic
between isolation
the power grid based
and theon six-phase
converter [41].machines,
It should wher
they simply added a three-phase transformer between the power
be noted that these publications regarding multiphase machines only focus on the interface grid and the converte
[41]. the
with It should
power be noted
grid that theseacpublications
(single-phase or three-phase regarding
ac) and multiphase
do not considermachinesa dc–dc only focu
converter for interfacing
on the interface withwith the the battery.
power In the
grid following year,
(single-phase ac however, the same ac)
or three-phase authors
and do no
proposed
consider two IBCsconverter
a dc–dc with directfor interfacing
interfacing with the the
with power grid, including
battery. a bidirectional
In the following year, however
buck–boost
the same authors proposed two IBCs with direct interfacing with isthe
dc–dc converter to interface with the battery. One of these systems applied
power grid
to six-phase machines and three-phase ac power grids [42], while the other is applied to
including a bidirectional buck–boost dc–dc converter to interface with the battery. One o
nine-phase machines and can be connected to either single-phase or three-phase ac power
these systems is applied to six-phase machines and three-phase ac power grids [42], whil
grids [43]. Figure 19 shows the common structure between the proposed topologies from
thepower
the othergridis applied
interfaceto nine-phase
point machines
of view, i.e., and can
for five-phase be connected
(Figure 19a), six-phaseto either
(Figuresingle-phas
19b)
or three-phase ac power grids [43]. Figure 19 shows the common
and nine-phase (Figure 19c) electric machines. Regarding the five-phase topology, when structure between
it the
proposed
is connectedtopologies fromacthe
to a single-phase power
power gridgrid interface
(terminals a, n), point
one of theof view,
terminalsi.e.,contains
for five-phas
two stator windings (in this case a)
(Figure 19a), six-phase (Figure 19b) and nine-phase (Figure 19c) electricthis
and the other contains three stator windings (in machines
case n). On the
Regarding theother hand, when
five-phase connected
topology, when to aitthree-phase
is connected ac power grid (terminals
to a single-phase ac a,power
b, grid
c), two stator windings are used in two of the machine phases (in this
(terminals a, n), one of the terminals contains two stator windings (in this case a) and th case a, c) and only
one is used in the remaining phase (in this case b). In the case of the six-phase topology,
other contains three stator windings (in this case n). On the other hand, when connected
since the phase number is even and a multiple of three, the stator windings are equally
to a three-phase ac power grid (terminals a, b, c), two stator windings are used in two o
divided in both types of interfaces and are assembled in pairs (in the case of a three-phase
thepower
ac machine
grid)phases (in this
or in triplets (incase a, c)of
the case and only one is ac
a single-phase used
powerin the remaining
grid). Finally, for phase
the (in thi
case b). Intopology,
nine-phase the casethe ofstator
the six-phase
windings are topology,
groupedsince the phase
in triplets in both number
cases, using is even
the and a
multiple
three windingof three,
groups theinstator windings
the interface withare equally divided
a three-phase ac power in both types
grid and of two
only interfaces
of and
are assembled
them in pairs
in the interface with(in the case of aacthree-phase
a single-phase power grid. ac power grid) or in triplets (in the cas
of a single-phase ac power grid). Finally, for the nine-phase topology, the stator winding
are grouped in triplets in both cases, using the three winding groups in the interface with
a three-phase ac power grid and only two of them in the interface with a single-phase a
power grid.
Energies 2022,
Energies 15, x2756
2022, 15, FOR PEER REVIEW 20of
20 of27
27

La
S1 S3 S5 S7 S9
a Lb
vab van Lc
vca b C1 vbat
Ld
vbc n
c Le
S2 S4 S6 S8 S10
Electric Machine

(a)
La
a Lb S1 S3 S5 S7 S9 S11
vab Lc
vca van
b Ld C1 vbat
vbc n Le
c Lf S2 S4 S6 S8 S10 S12
Electric Machine
(b)
La
Lb
a
Lc
vab S1 S3 S5 S7 S9 S11 S13 S15 S17
Ld
van
Le
vca bn C1 vbat
Lf
vbc Lg
S2 S4 S6 S8 S10 S12 S14 S16 S18
Lh
c
Li
Electric Machine
(c)
Figure 19. EV IBCs proposed by I. Subotic et al. and V. Katic et al. in 2016 [38–40] based on electric
Figure 19. EV IBCs proposed by I. Subotic et al. and V. Katic et al. in 2016 [38–40] based on electric
machines with phase counts equal to: (a) five; (b) six; (c) nine.
machines with phase counts equal to: (a) five; (b) six; (c) nine.
In
In2020,
2020,M. M.Tong
Tongetet al.al.
proposed
proposed an IBC based
an IBC basedon aon five-phase
a five-phase hybrid excitation
hybrid flux-
excitation
switching machine, as shown in Figure 20 [44]. As well as
flux-switching machine, as shown in Figure 20 [44]. As well as the five converter legsthe five converter legs (S 1–S10)

