1.1.

The English Language: Some

Characteristics
Congratulations! You have passed this lesson.
We’re going to explore some characteristics of the English language.
Why would you want to know and understand some characteristics of the English language? Well, we
imagine it’s quite helpful and useful to know, but there are other reasons.
For example, a native-Vietnamese teacher colleague may ask: What is special about the English
language? You need to try and answer this question.
Your colleagues-to-be in some countries may view you as an expert and may think you know everything
about the English language. Again, this type of question may come up in an advanced class.
We have been in this situation, and it could happen to you. So, absorb this. It will enhance your
knowledge, and it will get you out of a possible tricky situation.
However, there is also another critical reason. There will likely be differences in language structures in the
native/first language of the learners you will be teaching, compared to your native-English language.
You’ll have grasped the importance of this already if you have studied a foreign language at school or
university. Or if you are a frequent traveller who likes to pick up a bit of the native language.

1. Fairly Easy To Learn

English is one of the easiest and simplest natural languages in the world.
Of course, it’s all relative. It depends on the learner’s ability and previous language learning experiences
Nevertheless, it’s fair to say that English is a relatively easy language to learn, understand and speak when
compared to very complex languages such as Arabic, Cantonese, Mandarin, Korean and Japanese.

2. Latin Alphabet
The English language uses the Latin alphabet. It is the most universal, short, and straightforward alphabet
(only the Greek alphabet is shorter and simpler). Also, in English, the Latin alphabet presents its cleanest
form as a true alphabet with only 26 basic letters.

3. Its Simple Inflexion

Inflexion is the name for the extra letters added to nouns, verbs, and adjectives in their different
grammatical forms, e.g., cat, cats; eat, eats; big, bigger.
English is considered to be a weakly inflected language when compared to, say, French or Russian. Its
nouns have only traces of inflexion (plurals, the pronouns), and its regular verbs have only four forms,
e.g., look, looks, looked, looking.
Even for irregular verbs, there is almost no variation in person (except the 3rd person singular in the
present tense, e.g., I eat, you eat, she eats). The English language can indicate the relationship of words in
a sentence with only the minimum of change in their structure. There are other languages that do this, but
this is a strong characteristic of English.
 4. Receptiveness
A significant feature of the English language is its receptiveness to accepting and adopting words from
other languages. Here are a few examples:
From Spanish:

 Alligator: from el lagarto meaning the lizard

 Cargo: from the verb cargar, meaning to load

From Indian:

 Bungalow: from the Hindi word bangla, a type of cottage built for early European settlers in Bengal.
 Jungle: from Hindi jangal, a desert, forest, wasteland, uncultivated ground

From Chinese:

 Ketchup: from the Hokkien Chinese term kê-tsiap, a sauce made from fermented fish. Europeans later
added tomato as an ingredient.
 Gung ho: it means to show enthusiasm. From a Chinese word, meaning work together.

You can find out the derivation of many common English words at https://www.etymonline.com.
English has accepted and adopted words from Asian, European, African, Indian, Japanese, Chinese, and
other languages. Also, English has accepted words from classical languages like Latin, Greek, and
Sanskrit.

5. Its (Generally) Fixed Word Order

Another strong characteristic of the English language is its (typically) fixed word order. Most English
sentences (clauses) conform to the SVO word order. This means that the Subject comes before the Verb,
which comes before the Object. Examples:
I (S) bought (V) a new top (O).
She (S) doesn’t like (V) spiders (O).
Why did you (S) do (V) that (O)?
There are other word orders in English, but the SVO order is by far the most used, making it easy for
learners to grasp.

6. Pronunciation
The pronunciation of English words such as this, thin, clothes, thirteenth, months inevitably causes
problems for learners who do not need to use the tip of the tongue to produce words in their language.

7. Continuous Tense
Many languages do not have a continuous tense form, so English learners may make mistakes such as: I
had a bath when the phone rang; instead of I was having a bath when the phone rang.
 8. Articles (A, An, The)
The article system is another feature of English grammar that causes some learners enormous difficulties;
mainly, of course, those whose native language does not use articles.

9. Phrasal Verbs
A phrasal verb is an idiomatic phrase consisting of a verb and another item, typically either an adverb, as
in break down, or a preposition, for example, see to, or a combination of both, such as look down on. (An
item is the word for small self-contained pieces of language which you can teach or practise in a lesson.)
These phrasal verbs are a VERY significant feature of the English language and can cause severe
difficulties for learners. Sentences such as I put it down to the weather, or I made it up with my sister, are
usually gobbledegook to beginner non-native-English speakers.
Unfortunately for the English language learner, phrasal verbs are extremely common in colloquial
(informal, everyday, conversational) English language. We’ll explore these later in the course.

10. Non-Tonal
English is a non-tonal language.
In tone languages, e.g., Chinese and Vietnamese, pitch (the degree of highness or lowness of a tone) is
used to distinguish word meaning. So, a word said with a high pitch may have a different meaning from
the same word said with a low pitch.
In English, changes in pitch are used to emphasise or express emotion, not to give a different word
meaning to the sound. It is not surprising that native speakers of tone languages often have strong accents
when speaking English.

11. Sound And Spelling

A final feature of English that causes problems for non-native learners (and some native-English speakers)
is the lack of a connection between word sound and word spelling.
It is difficult for non-native learners of English to predict the pronunciation of English words they first
come across in writing or the spelling of many English words they first hear.
The critical point is that this happens with some of the most common words in the language:

 Words containing ough: thought, although, rough,

 Words which have different spellings but they sound the same: ate, eight; hear, here; their, there
 Words with silent letters, not pronounced: know, could, hour
 Words that look the same but must be pronounced differently: read (present tense), read (past
tense); present (a gift), present (to give to); close (near); close (to shut)

 1.2. Frequently Used Acronyms In The

TEFL Environment
 Congratulations! You have passed this lesson.
  The TEFL environment is full of acronyms. We have listed some of the frequently used acronyms.
Try and get to grips with these through time.
 ELT (English Language Teaching) has quite recently come into use as an umbrella term which
aims to include everything in the Teaching English field.
 TEFL (Teaching English as a Foreign Language) and EFL (English as a Foreign Language) are
perhaps the most common terms.
 TESOL (Teaching English to Speakers of Other Languages) is another umbrella term, similar to
ELT. In the USA, Canada and Australia, the term TESOL (Teaching English to Speakers of Other
Languages) is much more widely used than TEFL, but the concept is much the same.
 TEYL (Teaching English to Young Learners) is encompassed within TEFL and is geared, as you
would imagine, to teaching young learners of English.
 TESL (Teaching English as a Second Language) is teaching immigrants in English-speaking
countries, though this area is also, confusingly, referred to as TESL. The learners are studying an
ESL (English as a Second Language) course.
 CLT (Communicative Language Teaching) is an umbrella term for learner-centred, authentic, and
meaningful language acquisition principles that inform the most widely practiced language
teaching approach used in second language learning classrooms today. It is also referred to as the
Communicative Approach. Our course will follow this approach.
 L1 is the term used for a learner’s first language (the learner’s native language). If someone asks
you if you allow L1 in the classroom, they are asking if you allow your learners to use their native
language in class.
 L2 stands for the second language a learner is learning. Your learners’ L2 will be English.
 PPP (Presentation, Practice, Production) is a widely used model of classroom teaching for lesson
planning and lesson delivery. Some learning Providers call this the I do, We do, You do model of
teaching. However, we will adhere to our 5 Step Lesson Plan model, which will keep you firmly
on track all of the time.
 STT (Student Talking Time) is the amount of time that learners spend talking in class (ideally as
much as possible).
 TTT (Teacher Talking Time) is the amount of time you spend talking during a class (ideally as
little as possible and much less than STT).
 There are more acronyms, but these will do us fine for the moment!
 Later, we’ll look at another small group of acronyms, representing different types of EFL courses
that learners may be taking and the specific examinations that some learners may be preparing for.
 This course will prepare you to help learners to enhance their English Language level per se.
 But it will also prepare you to help those learners who are aiming for a specific EFL qualification,
often for entry to university studies, for migration purposes or work reasons. All you will need to
do is familiarise yourself with the specific syllabus relating to the examination.

1.3. A Very Brief History Of Some ELT

Methods
Congratulations! You have passed this lesson.
Down through the years, there has been a wide range of approaches used to teach EFL. We will summarise
some of these ‘traditional’ approaches. We’ll leave it to you to decide if you want to explore these in
greater depth.