used
(S1 –Sto energize the machine armature windings (La–Le), an extra leg (S11 and S12) is used
10 ) used to energize the machine armature windings (La –Le ), an extra leg (S11 and S12 )
to energize a field winding
is used to energize (Lfw) for
a field winding (Lmachine excitation. This topology also contains two
fw ) for machine excitation. This topology also contains
contactors (K 1 and K2) to switch the operation between traction and battery charging. In
two contactors (K1 and K2 ) to switch the operation between traction and battery charging.
traction mode, thethecontactor K1Kconnects terminals x1, x2 to terminal z, establishing the
In traction mode, contactor 1 connects terminals x1 , x2 to terminal z, establishing the
neutral
neutral point of the five-phase machine. Contactor K
point of the five-phase machine. Contactor K22isisclosed
closedin inthis
thissituation,
situation,connecting
connecting
the
the battery
battery andand dc dc link
link capacitor
capacitor C C11 inin parallel.
parallel. On On the the other
other hand,
hand, in in battery
battery charging
charging
mode,
mode, thethe contactor
contactor K K11 connects
connects terminal
terminal xx11 to to yy11 and
andxx22to toyy22, ,with
withthisthispair
pairofof terminals
terminals
representing
representing the the connection
connection pointspoints to to aa single-phase
single-phase ac ac power
power grid. grid. Hence,
Hence, aa two-phase
two-phase
interleaved
interleaved bidirectional full-bridge ac–dc converter is assembled (semiconductors SS11–S
bidirectional full-bridge ac–dc converter is assembled (semiconductors –S88
and inductors L –L ), with the leg formed by semiconductors
and inductors La –Ld ), with the leg formed by semiconductors 9 and 10 and machine
a d S 9 and S 10 and machine
winding
winding LLe eunutilized.
unutilized.InInthis thiscase,
case,thethelegleg
formed
formed byby semiconductors
semiconductors S11 Sand S12 and
11 and the
S12 and
machine
the machine fieldfield
winding
winding Lfw,Lfw
form
, forma bidirectional
a bidirectionalbuck–boost
buck–boostdc–dc dc–dcconverter,
converter, where
where
contactor
contactor KK22must mustbe bekeptkeptopen
openin inorder
orderto to separate
separatethe the battery
battery (low (low voltage
voltage side
side of
of the
the
dc–dc
dc–dc converter)
converter)from from the thedcdc link
link capacitor
capacitorCC11(high(highvoltage
voltageside sideof ofthe
thedc–dc
dc–dcconverter).
converter).
In 2021, the same authors proposed a modification to this system, changing contactor K1
 Energies 2022, 15, 2756 21 of 27
Energies 2022, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 21 of 27

In 2021, the same authors proposed a modification to this system, changing contactor K1 to
Energies 2022, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 21 of 27
toaccommodate
accommodate thethe
connection to a to
connection three-phase ac power
a three-phase grid and
ac power thusand
grid allowing fast battery
thus allowing fast
charging [45].
battery charging [45].
to accommodate the connection to a three-phase ac power grid and thus allowing fast
battery K2
L charging [45].
fw