The Grammar-Translation Approach

 Developed in the 19th century to teach Latin and Greek.
 The main aim of studying a foreign language is to be able to read its literature.
 The emphasis in class is on reading/writing, not on listening/speaking.
 The foreign language is explained and discussed in the learners’ native language.
 Most lesson time is spent translating written sentences/texts, which have little resemblance to spoken
communication, from/into the foreign language.
 Despite having little to no theoretical basis underpinning it, this method is still used in some institutions
today.

The Direct Approach

 Emerged in the late 19th century.
 It is based on the principle that a learner can learn a second language much like she learns a first language.
 Language is acquired ‘directly’, and exclusively, in the target language, e.g., English, via active
demonstration by the teacher.
 The learners’ native language and all translation are excluded from the classroom.

Audiolingual Approach
 Language learning is all to do with habit formation. Language classes should, therefore, concentrate on the
formation of speech habits by using a series of mechanical and repetitive oral drills.
 The learning consists mainly of the accurate imitation and memorisation by learners of sentences or
dialogues modelled by the teacher.
 Language is a matter of speech, and so classroom work concentrates almost exclusively on speaking.

From the 1970s onwards, other approaches arose, principally to counter the mimic-heavy, pattern-based
teaching approaches of the previous decades. These include Total Physical Response (which we’ll touch
on in a later Module), The Silent Way, Suggestopedia, and the Natural Approach. All these approaches
have had different degrees of success.
Remember this! It would be silly not to recognise that all of these approaches have included some
teaching elements that have been useful at some time or another for teaching. Beware of anyone who
dismisses all these approaches. It’s maybe because they do not know enough about them!
When reflecting on teaching approaches, one thing that should spark our interest is when a profound and
notable transformation takes place – a sea change or paradigm shift (a shift from one way of thinking to
another).
One such sea change in the approach to teaching took place in the 1970s and 1980s, and it is still gathering
strength at this moment. This period saw the introduction of what is commonly known as Communicative
Language Teaching (CLT) or the Communicative Approach.
We’ll come to this in a few moments.

1.4. Teaching Approaches, Methods And

Techniques
Congratulations! You have passed this lesson.
 1.4.1. Approaches, Methods, Techniques
We will view an ‘approach’ as a way of looking at teaching and learning. Underlying any
language teaching approach is a theoretical view of what language is, and of how it can be
learned. It contains a set of theoretical principles about teaching with practical applications.
An approach gives rise to ‘methods’, the way of teaching language items, e.g., via classroom
activities or techniques.
A method is how a language is taught. A method is made up of a set of techniques that
usually reflect a particular view of language teaching.

Example
The Communicative Approach is the most popular and most current approach to language
teaching. Task-based teaching is a methodology associated with teaching the Communicative
Approach. Other methods are also associated with teaching the Communicative Approach.
However, to confuse matters, some methods have also been labelled ‘approaches’.

1.4.2. Most Recent Methods/Techniques

Here is a list of the most popular methods of teaching ELT:

1. Presentation, Practice and Production (PPP)

In this method, the teacher presents the new language item for learning, using a situation
(presentation stage). Then the teacher gets the learners to practise the new language via
exercises or other controlled practice activities (practice stage). And then he asks learners to
use or produce the same language in a communicative and less controlled way (production
stage).

 Audiolingual Method (mentioned above)

In this method, language learning is all about habit formation, mainly by repetitive drilling.
Error correction is considered essential to prevent bad habits.
The Audiolingual Method is largely discredited in academic circles, though in some places it
is still practised.

 Lexical method (often termed ‘lexical approach’)

In today’s communicative classroom, the word lexis is used to signify both the teaching of
vocabulary and areas of grammar together. Vocabulary is typically seen as individual words,
whereas lexis is a somewhat broader concept and consists of words, phrases, collocations,
chunks, and formulaic grammatical expressions.
These words, chunks, and patterns are now often called lexical items.
Instruction focuses on fixed expressions that frequently occur in dialogues.
 Note that we will only use the word vocabulary on a few occasions from now on. We will
use the term lexis instead. We will also use the adjective lexical, which derives
from lexis.
We’ll explore lexis in-depth in Module 4.

 Task-based method

In Task-Based Learning, the learning is designed around a series of authentic tasks which
give learners the experience of using the language in ways in which it is used in the ‘real
world’ outside the classroom. In this method, there is no predetermined language syllabus,
and the aim is for learners to learn from the tasks the language they need to participate
successfully in them.
A task could be working out the itinerary of a journey from a timetable or requesting
information from a travel agent.

 Principled Eclecticism Method

This method involves the use of a variety of language learning activities, a mix of all the
different activities above and other teaching methods. Proponents (supporters) of this method
say that there are weaknesses as well as strengths in other methods. Thus, it’s best to use a
mix of methods to ensure the learning does not become mechanical and, therefore, the
learners will benefit from several methods.

 Communicative Method (often termed the ‘Communicative Approach’)

 In this method, the focus is on authentic, meaningful communication, not structure.
 Learners accomplish tasks using language. They do not study the language, as happened in
the past.
 The syllabus focuses on functions (e.g., asking permission, asking directions, etc.), not
grammatical/structural development (tenses, conditionals, etc.).
 Fluency and communication are more important than accuracy.
 The class becomes more learner-centred (or learner-centred). Learners accomplish their tasks
with other learners, while the teacher plays more of a facilitator/observer role.

This is the method/approach we will be majoring in throughout the course.

1.5 Total Focus On Communicative

Language Teaching (CLT), Also Known
As The Communicative Approach
Congratulations! You have passed this lesson.
Communicative Language Teaching (CLT), also known as the Communicative Approach, is
the approach we will major in throughout the course.
 It’s not easy to define CLT in a few words as many teachers and linguists stress different
elements within this approach. However, it’s safe to say that this definition from Richards
and Schmidt (2002) will serve us well:
It is an approach that emphasises that the goal of language learning is communicative
competence. Communicative competence aims to make meaningful communication and
language use the focus of all classroom activities.
CLT is a broad term for learner-centred, authentic, and meaningful language
acquisition principles that inform the most widely practised language teaching approach
used in second language learning classrooms today.
That’s quite a bit to take on board. For the moment, all you need to grasp is that in the 1970s
and 1980s there was a paradigm shift in the approach to teaching EFL.
This shift witnessed a move away from and reaction against what is often now termed as
‘traditional’ approaches, e.g., the Grammar-Translation Approach. ‘Traditional’ isn’t an easy
word to describe precisely, but for our purposes here we will use it to describe the teaching
approaches which were commonly in use before the Communicative Approach reared its
head in the 1970s and 1980s.
The main principles of the Communicative Approach you will be using can be summarised as
follows:
Communication

 Classroom work aims to help learners reach an effective standard of communication outside
the classroom.
 Accuracy in grammar and pronunciation are important, but these are less important than the
ability to communicate meaningfully in real life (even if there are some mistakes in the
language).
 There is a strong emphasis on listening and speaking, but lessons can include reading and
writing. This depends on school policy and learner needs.
 The principal achievement goal of Communicative Language Teaching is to enable learners
to communicate knowledge and opinions surrounding a topic in the target language
(English). Remember this: The target language is the language learners are studying (i.e.
English).
 Attempts to communicate are encouraged from the very first lesson.
 Practice activities are put in communicative contexts, wherever possible. So, there is frequent
use of role-plays, discussions, etc. at all levels.

Meaning and use

Language learning is mainly about learning to communicate effectively. So, the primary
emphasis is always on the meaning and use of language items.
Context
New language items are presented and practised in realistic and meaningful contexts which
show their meaning and use. It is the context that gives language meaning. Simply put, the
language necessary for buying a train ticket would be set in a train station (the context).
Fluency
 It is assumed that the ability to communicate effectively in a language will result from a
combination of formal learning of rules and holistic acquisition.
Creativity
Language learning and acquisition are creative processes, and they involve trial and error on
the part of the learner. The learner should be encouraged to try out language items in a
supportive classroom environment and, with your help, he will learn from his mistakes.
Functions
To do this, the underlying premise is that learners need to be able to go beyond the learning
of the grammatical structure of a language and into the functions (e.g. buying a bus ticket;
ordering a meal; applying for a job) or areas and ways such utterances are used in
communication in the real world.
Form

 Linguistic competence is only part of the whole picture of language acquisition. Learners
must be able to choose the most appropriate form for a situation, such as when to use could
you or would you as an issue of register or politeness.
 Register is a variety of a language or a level of usage, as determined by the degree of
formality and choice of lexis, pronunciation, and syntax (grammar), according to the
communicative purpose, social context, and standing of the user. For example, we generally
use a different variety of language when we speak to our doctor than we do when speaking to
our friends (unless the doctor is a close friend).
 Learners must also recognise that a variety of forms can be used to achieve the same end or
function such as It may rain and Perhaps it will rain, each of which achieves the same
communicative purpose which is the possibility of rain.

Teacher role
This is very important.

 Your emphasis must always be on communication in English. Your role is to facilitate, help,
and advise your learners and also to be a language resource. The core principle is that you do
not ‘teach’ (as in the past) but instead help and facilitate your learners to learn or acquire.
 The classroom is learner-centred or learning-centred, with many activities taking place in
pairs or groups, monitored and unobtrusively facilitated by you.

Individual learning preferences

Your learners will have different learning needs and preferences. You will, therefore, need to
use whichever techniques you feel will help your learners most. That is, on occasion, you
may discuss grammar rules if this helps your learners. Remember this: grammar is never
taught in isolation unless it is absolutely necessary.
Real English
In some parts of lessons, learners will be exposed to fine-tuned input (language at or within
the learners’ knowledge). In other parts, they will be exposed to rough-tuned input (language
which is a little above the learners’ level). Even in Beginner classes, learners will be exposed
to examples of authentic English: newspaper articles, etc.
Occasional structured drills
 Remember this! Drilling means repetition. It involves your learners, either individually or as
a group, repeating whatever you say. Drilling is a way for your learners to practise new
language, e.g., lexis, grammatical structures, and pronunciation, in a controlled setting.
 Oral drilling and classroom-type exercises may occupy a small proportion of lesson time.
 They are ways of helping learners with pronunciation, grammar patterns, etc.

In summary, to obtain communicative competence via the communicative approach, lessons

need integration of the following:

1. Situation/context: The situations one encounters in life, e.g., meeting a new friend; going to
the doctor. A meaningful context is set.
2. Functions: Functions are speech acts that learners are likely to face, e.g., seeking advice,
requesting information, expressing gratitude, complimenting someone, expressing requests,
asking permission, complaining, etc.
3. Form: Socio-linguistic-language used in a social setting, social niceties, social situations,
formal v informal expressions, etc. You will integrate socio-linguistic competence (such as
acceptable and unacceptable ways to complain) as well as strategies and methods to
overcome communication breakdown when it happens.
4. Meaning and use: These will be linked to the form

 Grammar: Always taught in context. It is linked to materials related to conversation,

reading, listening, and writing. It is never taught in isolation unless it is necessary.
 Notions: Days of the week, dates, months, should be introduced in context.

For example, in lesson planning, you will determine how to adapt these competencies to
learner needs. To do this, you could:

 Choose a situation such as a visit to a doctor.

 Present the language functions such as giving formal greetings, requesting advice, giving
advice, demonstrating gratitude.
 Present the form related to the situation and its meaning and usage.
 Choose the necessary grammar and lexis to complete the exercise.
 Construct and choose communicative activities for the learners to practise and produce.

So, this integrated communicative approach is the one we will focus on. It’s an exciting
approach where skills are integrated. Each of your lessons may include a bit of speaking,
listening, writing, and reading, where possible.
The achievement goal at all times is to enable learners to communicate knowledge and
opinions surrounding a topic in the target language – English. There’ll be very few
standalone grammar lessons, but you will still need a sound grasp of basic grammar so that
you can handle queries and questions seamlessly. We’ll be tackling bits of grammar in
various parts of the course. It’s not too stretching!

1.6. L1 And L2 Learning

Congratulations! You have passed this lesson.
 1.6.1. L1 And L2 And Second Language
Acquisition (SLA)
Remember! Repetition is an excellent teaching attribute so, now and again, we’ll remind you of a few
things mentioned earlier in the course.
As mentioned before, L1 is the label given to a person’s first language (the learner’s native language, e.g.,
Mandarin). When this person learns a second or foreign language (e.g., English), this additional language
is labelled the person’s L2 language.
So, all the learners you will be teaching will have a non-English language, e.g., Mandarin, as their
native/first language (L1) and you will be teaching them English which will be a second or foreign
language for them, known as L2.
Now, let’s explore the critical area of Second Language Acquisition (SLA). SLA is the term used for
learners learning a second language after their first language is already established.
There’s no doubt that L1 learners learn differently from L2 learners. It’s vital that you reflect on the key
differences.
You can probably work out for yourself the key points relating to L1 learning as you have been an L1
learner. Let’s reflect on this.
Time to reflect
Can you identify any differences between an L1 learner learning her native language and an L2
learner learning his second or foreign language? Try and do this without looking at the next Section.
Take some time out to make a drink or sandwich and reflect on this.
Then you can return to check your thoughts with what we think below.

Well done!
L1 learner

 Generally immersed in language at all times from birth

 Wants, needs and is motivated to communicate by signs or baby words, with meaning, e.g., I want some
food!
 Adults often praise and encourage the child’s use of language, spurring her on to more significant
linguistic achievements
 Gets a lot of attention to aid the learning
 Learns by playing and experimenting with the new language, and lots of time to do so
 Not often corrected

Let’s now consider the L2 learner’s learning situation

L2 learner
 Not intensively exposed to the L2
 Most often exposed by being taught the English language in the classroom; often limited exposure outside
the classroom
 May not be motivated, but could be, though
 Often only learns through interaction with you and his classmates – may not be motivated to try out
functions outside of the classroom.
 Often learns by using language in a controlled setting with you and other learners and often with lots of
controlled practice activities
 Teachers vary in the amount they praise or encourage L2 learners – some teachers may not do this
effectively, certainly not as effectively and frequently as a mother/father/caregiver would do in an L1
situation. When you see good, specific examples of positive behaviour, praise your learners.
 The learner typically receives limited attention from the teacher.
 Many teachers regularly correct learners for accuracy; this can be demotivating for some learners.

So, there are some significant differences between L1 and L2 learning. Remember these and another piece
will be in place in your ‘Good Teacher Jigsaw’.

1.7. Key Influences On L2 Learning

Congratulations! You have passed this lesson.
Why do some L2 learners learn faster and better than others? Here are some vital points for you to
remember and reflect on regularly when you are on the job. They are not in any specific order.

 Degree of intellect

Some L2 learners are just brighter than others. If they are motivated to learn, they will achieve higher
levels of learning.

 Age

So many studies have been carried out to prove or disprove that age is or isn’t a key influence on learning.
None have achieved their purpose successfully. When we compare SLA with, say, learners at age 6, 16,
26, or 56, there are so many other variables involved. How can the acquisition of a 6year-old with an open
mind and no cares in the world be compared to the acquisition of a 26-year old who is learning part-time
and has lots of concerns?
There is no definitive answer.
However, our experience tells us that, generally, the older a person becomes, the more difficult it is to
acquire a second language. Even although that older person has a broader view of the world and more
extensive experiences, he also has many more things requiring his focus and concentration.

 Learning preference

If the teaching is not carried out in line with the learner’s preferred learning approach, e.g., lots of visuals
or lots of audio or lots of discussions and activities, etc., learning may very well be curtailed. We will
explore ‘learning preferences’ later.

 Motivation

Whether this is intrinsic (learning for its own sake) or extrinsic (for some goal or reward, e.g., securing a
new job), every learner has varying degrees of motivation. It’s also challenging to keep learners motivated
all of the time.
Remember this! The whole person comes to school, be it your learners or you. Learners have their ups
and downs. They come with all their personal baggage, e.g., worrying about a sick parent/child, or upset
 due to a breakdown in some personal relationship. So, the motivated person yesterday may not be the
motivated person today. Help and show empathy wherever you can.
And the same applies to you.
You may feel a little bit down due to some personal issue. Alternatively, you may have had just one too
many social events the nights before. You’ll need to make a supreme effort not to let these events affect
your teaching. Your learners need you to be constant, i.e., positive, welcoming and full of life all the time.