La Lfw S1 S3 S5 S7 S9 S11 K2
Lb S1 S3 S5 S7 S9 S11
a y1 x1 La
C1 vbat
van K z Lc L
n y2 1x2 y1 x1 b
a C1 vbat
van K z Ld Lc
n y2 1x2 S2 S8
Le Ld S4 S6 S10 S12
Le S2 S4 S6 S8 S10 S12
Electric Machine
Electric Machine
Figure 20.
Figure 20.EV
EVIBC
IBCproposed
proposedby
byM.
M. Tong et al.
Tong et al. in
in 2020
2020[44].
[44].
Figure 20. EV IBC proposed by M. Tong et al. in 2020 [44].
InIn2020
2020also,also,H. H.Raherimihaja
Raherimihaja et al. proposed an
al. proposed anIBC IBCbased
basedon ona asix-phase
six-phase open-end
open-end
winding In machine
2020 also,[46]. H. Raherimihaja
As illustrated et in
al.Figure
proposed 21, an
thisIBC based on
topology is a six-phase of
composed open-end
a twelve-leg
winding machine [46]. As illustrated in Figure 21, this topology is composed of a
winding
inverter machine drive
(Sinverter [46]. the
As electric
illustrated in Figure 21, as
thisantopology is leg
composed
(S25 andofS26a)leg
twelve-leg 1 –S24 ) to (S machine, as well additional
1–S24) to drive the electric machine, as well as an additional
and(S25
twelve-leg inverter (S 1–S24) to drive the electric machine, as well as an additional leg (S25
inductor
andandS26)Sand (L ) that form a bidirectional buck–boost dc–dc converter
1inductor (L1) that form a bidirectional buck–boost dc–dc converter to connect to connect the inverter
26) and inductor (L1) that form a bidirectional buck–boost dc–dc converter to connect
dc link to the battery. Instead of using contactors, this system contains a plug and socket
the inverter
the inverter dcdc link
linktotothe
thebattery. Insteadofof
battery. Instead using
using contactors,
contactors, this system
this system contains contains
a plug a plug
to connect the machine terminals to a three-phase ac power grid. The machine windings
andandsocket
socketto toconnect
connectthe themachine terminals
machine terminals to to a three-phase
a three-phase ac power
ac power grid. Thegrid. The machine
machine
arewindings
connected in pairs, and in thisand
casein(battery charging mode), two pairstwo of windings are
windings are connected in pairs, and in this case (battery charging mode), twoofpairs of
are connected in pairs, this case (battery charging mode), pairs
connected
windings toareeach other,
connectedto where
to each the
each other, midpoint of each pair is connected to a given phase of
windings
the power aregrid.
connected
With this other,where
configuration, where
it is
thethemidpoint
midpoint
possible to
of each
achieve
pair ispair
of eacha
connected
four-phase
to a
is connected
interleaved to a
given phase of the power grid. With this configuration, it is possible to achieve a
given phase
bidirectional of the power grid. With this configuration, it is possible toused in an a
achieve
four-phase three-phase ac–dc converter,
interleaved bidirectional since theac–dc
three-phase twelveconverter,
inverter legs sincecan thebetwelve
four-phase
arrangement
inverter legs interleaved
ofcan
fourbelegs bidirectional
usedper in power grid three-phase
an arrangement phase. Despite
of four legsac–dc converter,
mentioning
per power since
this feature,
grid phase. the
the
Despite twelve
authors
inverter legs
domentioning
not employthis can be
this used
interleaved
feature, in an arrangement
operation
the authors do notinemploy of
the same four legs
paper.
this per power
This system
interleaved operation grid
allows phase. Despite
bidirectional
in the same
mentioning
operation
paper. This this
with feature,
the power
system allowsthebidirectional
authors
grid, and dosincenotitemploy
operationuseswith this
a six-phaseinterleaved
the power machine,
grid, and operation
itsince
allows in the
a same
a battery
it uses
paper.
chargingThispower
six-phase system
machine, allows
twice that bidirectional
it allows of athe
battery operation
charging
traction power, power with
twice
as well the
as power
that of the
having grid,
traction
fault and
tolerance since
power, asit uses a
capability.
Inwell
2021,
six-phase asmachine,
having
the same fault tolerance
authors
it allows capability.
proposed
a battery In 2021,
acharging
similar the same
system
power based
twiceauthors
on
that proposed
a nine-leg
of a similar
inverter
the traction and a as
power,
well system
three-phase based
as having on a nine-leg
nine-winding
fault tolerance inverter
machine and aasthree-phase
[47],
capability. well
In 2021, nine-winding
as giving
the asame
detailed machine
analysis
authors [47], as well
of the
proposed design of
a similar
as type
this givingof amachine
detailed for analysis
use ofIBCs
in the design
[48]. of this type of machine for use in IBCs [48].
system based on a nine-leg inverter and a three-phase nine-winding machine [47], as well
as giving a detailed analysis of the design of this type of machine for use in IBCs [48].
La1
La2 S1 S3 S5 S7 S9 S11 S25
La1
Lb1
La2 L S1 L1
b2
S3 S5 S7 S9 S11 C1 S25
Lb1 Lc1
L1
a
Lb2 Lc2 S2 S4 S6 S8 S10 S12 C1 S26 vbat
Plug and Socket

vca vab Lc1Electric

b Lc2MachineS2 S4 S6 S8 S10 S12 S26 vbat
av Ld1
bc
Plug and Socket

vca vab c Electric

Ld2 S13 S15 S17 S19 S21 S23
b Machine
Le1
vbc Ld1 L
e2
c Ld2 Lf1 S13 S15 S17 S19 S21 S23
Le1 Lf2 S14 S16 S18 S20 S22 S24
Le2
LFigure
f1 Figure 21. EV IBC proposed by H. Raherimihaja et al. in 2020 [46].
21. EV IBC proposed by H. Raherimihaja et al. in 2020 [46].
Lf2 S14 S16 S18 S20 S22 S24

Figure 21. EV IBC proposed by H. Raherimihaja et al. in 2020 [46].

Energies 2022, 15, 2756 22 of 27

3. Comparison between Integrated Battery Chargers

The IBCs reviewed in this paper are compared in this section. The comparison is
based on whether contactors are needed to reconfigure the system, whether additional
inductors are used to interface the system with the power grid, the type of machine that
the system supports and the winding access level that is required (where normal means
the conventional phase terminal access), the existence of galvanic isolation between the
batteries and the power grid, the capability of bidirectional operation with the power
grid and the possibilities for interfacing that they allow in addition to interfacing with
the EV’s main electric machine. Table 1 presents the comparison between the 29 IBCs
(31 IBCs were presented, but the features of the three IBCs proposed by I. Subotic et al.
and V. Katic et al. [38–40] are the same except for the number of electric machine phases).
The order used for the IBCs in the table is the same as the order in which they appear in
the paper.

Table 1. Qualitative comparison between the presented IBCs.