 Language proficiency in L1

There’s no doubt that a learner who is proficient in her L1 language (grammar, structure, mood, etc.) and
understands all of this, has a great head start when learning an L2.

 Awareness of L2

Again, a learner will have a great head start on others if she already has an awareness of the L2, perhaps
through living in a bi-lingual environment.
These were easy for you! Let’s ramp it up a bit. Now, let’s look at some trickier additional issues that
we have come across in our years of teaching EFL:

 Autonomy

Some educators say that learners should play a more active role in designing or selecting learning
experiences in schools.
This approach can encourage learners to be more interested in school, more motivated to learn, and more
likely to take responsibility for their education.
That is, learners should be given some degree of autonomy. There is no doubt that most learners thrive on
autonomy. Studies have shown that as learner autonomy increases, so does learner motivation. And, thus,
so do learning results.
An example of autonomy would be to let learners pick from a list of topics to debate instead of being told
what to do.
Of course, there are those learners who shy away from autonomy. These learners want the teacher to lead
them. However, generally, the more autonomy there is, the better the learning results will be.

 Prior learning

Learners may bring to class their expectations regarding teacher relationships, teacher behaviour and
teacher approaches to learning that prevailed in their home countries, especially if they had extensive
schooling there.
Therefore, some learners from more traditional educational systems may expect you to behave in a more
formal and authoritarian fashion during classes. They may be displeased, puzzled, or offended if you use
an informal instructional style, such as using their first names in class or allowing the learners to move
freely around the room. They may believe that this will affect their learning.
When teaching learners, you must try to find out how they have learned previously and how they would
prefer to learn in your classroom. Simply put, you need to ask them.

 Pattern of classroom activity

Some learners may also want you to maintain a clearly ordered pattern of classroom activity and, perhaps,
engage in extensive correction of grammatical form or pronunciation during all activities rather than at
irregular points in a lesson or not at all.
 Failure to conform to these ideals may give some learners the impression of lazy or inadequate class
preparation on your part.

 Your behaviour

You, similarly, bring to the classroom your expectations regarding teacher behaviour. This includes your
views on appropriate behaviour within society in general, as well as in the classroom.
For example, if you come from a culture of self-reliance, are at ease in expressing and defending personal
opinions, and are interested in personal advancement, you will likely provide instruction that addresses
these goals. You may unconsciously attribute these same goals to your learners.
The potential for conflicting expectations and evaluations of behaviour between you and your learners is
evident.

 Gender

Find out whether learners have ever experienced mixed educational groupings, whether they expect male
and female teachers to behave differently, and how different classroom activities, e.g., roleplays or
dialogue practice, might affect learners adversely because of their native cultural constraints.
Failure on your part to take this into account may affect learner learning.

 Female participation

In encouraging women learners to speak up and take an active role in class, you may sometimes encounter
reluctance from both men and women from cultures in which women have historically been constrained by
social roles that do not promote active participation in mixed-sex settings.
You must reflect on this point continuously.

 Culture: Appropriate topics for learning

Cultural expectations regarding the nature of education and what is appropriate to talk about may also
affect the kinds of topics learners are willing to pursue in class and their motivation to learn. Cultural as
well as personal sensitivity is vital in knowing if, when, and how to introduce topics or lessons that may be
inappropriate (for some) or complicated.

 Classroom Participation

The communicative classroom creates a lively, vibrant environment. This is generally a motivating
learning environment for those who enjoy working with others. But not always.
What about the learner who prefers to work alone? Verbally expressing ideas and asking questions during
class can prove difficult for learners who are unaccustomed to this form of active and lively pair and group
participation.
And what about the situation where a learner loves to be with the same partner all of the time, in a pair?
She may not like being moved into a group.
There are communicative approach proponents who see pair work and group work as the answer to
everything. This is not the case. We need to observe well and consider our learners’ preferences, at least
for some of the time.

 Communication styles

There are patterns of expression and rules of interaction that reflect the norms and values of a culture.
 If you lack understanding of these communication styles, this could lead to confusion, anxiety and conflict
– and a reduction in learning. Let’s consider just two of these styles.

A. Direct Style V Indirect Style

Direct Style
Here are the key indicators of a direct style of communication presented by the teacher and, perhaps, some
learners in the classroom:

 Straightforward talking
 No beating about the bush – straight and to the point
 Directness means there is respect for the other person.
 Avoiding ambiguity

Here are the key indicators of an indirect style of communication presented by the teacher and, perhaps,
some learners in the classroom:

Indirect Style
 Meaning is conveyed by subtle means, stories, implication – not getting to the point
 Indirectness means politeness and respect for the other person.
 Frequent use of implication – not directness

B. Idea-Focussed Style V Person-Focussed Styles

Idea-Focussed
 Ideas and person are separate
 Open disagreement is acceptable
 Disagreement with a person’s views is not seen as a personal attack

Person-Focussed
 Ideas and person are not separate
 Feelings are important
 Disagreement is handled very carefully
 Disagreement is an attack on the person

So, here we have conflicting ways of looking at communication. This is a potential boiling pot.
Learning will be affected, and your critical task will be to find a balance. It’s not your role to try and
change people’s cultural ways of working. It is your role to find a solution to this.
So, there are lots of ways an L2 learner’s learning can be influenced.
 1.8. Effective Learning Strategies
Congratulations! You have passed this lesson.
Language learning strategies are the conscious steps or behaviours used by language learners to enhance
the acquisition, storage, retention, recall, and use of new information.
The more proficient learners use learning strategies that are appropriate to the material, to the task, and
their own goals, needs, and stage of learning.
For example, strategies could be techniques such as diaries, think-aloud procedures, observations, and
surveys.
More proficient learners appear to use a broader range of strategies in a significant number of situations
than less skilled learners. For example, more proficient learners:

 employ appropriate language learning strategies that often result in improved proficiency or achievement
overall or in specific skill areas.
 tend to use strategies that work well together and which are tailored to the requirements of the language
task. These learners can easily explain the strategies they use and why they employ them.
 use metacognitive strategies, such as translating and analysing, and other strategies, such as planning and
organising. Using combinations of strategies often has more impact than relying on a single strategy.
 use specific strategies or clusters of strategies that are linked to particular language skills or tasks.

Learners may have created their own strategies or may have picked up some strategies from their teachers,
their parents or siblings, or their friends. They may also have gained some useful strategies from a library
or internet search.
There are many different and preferred strategies that learners may use. The following list is not definitive
but it will give you a good idea of the commonly-used types of strategies that some learners use. Note that
no definitive list of strategies has been agreed on by language researchers.
Anyhow, you can pass on some of these ideas to those of your learners who have no concrete strategies for
learning and studying.

1. Circumlocution

This is best explained via an example. The more proficient learner doesn’t know the word ‘nephew’ but
she doesn’t give up. So, she uses different words or phrases to express the intended meaning, e.g. my
brother’s son.

 Avoidance

Avoidance is where a more proficient learner may learn to avoid talking about topics for which she lacks
the necessary lexis or other language skills. She may also come to a halt mid-utterance once she realises
she does not have the language resources needed to complete her communication.

 Word coinage

This is the term for more proficient learners creating new words or phrases for words that they do not
know. For example, the learner doesn’t know the word freezer and she constructs and uses a new word ice
cabinet instead.

 Language switching or code switching

 This is where a more proficient learner doesn’t know a word and uses a word with the same meaning from
her first language, hoping that her communication partner will understand. For example: My aunt and
uncle are coming for Christmas. They will be staying chez nous.

 Clarification and comprehension checks

Some learners are often too shy or embarrassed to say anything when they do not understand the other
speaker. More proficient learners, however, use clarification and comprehension checks. For example:
For clarification check:

 Do you mean …?
 Could you explain what you mean by …?
 Could you give me an example, please?

For comprehension check:

 Sorry, I don’t understand.

 Sorry, I don’t know what you mean.
 Sorry, I’m not sure I’m following you.

Note that this appeal for assistance may also be done indirectly via a puzzled expression, raising eyebrows,
etc.

 Non-verbal strategies

This refers to strategies such as the use of body language, gestures, mime, facial expressions, sound
imitation to support or replace verbal communication.

 Approximation

This is where the more proficient learner uses an alternative term that approximates the meaning of the
target word or phrase as closely as possible. For example, she may say ship instead of (the more difficult)
word yacht.

 Use of all-purpose words

When the more proficient learner lacks a specific word in a conversation, she may use a general, empty
lexical word or phrase to replace it; for example, stuff, thingie.

 Using minimal responses

More proficient learners build up a stock of minimal responses, to help them engage.
Minimal responses are predictable phrases that conversation participants use to indicate understanding,
agreement, doubt, and other responses to what another speaker is saying; for example: Oh, I see. Is that
so? That’s good. Oh, sorry. I didn’t catch that.
These minimal responses enable a learner to concentrate on what the other participant is saying, without
having to plan a reply simultaneously.

1. Recognising scripts/patterns opportunities

More proficient learners understand that many communication situations are associated with a predictable
set of spoken exchanges. For example, greetings, compliments, apologies, invitations, and other functions
that are influenced by social and cultural norms often follow scripts or patterns. For example:
 Can I help you?
Yes, please.
It’s the same with exchanges involved in activities such as obtaining information and making a purchase.
In these scripts, the relationship between a speaker’s turn and the one that follows it can often be
anticipated.

1. Fillers and hesitation devices

This is where the more proficient learner uses fillers or hesitation devices to fill pauses and to gain a bit of
time to think.
Fillers:

 em …
 er …
 mm …
 uh …
 As a matter of fact, …
 Well, …
 Actually, …
 To be honest/frank, …

Hesitation Devices/Stalling For Time To Think

Let’s see, …
Wow, that’s a difficult one.
Now, let me think.
Now, just a minute.
That’s a good question.
I’ll have to think about that for a moment.
What I’m trying to say is… How shall I put it?
How can I best explain this?
Let’s put it this way.
Where should I start?

1. SMART goals

More proficient learners know how to set SMART goals:

 Specific
 Measurable
 Achievable
 Realistic
 Time-based

Smart goals provide the benchmark, focus and plan for surging ahead. The more proficient learner also
knows and understands what it is to be too ambitious. It will take lots of practice and lots of time before
she can consider how fluent she is. But it will all be worth it in the end.
1. Using authentic material and practising in authentic situations

The more proficient learner listens to the teacher’s advice that the best route to fluency is through
consuming lots of authentic material. What is learned and practised in the classroom is not enough.
Consuming lots of authentic material outside the classroom, in different formats, is vital for fluency
success. As is practising the language in real-life situations with native speakers.

1. Self-monitoring

The more proficient learner does not just rely on teacher comments and the institution’s assessments to tell
her how she is doing. She assesses her own capabilities frequently by taking relevant, external proficiency
tests and quizzes. This helps her to further determine what areas she needs to develop.
She knows that another way to assess her own skills without a proficiency test/quiz is to think through
what she’s most comfortable with. If she had to communicate with a native speaker, would she feel more
comfortable with:

 Listening to the native speaker, then responding in speech

 Speaking with the native speaker and responding in speech
 Writing to the native speaker
 Reading about the native speaker and then responding to some questions

It’s likely that the option she chooses is her strongest skill and, thus, she knows what other skills she needs
to focus on.
The four skills (listening, speaking, writing, reading)
Finally, with regard to the four skills, the more proficient learner will likely demonstrate a cocktail of some
of these strategies:

1. Listening: Comprehension gains from strategies of elaboration, inference, selective attention, and self-
monitoring.
2. Speaking: Speaking demands strategies such as risk-taking, paraphrasing, circumlocution, selfmonitoring,
and self-evaluation.
3. Writing: Writing benefits from the learning strategies of planning, self-monitoring, deduction, and
substitution.
4. Reading: Comprehension benefits from using strategies like reading aloud, guessing, deduction, and
summarising.

Help your learners to develop and enhance their learning strategies so that, eventually, they will become
independent learners with the ability to use robust strategies in a variety of contexts.
Well done! You have learned a lot already. Every piece of information above will help you become a
competent and effective EFL teacher. And there’s lots more to come!
Time for another little break. Then, come back and have a go at Quiz 1.
It’s not difficult. Good luck!
After that, we’ll move on to Module 2, where we will focus in-depth on You: the competent and
effective EFL teacher. A whole Module about You.
Lucky you!
2.1. What Makes A Competent And
Effective EFL Teacher?
Congratulations! You have passed this lesson.
As in any work role, the goal a person aims for is competence. However, what is competence, and what
makes a competent teacher?
Let’s agree on what the word competent means. The Oxford Dictionaries tells us
that competent means having the necessary ability, knowledge or skill to do something successfully.
Far be it from us to question this dictionary definition when relating it to teacher competence, but here
goes.
Our experience tells us that you also need to include habits when considering how competent you are as a
teacher.
For example, it seems to us that turning up at the classroom on time, ready to greet your learners and
welcoming them as they come into the classroom is an excellent habit. And so is you reflecting on how the
lesson panned out, immediately after the lesson or as soon as possible.
So, let’s expand our definition of a competent teacher to: A person who has the knowledge, ability,
skills and habits necessary to teach successfully. We hope you agree with this definition.
Notice that we changed the order of the words a bit. There was a practical reason for this as you will be
able to recall these critical components of competence by the mnemonic KASH for knowledge, ability,
skills and habits.
So, when you’re asked to contribute your thoughts on what makes a competent teacher during a staff
meeting, you’ll have a good aide-memoire of the mnemonic KASH to get you moving.
Surprise! Surprise! We’re going to ask you the same question right now!
Time to reflect
What makes a competent and effective teacher?
Try and answer this without looking at the next Section.
Take some time out to make a drink or sandwich and reflect on this.
Then you can return to check your thoughts with what we think below.

Well done!
Here’s what we believe are the key traits and characteristics of a competent and effective teacher, some of
which you will have already identified. Well done!
1. Adheres To A Code Of Practice For
Teachers At All Times
You’ll find on your travels that many schools do not have a Code of Practice that you are asked to follow.
And there are lots of TEFL courses that do not contain a Code of Practice for learners. How can this be?
Dearie me! However, don’t worry about this – it’s just the way things are. It doesn’t stop you from
following YOUR Code of Practice.
So, where do you get this? Don’t worry; we have one already made up for you. ACCREDITAT, our
accrediting body, has developed a Code of Practice for you. The Code is based on their experiences and the
experiences of many excellent TEFL teachers over the past 30 years. Here it is:
ACCREDITAT Code of Practice for Teachers
At the heart of the ACCREDITAT Code of Practice for Teachers is:
►a conviction that excellence is achieved via competence
►a belief in the worth, individuality and dignity of each person
►a commitment to truth, excellence and democratic principles
►an allegiance to freedom to learn and teach
►a dedication to the principle of equal opportunity for all
Members of the TEFL teaching profession are committed to demonstrating the following values and ideals
which underpin the profession:

1. Honesty And Integrity

►creating and maintaining appropriate professional relationships in the classroom, school and in public
►acting with impartiality, truthfulness and honesty
►displaying consistently high standards of personal and professional behaviour
►refraining from disclosing information about colleagues in the course of professional service unless
disclosure serves a compelling professional purpose or is required by law
►refraining from any abuse of a position of authority or relationships with learners, parents, caregivers or
colleagues for financial, political or personal gain
►acting according to the law

2. Dignity And Diversity

►valuing diversity and treating learners, parents, caregivers and colleagues equitably and fairly and with
care and compassion while respecting the uniqueness of family and socio-economic backgrounds, cultures,
races, religions and beliefs
►valuing the learning needs, effort, and potential, and acknowledging the uniqueness, of each learner
►improving the wellbeing and progress of those learners with special needs
►fostering the valuing of diversity and encouraging the development of international, multicultural,
gender, and indigenous and other perspectives
►allowing, reasonably, the learners’ access to varying points of view

3. Respect And Trust

►acknowledging that mutual respect, trust and confidentiality of personal information underpin all
relationships with learners and their families unless disclosure of any information serves a compelling
professional purpose or is required by law
►acknowledging the contribution that mutual respect, trust and privacy make to learners’ wellbeing and
learning
►acknowledging the desires and hopes of the learners’ families and caregivers
►acting with educational colleagues and the broader community in ways that enhance the profession
►accepting the status, responsibilities and authority of colleagues
►remaining open to constructive criticism from peers and showing respect and consideration for different
viewpoints