Additional Electric Machine Galvanic Bidirectional Interface

Proposed IBC Contactors
Inductors Machine Type Access Isolation Operation Possibilities
D. Thimmesch (1983) [10] Yes No 3ph Normal Yes No 1ph
W. Rippel (1990) [12] No Optional 3ph Normal No No 1ph
2 × 3ph/
W. Rippel, A. Cocconi
No No 1 × 3ph Neutral point No Yes 1ph
(1992) [13]
(w/2 stators)
A. Cocconi (1994) [14] Yes Optional 3ph Total No Yes 1ph, 3ph
L. Solero (2001) [15] No No 3ph Neutral point No No 1ph
G. Pellegrino (2010) [16] No No 3ph Neutral point No No 1ph
O. Hegazy (2013) [17] No Yes 3ph Normal No Yes 1ph
C. Pollock, W. K. Thong
No Yes 2ph SRM Neutral point Yes No 1ph
(2000) [18]
H. C. Chang, C. M. Liaw
Yes No 4ph SRM Total No No 1ph
(2009) [19]
H. C. Chang, C. M. Liaw
Yes No 4ph SRM Total No Yes 1ph
(2011) [20]
Y. Hu et al. (2014) [21] Yes No 3ph SRM Neutral point No No 1ph, 3ph, dc
4ph SRM
Y. Hu et al. (2015) [22] No No Neutral point No No 1ph, 3ph, dc
w/2 stators
K. W. Hu et al. (2015) [23] Yes Yes 4ph SRM Total No Yes 1ph, 2ph
M. Ma et al. (2018) [24] Yes No 3ph SRM Total No No 3ph
H. Cheng et al. (2020) [25] Yes No 3ph SRM Neutral point No No 1ph
H. Cheng et al. (2020) [26] Yes No 3ph SRM Total No No 1ph
F. Lacressonniere, B.
Cassoret (2005) [27] (For Yes No Brushed dc Total (just 2) Yes No 1ph
pallet trucks)
F. Lacressonniere, B.
3ph wound
Cassoret (2005) [27] Yes No Normal Yes Yes 3ph
rotor induction
(For forklifts)
3ph
S. Haghbin et al.
Yes No (4 windings Total Yes Yes 1ph, 3ph
(2011) [28]
per phase)
Z. Wang et al. (2020) [31] Yes No 3ph Neutral point Yes Yes 1ph
S. K. Sul, S. J. Lee
Yes No 4 × 3ph Neutral point No Yes 1ph
(1995) [32]
D. G. Woo et al.
Yes Optional 2 × 3ph Neutral point No No 1ph
(2015) [33]
Energies 2022, 15, 2756 23 of 27

Table 1. Cont.

Additional Electric Machine Galvanic Bidirectional Interface

Proposed IBC Contactors
Inductors Machine Type Access Isolation Operation Possibilities
J. Hong et al. (2015) [34] * - - 3ph Total - - -
S. Semsar et al. (2018) [35] Yes No 3ph Total No No 1ph
S. Semsar et al. (2020) [36] No No 3ph Total No Yes 1ph
M. Diab et al. (2016) [37] Yes No 6ph Total No Yes 3ph
I. Subotic et al.,
No No 5ph, 6ph, 9ph Total No Yes 1ph, 3ph
V. Katic et al. (2016) [38–40]
5ph hybrid
M. Tong et al. (2020) [44] Yes No excitation flux Total No Yes 1ph
switching
H. Raherimihaja et al.
No No 6ph Total No Yes 3ph
(2020) [46]
* An interface with the power grid is not considered.

It can be seen that most of the topologies do not require additional inductors to in-
terface the system with the power grid; however, most of them do require contactors.
Topologies that require neither contactors nor additional inductors require electric machine
access to at least the neutral point, if not total access to the windings. Regarding bidirec-
tional operation, it can be seen that when no contactors or additional inductors are used,
total access to the machine windings is required, with the exception of the system patented
by W. Rippel and A. Cocconi in 1992 [13], where only neutral-point access is required but
with two three-phase electric machines or one machine with two sets of stator windings.
It can also be verified that, when two or more power grid interface possibilities exist, at
least neutral-point access is required. If two or more power grid interface possibilities are
combined with bidirectional operation, total access to the electric machine windings is
mandatory for the presented topologies. Therefore, it can be concluded that, in general,
IBCs with higher functionalities have naturally higher requirements, either regarding the
electric machine winding access or regarding external components, which is expected from
a single set of power converters performing more than its two designed functions (traction
and battery charging).
In order to establish a comparison between the IBCs in quantitative terms, Figure 22
presents five radar charts, where the number of switches, diodes, contactors, magnetics and
capacitors is represented. Due to the high number of presented IBCs and in order to better
analyze the provided information, five radar charts were used instead of a single chart, with
each one representing a subsection of Section 2. Figure 22a represents the classical IBCs
(Section 2.1), Figure 22b the IBCs for SRMs (Section 2.2), Figure 22c the IBCs with galvanic
isolation (Section 2.3), Figure 22d the IBCs based on multiple traction converters (Section 2.4)
and Figure 22e the IBCs based on multiphase machines (Section 2.5). The term “switches”
refers to fully controlled semiconductors, either IGBTs, MOSFETs or bipolar junction
transistors, with or without antiparallel diodes, while the term “diodes” refers to this single
component, excluding the antiparallel diodes present in fully controlled semiconductors.
“Magnetics” can refer to either inductors or transformer windings, excluding electric
machine windings (e.g., one transformer with one primary and one secondary winding
contributes two to the magnetics count). The term “capacitors” only counts each capacitor
set (as in the capacitor numbering in the IBC figures). It should be noted that Figure 22e
has only three comparative metrics, namely, switches, magnetics and contactors, since
the diode count is nil and the capacitor count is one for all the topologies presented in
this figure.
 in fully controlled semiconductors. “Magnetics” can refer to either inductors or
transformer windings, excluding electric machine windings (e.g., one transformer with
one primary and one secondary winding contributes two to the magnetics count). The
term “capacitors” only counts each capacitor set (as in the capacitor numbering in the IBC
figures). It should be noted that Figure 22e has only three comparative metrics, namely,
Energies 2022, 15, 2756 24 of 27
switches, magnetics and contactors, since the diode count is nil and the capacitor count is
one for all the topologies presented in this figure.