4. Responsibility And Accountability

►giving priority to the education and welfare of all learners in our care
►guiding and encouraging learners to achieve their potential, ensuring all learners have an equal
opportunity to reach their potential
►creating interactive learning environments, rather than environments in which the learners are merely
passive recipients of information
►regarding themselves as learners and engaging in continuous professional development, and improving
teaching and learning strategies for themselves and colleagues
►working collaboratively, cooperatively and enthusiastically with colleagues and other educational bodies
in the best interests of the education and welfare of the learners
►taking heed to clarify their personal views and those of the local educational authorities ►promoting the
ongoing development of teaching as a profession
►upholding school policies, procedures and practices
►modelling the behaviour, attitudes and positive values which are widely accepted in society and
encouraging learners to apply them and critically appreciate their significance

5. Care And Protection

►having empathy and respect for, and rapport with, learners and their families and caregivers, colleagues
and communities
►committing to learners’ wellbeing and learning through the practice of positive influence, professional
judgement and empathy in practice
►adhering to the school’s learner protection policies and procedures
►protecting learners from conditions harmful to learning or health and safety
►refraining from any racial, gender, political, verbal, physical or emotional abuse, embarrassment or
harassment
►being generous with praise and giving positive inputs and feedback

6. Fairness And Justice

►being fair and reasonable at all times
►being committed to the wellbeing of individuals and the community and the common good
►resolving competing claims or problems arising from different ethical principles and various interest
groups through reflective professional discussion
Note this: View this as an excellent aide-memoire to reflect on what you should be doing on a day-to-
day basis. Keep it by your side at all times. Reflect on it frequently. It will serve you well in your
TEFL career.

2. Demonstrates That She Is Warm,

Caring And Approachable
You can show this in many ways, e.g. being approachable at all times, being a person that learners can go
to with any concerns or to share an amusing story, being an active listener, trying very hard to be
consistent even although you may feel under the weather, etc.

3. Establishes Good Rapport And

Relationships With All Learners At All
Times
This doesn’t mean that you strive to be humorous and have lots of fun in your classroom. Some older
learners, in particular, may not take to this. They may feel that too much fun in the classroom is eating up
their valuable time.
Inexperienced teachers often misinterpret fun for learning. Although it’s good to have some fun, the
critical question you must ask yourself is: What did they learn successfully?
Alternatively, some learners may come from a culture where humour in the classroom is not an accepted
thing.
Rapport exists when people develop a feeling of harmony, well-being and security.
We’ll explore how to build rapport and relationships a little bit later. The same processes are involved
whether we’re applying them to learners or anyone else in the school.

4. Fosters A Constructive Learning

Experience
Again, we’ll cover this thoroughly in a later Module but for the moment here are some suggestions:
 everything is planned
 there are excellent class routines
 standards of behaviour are agreed
 an inclusive environment is created where all learners are treated fairly and equally

5. Creates A Sense Of Classroom

Community
A classroom community is one where:

 everyone feels accepted and supported as a vital part of the group

 there is a sense of belonging
 collaboration to achieve the goal is at the centre
 positive social skills are promoted
 learners know they can depend not only on the teacher but also on the whole class

Creating a classroom community spirit is critical to the success of you and your learners. This promotes
learning, engagement, and retention. The more learners feel comfortable, the more they will participate,
engage, learn and retain what they have learned.

6. Sets High, Yet Achievable,

Expectations For His Learners
The expectations that you propound for your learners will affect their achievement levels. If you set low
achievement expectations, then it’s likely you’ll get low achievement levels. Generally, learners give their
teacher as much or as little that is expected of them by the teacher. So, set high, yet achievable,
expectations.

7. Plans And Works Flexibly

Although she has planned well, she knows from experience that things don’t always go to plan. So, she
also reflects on what might not go to plan. Based on continuous monitoring, she is ready to change tack a
bit or find a new way to present the material seamlessly, without anyone else being aware of these
necessary changes.

8. Adjusts Own Level Of English To

Suit The Class
No fancy or sophisticated language. And no prizes for using this type of language.
9. Always Gives Clear, Precise
Instructions
When giving instructions, these instructions may very well have a different value and weighting amongst
their learners. Thus, the need to make instructions as simple, clear and precise as possible.

10. Chooses Appropriate Moments For

Correcting The Learners’ Language
When learners are in full flow and are communicating, it’s often wise to let it run even if there are
mistakes. After they have finished, you can then pick up on the mistakes or errors.

11. Understands The Need To Use A

Range Of Relevant And Suitable
Materials And Resources
12. Works Successfully With Learners
At Various Levels
13. Enables Learners To Feel A Sense
Of Progress
14. Assesses Fairly And Frequently,
And Plans Are Based On Assessment
15. Recognises And Understands The
Range Of Backgrounds And
Experiences Within The Learners’
Group
16. Employs A Variety Of Teaching
Styles And Approaches At Different
Stages And In Different Contexts
17. Understands The Broad Range Of
Learner Needs Including The Needs Of
Learners With Learning Difficulties
18. Reduces Teacher Talking Time
(TTT) And Maximises Student Talking
Time (STT)
19. Reflects And Self-Appraises
Continuously
20. Facilitates Language Learning And
Acquisition Both Inside And Outside
The Classroom
Note that the end goal for you should be a mix of these traits and characteristics. In essence, the end
goal you are aiming for is a ‘competent and effective teacher cocktail’.
Let’s spend a bit more time on point 20.
 2.2. A Competent And Effective Teacher
Facilitates Language
Congratulations! You have passed this lesson.

Learning And Acquisition Both Inside

And Outside The Classroom
Some teachers are glued to the classroom. They are blind to the opportunities for learning outside
the classroom.
First, let’s explore some critical elements for classroom teaching. Then we’ll explore the outside
teaching environment.

1. Inside The Classroom

You can facilitate language learning greatly by providing a selection of suitable materials to support the
learning.
Of course, you’ll use exercises in the coursebook, and you’ll make up your supplementary materials where
resources are short. However, the best way of all is to use authentic materials.
1. Authentic materials
It is paramount that your learners are exposed to authentic materials. Authentic materials are materials
which are unscripted and unedited and are not explicitly developed for language learning purposes.
They haven’t been fabricated for a language learning purpose.
Authentic materials ensure that your learners are exposed to the real world.
Here are some examples:

 Postcards and letters

 Bulletin board notices
 Extracts from newspapers, including articles, advertisements, classifieds, crosswords, horoscopes, features,
etc.
 Comics and cartoons
 Shopping receipts
 Airline tickets and itineraries
 Photographs
 Picture sequences
 Creative texts, such as poems and extracts from plays, short stories, and novels
 Recordings of casual conversations amongst native speakers
 Radio and TV news and weather broadcasts
 Public announcements (e.g. from airports)
 Messages recorded from answering machines
 Telephone conversations
 Transactions in stores and public institutions such as libraries

The list is never-ending.

Think! How can I use this item to engage my learners?
 Every single one of these real-life items could be used for practising and enhancing listening, speaking,
writing and reading skills. It just takes a bit of thought.
Let’s take one of the more challenging ones: shopping receipts. Let’s imagine you have collected a range
of shopping lists, discarded by customers as they exit a variety of shops. Just dig into the rubbish bin!
Listening and speaking
One of the receipts contains the following: a Real Madrid strip; a Real Madrid scarf; Real Madrid socks; a
Real Madrid flag.
You could read this out (including the prices) and ask a range of questions:

 Which team does the buyer, or the person they are buying these for, like? An easy one to get started.
 Who bought this? (Intentionally, there’s no clue. So, this will lead to a discussion/debate.
 Why do you think they bought them? (Again, intentionally, there’s no right answer; so, more discussion.
 Can you remember which was the most expensive/cheapest item?
 Can anyone tell me how much this person spent altogether/in total?
 Would you buy these items if you had the same amount of money? Again, a range of answers: yes/no; I’d
buy Barcelona things, etc.)

Writing
Follow up on the last point.
Learners write a few words about what they would buy if they had the same amount of money given to
them as a present.
Reading
The learners read out their piece of writing. This leads to questions and further discussion.
There are many engaging activities you could do with shopping receipts. Because these are real-world
items, your learners are aware of them, and this background knowledge will inspire them when practising
the skills.
Recordings
Again, aim to use authentic materials. Carry a little recording device with you into a busy supermarket or
train station.
Steer clear of pre-made recordings, constructed for a learning purpose. These seldom demonstrate
authentic speech. Here are some key points relating to authentic speech:
Authentic speech creates problems for the listener

 Brevity of chunks: We typically break speech into shorter chunks. In conversation, for example, people
take turns to speak, usually in short turns of a few seconds each.
 Pronunciation: The pronunciation of words is often blended or slurred, and noticeably different from the
phonological representation of some words in the dictionary.
 Lexis: The lexis is often colloquial. In spoken English, for example, you might use that guy whereas in
writing you would use that man.
 Noise: There will be a certain amount of noise with bits of the discourse unintelligible to the listener. This
may be because the words are not spoken clearly or are not known to the listener.

Preparation before using authentic materials

 Evaluate the content and ensure it’s at the right level for your learners.
 Choose topics that are relevant, practical and of interest to your learners.
 Ensure the material is of an appropriate length, to ensure the topic can be covered in the timescale set.
 A successful approach is to plan lessons and activities, based around the authentic materials that will:
 o introduce a new lexical chunk or new single words (but not too many) o build on an item/idea they are
already aware of o make a slightly complex concept more straightforward.
2. Self-Access Centre (SAC)
A self-access centre is merely a space in your classroom or another designated room, where your learners
can work independently or in pairs at their own pace.
There may or may not be one in the school where you will be teaching.
A very good self-access centre will include a range of materials that match the needs and learning
preferences of your learners.
At a basic level, it will contain some appropriate readers, laminated worksheets or work cards and some
authentic laminated materials, such as newspaper articles, magazine articles and cartoons.
Depending on the financial investment by the school, the SAC may also include other facilities such as:

 a recorder with headsets and pre-recorded cassettes

 a video recorder
 a DVD player and films
 a PC or PCs with language learning software, perhaps connected to the Internet.

What’s the purpose?

Here are some valuable purposes:

 To allow learners to work independently at their pace

 To allow those who have finished a task early to further their learning, instead of just sitting in their seats
and twiddling their thumbs, waiting for others to finish
 To differentiate your lessons in a mixed-ability setting. That is, the SAC could be used, say, for a group of
high achievers who have completed early or for a group of lower achievers who may need a bit more
practice on some item.

2. Outside The Classroom

Never view your classroom as an island. Never ever!
In addition to bringing bits of the real world into the classroom (e.g. newspapers, CDs and videos), we can,
if allowed by the school management, take our learners out into the world during class time. Here we are
effectively using the outside world as an extension of the classroom.
Learners need to use and understand language outside the classroom so that they can progress. Embrace
outside activities, and you will observe remarkable progress in your learners as they practise what has been
learned back in class.
Outside tasks may seem more obvious activities for intermediate or advanced learners. But the earlier
learners begin to engage in outside-world activities, the better their progress will be. So, consider doing
this with beginners. The key starting point should be survival language.
Clearly, at lower levels, lots of preparation is needed so that learners have the necessary language back-up,
ability and motivation to undertake the set tasks.
You could start with a bit of reading, e.g. street names, where most of the speaking will be between
learners and not with native speakers.
You could teach some simple questions they could address to native speakers, e.g. How much?
The next step could be short conversational pieces where learners can try questions and follow up the
answer given with a typical phrase such as: Thank you.
 It takes lots of planning, energy, and assistance from others where the group is big, to ensure the learners
are safe outside and have someone to turn to when they get into language difficulties. But it’s all worth it!
So, what are some of the benefits?

 Remember that outside-world language is authentic language.

 Through your teaching, the learners will be initiating the simple language transactions and will hear the
expected responses.
 Being able to deal with some everyday transactions in the outside world will be motivating.

What types of activities could you arrange?

These will depend on learner levels and what aspect of the language you wish to practise:

 Identifying objects in streets and parks

 Following maps and directions
 Visiting shops
 Interviews and surveys with English-speaking people
 Visiting museums, art galleries, historical sites
 Obtaining information from public offices, e.g. post office, tourist bureau
 Visiting travel agents
 Attending the cinema showing an English-speaking movie or a non-English-speaking movie with subtitles

Of course, many of these activities can still be carried out where you are based in a non-English speaking
country. There are many organisations – banks, hotels, supermarket chains, museums and so on – that have
native-English speakers working within them.
It will just require some additional energy from you to organise the visit. And seek out native-English
tourists and backpackers.
These outside-world activities not only make language study more meaningful and motivating. They will
also stand your learners in good stead when the time comes for them to go forth as completely independent
learners, without your support.
Give it a go!

2.3. Learners’ And The Teacher’s

Expectations Of Each Other
Congratulations! You have passed this lesson.
You cannot assume that your expectations of the classroom will be the same as your learners’ expectations.
It is vital that you are fully aware of the environment in which you are working. Don’t judge the learners
based on your cultural background and educational experiences.
In some cultures, learners are generally expected to be silent and passive learners (Japan). In others, the
norm will be a noisy and active classroom with lots of questions being asked by learners (Spain).
Also, the social foundations on which the school operates may be very different from your own
experiences. Some may be based on authority and punishment, while others may be based on rewards.
Learners come to class with an increasing diversity of cultural communication styles, multicultural values
and non-verbal communication behaviours that you may not be familiar with.
To improve cross-cultural communicative competence and to reach learners from a variety of cultural
backgrounds, you will need to raise your awareness of significant differences in verbal and non-verbal
 communication between cultures. This is especially true of those differences that have a direct impact on
teaching and learning in the multicultural classroom.
We will explore this further in the Section Cross-Cultural Aspects in the Classroom in Module 9. For the
moment, here are a few examples:

 Learners’ learning preferences may differ from yours.

 Your previous learning experiences may have influenced the way you think learners should learn.
However, your learners may have different expectations of how they can best learn.
 Some learners may expect to use a coursebook every day, but your approach may be entirely different.
 What you think the learners need may be much different from what some learners want.

2.4. There’s More To The Teacher Role

Than You Might Think
Congratulations! You have passed this lesson.
You’ve already studied what it takes to be a competent and effective teacher – and you will
be if you take all our ideas on board and marry them with your thoughts.
Also, we have already discussed the critical knowledge, ability, skills and habits elements
you require to deliver up a successful lesson.
However, there are several other things you need to do to ensure success. It would be
delightful if your role comprised merely of being a tutor:

 choosing what the learners will learn

 tutoring them to grasp the learning points
 creating an enjoyable atmosphere and utilising pleasant activities to ensure the learning takes
place

How cool would that be? It would be truly wonderful! However, it’s not as easy as that.
There are other vital personal and supervisor-type roles and activities you will be responsible
for, and these require skill, energy, commitment and awareness. They come with the job, as
they say.
What do you think these might be?
Time to reflect
What other roles and activities will you be responsible for?
You may think this question is not apt as you may not have taught before. That doesn’t
matter. All you need to do is to reflect on when you were a learner. Over those years,
you will have noticed some other essential activities and roles your teachers were
responsible for.
Since we are helpful people, here’s a clue to get started: Your teacher was also
an Assessor.
Your teacher was responsible for:
 assessing progress
 correcting errors
 allowing learners to demonstrate their mastery of the material in different ways
 planning what needs to be done in follow-up lessons
 preparing and delivering tests and examinations and marking them, as required
 communicating grades/results/progress with sensitivity and support
 ensuring that you can meet any required external standards or inspections

So, try and answer the question without looking at the next Section.
Take some time out to make a drink or sandwich and reflect on this.
Then you can return to check your thoughts with what we think below, in Section 2.4.1.

Well done!