Switches Switches
12 15
10
8 10
6
Capacitors 4 Diodes D.Thimmesch, 1983 Capacitors 5 Diodes C.Pollock and W.K.Thong, 2000
2 H.C.Chang and C.M.Liaw, 2009
W.Rippel, 1990
0 0 H.C.Chang and C.M.Liaw, 2011
W.Rippel and A.Cocconi, 1992 Y.Hu, 2014
Y.Hu, 2015
A. Cocconi, 1994 K.W.Hu, 2015
M.Ma, 2018
L.Solero, 2001/G.Pellegrino, 2010 H.Cheng, 2020
EnergiesMagnetics
2022, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW
Contactors
O.Hegazy, 2013
Magnetics Contactors H.Cheng, 2020 24 of 27
Classical IBCs IBCs for SRMs

(a) (b)
Switches Switches
18 24
15 21
18
12 15
9 12
Capacitors 6 Diodes Capacitors 9 Diodes
F.Lacressonniere and
6
3 3
B.Cassoret, 2005 (pallet)
0 0
F.Lacressonniere and
B.Cassoret, 2005 (forklift) S.K.Sul and S.J.Lee, 1995
S.Haghbin, 2011 D.G.Woo, 2015
J.Hong, 2015
Z.Wang, 2020
S.Semsar, 2018
Magnetics Contactors Magnetics Contactors S.Semsar, 2020

IBCs with Galvanic Isolation IBCs based on Multiple Traction Converters

(c) (d)
Switches
27
24
21 M.Diab, 2016
18
15 I.Subotic and V.Katic, 2016 (5ph)
12
9 I.Subotic and V.Katic, 2016 (6ph)
6
3 I.Subotic and V.Katic, 2016 (9ph)
0
M.Tong, 2020

H.Raherimihaja, 2020

Magnetics Contactors

IBCs based on Multiphase Machines

(e)
Figure22.
Figure 22.Radar
Radarcharts
chartsillustrating
illustratingthe
thequantitative
quantitativecomparison
comparisonbetween
betweenthe
thepresented:
presented:(a)
(a)classical
classical
IBCs; (b) IBCs for SRMs; (c) IBCs with galvanic isolation; (d) IBCs based on multiple traction
IBCs; (b) IBCs for SRMs; (c) IBCs with galvanic isolation; (d) IBCs based on multiple traction
converters; (e) IBCs based on multiphase machines.
converters; (e) IBCs based on multiphase machines.

4.4.Conclusions
Conclusions
Electricvehicles
Electric vehicles(EVs)
(EVs)havehaveexperienced
experienced tremendous
tremendous growth
growth in inthe
thepast
pastfewfewyears
years
since they are an emissions-free means of transportation at the
since they are an emissions-free means of transportation at the user level. The power user level. The power
electronicsconverters
electronics converterspresent
presentin inananEVEVare arebased
basedon ontwo
twomain
mainsystems
systemsthatthatoperate
operateonlyonly
oneatata time,
one a time, namely,
namely, the the traction
traction system system
and the andbattery
the battery
charging charging
system.system. This
This opera-
operational
tional nonconcurrence
nonconcurrence gave risegave risedevelopment
to the to the development of integrated
of integrated battery battery
chargers chargers
(IBCs)
(IBCs) consisting
consisting of power
of a single a single power electronics
electronics system with system with both functionalities.
both functionalities. Several IBCs Several
have
IBCs have been proposed in the literature and patented, and this paper
been proposed in the literature and patented, and this paper aimed to provide a literature aimed to provide
a literature
review of thereview of the most
most relevant IBCs.relevant
Due to IBCs.
theirDue to theirthe
diversity, diversity, the paper
paper divided thedivided
analyzedthe
IBCs into five
analyzed IBCs subsections, namely: (1) classical
into five subsections, namely: IBCs; (2) IBCs IBCs;
(1) classical especially developed
(2) IBCs for
especially
switched
developed reluctance machines
for switched (SRMs);
reluctance (3) IBCs(SRMs);
machines with galvanic
(3) IBCsisolation; (4) IBCs
with galvanic based on
isolation; (4)
multiple
IBCs basedtraction converters;
on multiple (5) IBCs
traction based on(5)multiphase
converters; IBCs basedmachines. After presenting
on multiphase each
machines. After
type, the IBCs
presenting were
each compared
type, the IBCs both
were in terms
comparedof requirements
both in terms (e.g.,
ofthe need for additional
requirements (e.g., the
inductors or contactors, the type of electric machine needed) and in terms
need for additional inductors or contactors, the type of electric machine needed) and in of functionalities
(e.g.,
terms galvanic isolation, bidirectional
of functionalities (e.g., galvanic operation, power
isolation, grid interface
bidirectional possibilities).
operation, power It was
grid
interface possibilities). It was verified that topologies that do not require external
components such as inductors or contactors usually require special access to the electric
machine as well as the conventional phase access. Additionally, some topologies allow
interfacing to more than one type of power grid, and in most of these cases it is mandatory
to have access to all electric machine windings. The same occurs with bidirectional
Energies 2022, 15, 2756 25 of 27

verified that topologies that do not require external components such as inductors or con-
tactors usually require special access to the electric machine as well as the conventional
phase access. Additionally, some topologies allow interfacing to more than one type of
power grid, and in most of these cases it is mandatory to have access to all electric machine
windings. The same occurs with bidirectional operation with the power grid, where for
topologies with no additional inductors or contactors, electric machine access to at least
the neutral point is required. When combining bidirectional operation with more than two
types of power grid interfaces, total winding access is a must. For the presented IBCs, it
can be concluded that, in general, higher functionalities imply higher requirements, either
from the electric machine winding access or from external components such as contactors
to reconfigure the system. However, it should be kept in mind that this complexity refers to
a single set of power converters performing more than its two designed functions (traction
and battery charging), which still represents lower volume, weight and possibly cost than
separate power electronics systems for performing the same functions.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, T.J.C.S., D.P., V.M. and J.L.A.; investigation, T.J.C.S. and
D.P.; resources, T.J.C.S. and D.P.; writing—original draft preparation, T.J.C.S.; writing—review and
editing, D.P., V.M. and J.L.A.; supervision, V.M. and J.L.A.; funding acquisition, T.J.C.S., V.M. and
J.L.A. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This work has been supported by FCT—Fundação para a Ciência e Tecnologia within
the R&D Units Project Scope: UIDB/00319/2020. T.J.C.S. is supported by the FCT scholarships
SFRH/BD/134353/2017 and COVID/BD/151993/2021.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

References
1. Dudek, E. The Flexibility of Domestic Electric Vehicle Charging: The Electric Nation Project. IEEE Power Energy Mag. 2021,
19, 16–27. [CrossRef]
2. Lee, Z.J.; Sharma, S.; Low, S.H. Research Tools for Smart Electric Vehicle Charging: An introduction to the adaptive charging
network research portal. IEEE Electrif. Mag. 2021, 9, 29–36. [CrossRef]
3. Sun, X.; Li, Z.; Wang, X.; Li, C. Technology Development of Electric Vehicles: A Review. Energies 2019, 13, 90. [CrossRef]
4. Afonso, J.L.; Cardoso, L.A.L.; Pedrosa, D.; Sousa, T.J.C.; Machado, L.; Tanta, M.; Monteiro, V. A Review on Power Electronics
Technologies for Electric Mobility. Energies 2020, 13, 6343. [CrossRef]
5. Sayed, K.; Almutairi, A.; Albagami, N.; Alrumayh, O.; Abo-Khalil, A.G.; Saleeb, H. A Review of DC-AC Converters for Electric
Vehicle Applications. Energies 2022, 15, 1241. [CrossRef]
6. Chakraborty, S.; Vu, H.-N.; Hasan, M.M.; Tran, D.-D.; Baghdadi, M.E.; Hegazy, O. DC-DC Converter Topologies for Electric
Vehicles, Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicles and Fast Charging Stations: State of the Art and Future Trends. Energies 2019, 12, 1569.
[CrossRef]
7. Pedrosa, D.; Monteiro, V.; Sousa, T.J.C.; Machado, L.; Afonso, J.L. Unified Power Converter Based on a Dual-Stator Permanent
Magnet Synchronous Machine for Motor Drive and Battery Charging of Electric Vehicles. Energies 2021, 14, 3344. [CrossRef]
8. Yilmaz, M.; Krein, P.T. Review of Battery Charger Topologies, Charging Power Levels, and Infrastructure for Plug-In Electric and
Hybrid Vehicles. IEEE Trans. Power Electron. 2013, 28, 2151–2169. [CrossRef]
9. Sousa, T.J.C.; Monteiro, V.; Pedrosa, D.; Machado, L.; Afonso, J.L. Unified Systems for Traction and Battery Charging of Electric
Vehicles: A Sustainability Perspective. EAI Endorsed Trans. Energy Web 2021, 8, 170557. [CrossRef]
10. Thimmesch, D. Integral Inverter/Battery Charger for Use in Electric Vehicles; USA Department of Energy/NASA: Springfield, VA,
USA, 1983.
11. Thimmesch, D. An SCR Inverter with an Integral Battery Charger for Electric Vehicles. IEEE Trans. Ind. Appl. 1985, IA-21,
1023–1029. [CrossRef]
12. Rippel, W. Integrated Traction Inverter and Battery Charger Apparatus. U.S. Patent 1990.
13. Rippel, W.; Cocconi, A. Integrated Motor Drive and Recharge System. U.S. Patent 1992.
14. Cocconi, A. Combined Motor Drive and Battery Charger System. U.S. Patent 1994.
15. Solero, L. Nonconventional on-board charger for electric vehicle propulsion batteries. IEEE Trans. Veh. Technol. 2001, 50, 144–149.
[CrossRef]
16. Pellegrino, G.; Armando, E.; Guglielmi, P. An Integral Battery Charger with Power Factor Correction for Electric Scooter. IEEE
Trans. Power Electron. 2010, 25, 751–759. [CrossRef]
17. Hegazy, O.; Barrero, R.; Van Mierlo, J.; Lataire, P.; Omar, N.; Coosemans, T. An Advanced Power Electronics Interface for Electric
Vehicles Applications. IEEE Trans. Power Electron. 2013, 28, 5508–5521. [CrossRef]
Energies 2022, 15, 2756 26 of 27

18. Pollock, C.; Thong, W.K. Low-cost battery-powered switched reluctance drives with integral battery-charging capability. IEEE
Trans. Ind. Appl. 2000, 36, 1676–1681. [CrossRef]
19. Chang, H.-C.; Liaw, C.-M. Development of a Compact Switched-Reluctance Motor Drive for EV Propulsion with Voltage-Boosting
and PFC Charging Capabilities. IEEE Trans. Veh. Technol. 2009, 58, 3198–3215. [CrossRef]
20. Chang, H.; Liaw, C. An Integrated Driving/Charging Switched Reluctance Motor Drive Using Three-Phase Power Module. IEEE
Trans. Ind. Electron. 2011, 58, 1763–1775. [CrossRef]
21. Hu, Y.H.; Song, X.G.; Cao, W.P.; Ji, B. New SR Drive With Integrated Charging Capacity for Plug-In Hybrid Electric Vehicles
(PHEVs). IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron. 2014, 61, 5722–5731. [CrossRef]
22. Hu, Y.; Gan, C.; Cao, W.; Li, C.; Finney, S. Split Converter-Fed SRM Drive for Flexible Charging in EV/HEV Applications. IEEE
Trans. Ind. Electron. 2015, 62, 6085–6095. [CrossRef]
23. Hu, K.W.; Yi, P.H.; Liaw, C.M. An EV SRM Drive Powered by Battery/Supercapacitor with G2V and V2H/V2G Capabilities.
IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron. 2015, 62, 4714–4727. [CrossRef]
24. Ma, M.; Chang, Z.; Hu, Y.; Li, F.; Gan, C.; Cao, W. An Integrated Switched Reluctance Motor Drive Topology with Voltage-Boosting
and On-Board Charging Capabilities for Plug-In Hybrid Electric Vehicles (PHEVs). IEEE Access 2018, 6, 1550–1559. [CrossRef]
25. Cheng, H.; Wang, Z.; Yang, S.; Huang, J.; Ge, X. An Integrated SRM Powertrain Topology for Plug-In Hybrid Electric Vehicles
with Multiple Driving and Onboard Charging Capabilities. IEEE Trans. Transp. Electrif. 2020, 6, 578–591. [CrossRef]
26. Cheng, H.; Wang, L.; Xu, L.; Ge, X.; Yang, S. An Integrated Electrified Powertrain Topology with SRG and SRM for Plug-In
Hybrid Electrical Vehicle. IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron. 2020, 67, 8231–8241. [CrossRef]
27. Lacressonniere, F.; Cassoret, B. Converter used as a battery charger and a motor speed controller in an industrial truck.
In Proceedings of the 2005 European Conference on Power Electronics and Applications, Dresden, Germany, 11–14 September
2005; Volume 9, p. 7.
28. Haghbin, S.; Lundmark, S.; Alakula, M.; Carlson, O. An Isolated High-Power Integrated Charger in Electrified-Vehicle Applica-
tions. IEEE Trans. Veh. Technol. 2011, 60, 4115–4126. [CrossRef]
29. Haghbin, S.; Lundmark, S.; Alakula, M.; Carlson, O. Grid-Connected Integrated Battery Chargers in Vehicle Applications: Review
and New Solution. IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron. 2013, 60, 459–473. [CrossRef]
30. Haghbin, S.; Khan, K.; Zhao, S.; Alakula, M.; Lundmark, S.; Carlson, O. An Integrated 20-kW Motor Drive and Isolated Battery
Charger for Plug-In Vehicles. IEEE Trans. Power Electron. 2013, 28, 4013–4029. [CrossRef]
31. Wang, Z.; Zhang, Y.; You, S.; Xiao, H.; Cheng, M. An Integrated Power Conversion System for Electric Traction and V2G Operation
in Electric Vehicles with a Small Film Capacitor. IEEE Trans. Power Electron. 2020, 35, 5066–5077. [CrossRef]
32. Sul, S.-K.; Lee, S.-J. An integral battery charger for four-wheel drive electric vehicle. IEEE Trans. Ind. Appl. 1995, 31, 1096–1099.
[CrossRef]
33. Woo, D.-G.; Joo, D.-M.; Lee, B.-K. On the Feasibility of Integrated Battery Charger Utilizing Traction Motor and Inverter in Plug-In
Hybrid Electric Vehicles. IEEE Trans. Power Electron. 2015, 30, 7270–7281. [CrossRef]
34. Hong, J.; Lee, H.; Nam, K. Charging method for the secondary battery in dual-inverter drive systems for electric vehicles. IEEE
Trans. Power Electron. 2015, 30, 909–921. [CrossRef]
35. Semsar, S.; Soong, T.; Lehn, P.W. Integrated Single-Phase Electric Vehicle Charging Using a Dual-Inverter Drive. In Proceedings of
the 2018 IEEE Transportation Electrification Conference and Expo (ITEC), Long Beach, CA, USA, 13–15 June 2018; pp. 320–325.
36. Semsar, S.; Soong, T.; Lehn, P.W. On-Board Single-Phase Integrated Electric Vehicle Charger With V2G Functionality. IEEE Trans.
Power Electron. 2020, 35, 12072–12084. [CrossRef]
37. Diab, M.S.; Elserougi, A.A.; Abdel-Khalik, A.S.; Massoud, A.M.; Ahmed, S. A Nine-Switch-Converter-Based Integrated Motor
Drive and Battery Charger System for EVs Using Symmetrical Six-Phase Machines. IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron. 2016, 63, 5326–5335.
[CrossRef]
38. Subotic, I.; Bodo, N.; Levi, E. An EV Drive-Train with Integrated Fast Charging Capability. IEEE Trans. Power Electron. 2016, 31,
1461–1471. [CrossRef]
39. Subotic, I.; Bodo, N.; Levi, E. Single-phase on-board integrated battery chargers for EVs based on multiphase machines. IEEE
Trans. Power Electron. 2016, 31, 6511–6523. [CrossRef]
40. Katic, V.; Subotic, I.; Bodo, N.; Levi, E.; Dumnic, B.; Milicevic, D. Overview of fast on-board integrated battery chargers for electric
vehicles based on multiphase machines and power electronics. IET Electr. Power Appl. 2016, 10, 217–229. [CrossRef]
41. Subotic, I.; Bodo, N.; Levi, E.; Jones, M.; Levi, V. Isolated Chargers for EVs Incorporating Six-Phase Machines. IEEE Trans. Ind.
Electron. 2016, 63, 653–664. [CrossRef]
42. Subotic, I.; Bodo, N.; Levi, E. Integration of Six-Phase EV Drivetrains into Battery Charging Process with Direct Grid Connection.
IEEE Trans. Energy Convers. 2017, 32, 1012–1022. [CrossRef]
43. Bodo, N.; Levi, E.; Subotic, I.; Espina, J.; Empringham, L.; Johnson, C.M. Efficiency Evaluation of Fully Integrated On-Board EV
Battery Chargers with Nine-Phase Machines. IEEE Trans. Energy Convers. 2017, 32, 257–266. [CrossRef]
44. Tong, M.; Cheng, M.; Hua, W.; Ding, S. A Single-Phase On-Board Two-Stage Integrated Battery Charger for EVs Based on a
Five-Phase Hybrid-Excitation Flux-Switching Machine. IEEE Trans. Veh. Technol. 2020, 69, 3793–3804. [CrossRef]
45. Tong, M.; Cheng, M.; Wang, S.; Hua, W. An On-Board Two-Stage Integrated Fast Battery Charger for EVs Based on a Five-Phase
Hybrid-Excitation Flux-Switching Machine. IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron. 2021, 68, 1780–1790. [CrossRef]
Energies 2022, 15, 2756 27 of 27

46. Raherimihaja, H.J.; Zhang, Q.; Na, T.; Shao, M.; Wang, J. A Three-Phase Integrated Battery Charger for EVs Based on Six-Phase
Open-End Winding Machine. IEEE Trans. Power Electron. 2020, 35, 12122–12132. [CrossRef]
47. Raherimihaja, H.J.; Zhang, Q.; Xu, G.; Zhang, X. Integration of Battery Charging Process for EVs into Segmented Three-Phase
Motor Drive with V2G-Mode Capability. IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron. 2021, 68, 2834–2844. [CrossRef]
48. Zhang, Q.; Raherimihaja, H.J.; Xu, G.; Zhang, X. Design and Performance Analysis of Segmented Three-Phase IPMSM for EVs
Integrated Battery Charger. IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron. 2021, 68, 9114–9124. [CrossRef]