2.4.1. The Range Of Teacher Roles

Assessor
Described above.
Controller:

 ensuring that the whole class is tuned into what needs to be done, e.g. starting a new activity
 ensuring that classroom order is maintained

Facilitator:
 knowing what facilitation is
 stepping back and allowing your learners to find their way along the language journey, while
still monitoring and motivating as needs be
 being available and ready to act as a resource when needed

Guide:
 guiding those who are unsure of what to do

Manager:

 ensuring all the nitty-gritty elements that underpin a successful lesson are carried out, e.g.
giving effective and coherent instructions, arranging the most practical seating, ensuring
guidelines are carried out as planned, and ensuring that tasks are completed as scheduled
 ensuring group dynamics skills are utilised to provide efficient classroom routines, smooth
transitions and different types of groupings to encourage specific types of learning
 making sure there is a sense of community and belonging in the classroom

Monitor:
 observing and analysing ongoing interactions – daily
 monitoring what’s going well and what’s not going so well – daily
 reflecting on the evidence and deciding what needs to be done in a feedback session later
 being able to deliver practical, constructive and timely feedback to all learners you are
responsible for
 recognising when there is a need to act as a counsellor, providing emotional support as
needed to help learners feel confident in their learning

Motivator:

 motivating some of your learners who may not be so keen on the activity or who may be tired
or are thinking elsewhere, perhaps due to the stresses and strains of life outside the classroom
 understanding that lessons should be dynamic, meaningful and stimulating and should
respond to the learners’ emotional, cognitive and linguistic needs
 remembering that the whole person comes to school, so even the intrinsically motivated
person yesterday may not be the motivated person today

Needs Analyst:
 identifying the learning needs expressed by your learners
 accounting for differing language ability levels and varying backgrounds, interests, and needs
 Remember: Learners may have other requirements that you may identify, e.g. behavioural or
social needs, but here we use the term ‘needs analyst’ solely in relation to learners’
learning needs.

Planner/Organiser/Task-Setter:

 preparing lesson plans for the class or age group you are assigned to
 accounting for differing language ability levels and varying backgrounds, interests, and needs
 embracing a multicultural perspective in the planning and encouraging this in the learning
episodes
 accounting for maximum learner interaction within the plans
 ensuring that there is plenty of opportunity for authentic and communicative language use
 setting out the roadmap for the lesson and organising all the tasks and activities for your
learners

Prompter/Editor:

 being ready always to prompt learners when they are unsure and not just giving them the
answer or moving swiftly to another learner who can supply the solution
 having the skills to edit learners’ contributions at the right time and demonstrating in a
crystal-clear manner how the learners could best present that piece of language and why your
suggested way may help

Resource Producer:
 producing more appropriate, more relevant and often much better materials than a
coursebook offers
 ensuring a variety of material mediums – paper/image-based, audio and video, realia, where
appropriate

Sometimes, many of these skills and roles are required in one lesson. The ability to
seamlessly master the skill of multi-tasking will make your lessons more fluid, more
productive and more enjoyable.
You may have learned some of the skills necessary for your teacher role already in another
job or activity, so that experience will serve you well.
If not, you should consider delving into these areas before you take up your teaching post.
Our course will help you with several of these personal and supervisor-type skills, e.g.
assessment, motivation, planning and you’ll likely have friends who use other skills in their
job and can help you. An informative book on general supervisor or management skills will
also be of great benefit.
The majority of inexperienced TEFL teachers setting out for their first teaching post have
given little thought to this. Perhaps their course did not make them aware of this. It’s then a
severe shock to their system when they realise they’re unprepared in some of these skills
areas.
But you won’t be unprepared!

2.4.2. Peer-Observations
1. Peer observation
Peer observation allows teachers to learn from each other in a non-threatening environment.
Where there is no judgemental outcome and an atmosphere of trust between the participants,
teachers will share ideas and suggestions openly and constructively to their mutual
professional benefit.
Hopefully, your school will offer opportunities for peer observation:

 You can observe experienced teachers in action so that you learn from how they do it.
 Experienced teachers can observe you so that you can benefit from their ideas and
suggestions.

You should grab these opportunities whenever they arise. If there are no set school
procedures for this, don’t give up. After a short time there, you will have built relationships
with the other teachers. Seek their help.
What are the kinds of things you could notice when you are observing an experienced
teacher?
To make this easier to handle, we have constructed a Teacher Observation Form (2 Pages) for
you. It will give you a good idea about what we would aim to observe if we were in this
position.
Also, if there is a set procedure for observing new, inexperienced teachers, the Teacher
Observation Form will give you useful guidance on what your observer is likely looking for.
Teacher Observation Form: Page 1

Instructional Skills Yes/No Comments

Assessment: Uses assessment feedback to modify teaching methods

and curriculum.

Atmosphere: Creates a relaxed environment where learners are willing

to use the target language and take language risks, as necessary.

Attention: Attends to all learners, the amount of attention depending on

learners’ individual needs.

Body Language: Uses effective voice, body language, mime and

gestures.

Correction and Feedback: Knows what to check, what to ignore,

promotes self-correction and gives immediate feedback on errors,

questions, queries.

Cultural Awareness: Demonstrates cultural awareness.

Examples: Uses adequate examples that are meaningful, clear and

varied.

Knowledge: Demonstrates an understanding of the subject matter.

Materials: Relates materials to learners’ lives, their class lives and their

outside-world lives.

Modes: Uses a variety of teaching modes (e.g. seeing, hearing,

speaking, touching, writing, and reading).

Learner-Centred Learning: Facilitates learners’ learning.

Teacher Talking Time (TTT): TTT is minimised as much as possible,

giving learners ample opportunity to practise.

Techniques: Uses a variety of techniques (e.g. handouts, audio-visual,

drills, role-plays, small group, pairs and individual work).

Technology: Integrates technologies to enhance language learning (e.g.

recordings, computers)

Timing: Allows appropriate timing for each step/activity.

Visuals: Visual work is clear and engaging (e.g. board work, charts,

slides, pictures, illustrations, etc.).

Warmer: Starts with an engaging warmer that relates to what the

learners will learn.

Teacher Observation Form: Page 2

Organisational skills Yes/No Comments

Lesson Planning: Lesson shows evidence of sequencing; connection to

past and future; goal-focus; task analysis and is appropriate for learner

level.

Materials: Has designed or adapted materials to address learner needs.

Retention Activities: Regularly includes activities that help retention

(e.g. review, summary, memory exercises).

Classroom Management Skills

Adult Learners: Relates to, and engages with, learners as adults.

Evaluation: Allows time at end of class to evaluate the success of the

lesson in terms of comprehension, relevance and significance.

Expectations: Sets clear expectations for classroom interaction and

behaviour.

Multi-Level Classrooms: Recognises and manages different levels of

learners.

Outside World: Brings the outside world into the classroom with

media, field trips, etc.

Records and Data: Maintains attendance and progress reports.

Staying on Topic: Sticks to the subject and doesn’t wander off-topic.

Learner accomplishments: Helps learners to see and verbalise their

progress.

Time-keeping: Starts and ends class on time.

 Wait Time: Allow several seconds for learners to respond.

2.4.3 Co-Teaching
You may be working in a co-teaching setting. So, here is solid practical advice to ensure you
get it right immediately.
What exactly is ‘co-teaching’?
Co-teaching is where you will work with a local teacher in the classroom. The co-teaching
relationship can differ, depending on the local teacher. In some situations, you will take over
the whole class with the local teacher in attendance to support you, as necessary.
In other situations, you may be carrying out daily routines and pronunciations with learners
while the local teacher is teaching the main content of the lesson.
Not all co-teaching episodes work out seamlessly; most do, but there are a few occasions
where the co-teaching relationship doesn’t work out so well.
There are several challenges which you need to meet and overcome, but most of these can be
headed off at the pass, or, at the least, minimised significantly. The more you prepare to meet
these challenges, the less chance there will be of you ever experiencing them.
So, what are key challenges, and how can you overcome these?
Here are some critical practical points to absorb, concerning getting your co-teaching right
the first time.
Challenge 1: Recognising that the onus is on you to fit in
You are a temporary visitor to the country. It may sound harsh to say this, but it’s you who
needs to fit in with your new colleagues. You need to meld in right away.
The onus is not on them to fit in with you as they go about their day-to-day roles which they
may have been doing in the same way for many years. So, grasp this point with both hands,
as they say.
People differ between cultures in many respects, e.g. how they plan things, how they relate to
their learners, how they relate to other colleagues, what importance they give to certain
teaching practices (e.g. upholding rote-learning over different teaching approaches), and how
they think about things.
We are not suggesting that you can fully understand a culture when working temporarily in
the culture, but you can glean and absorb much valuable information by researching the
people and their country before you go.
To overcome this challenge, you need to bite the bullet and accept that the onus is on you to
fit in. If you do this, you will fit in well, and people will respect you for doing so. Where
there’s respect, there’s trust. Also, where there’s trust, others will listen to you and your point
of view.
Challenge 2: The need to build a strong rapport and relationship with your co-teacher
 Here’s what to do:

Building Rapport
Rapport exists when two people develop a feeling of harmony, well-being and security. It’s a
bit like striking a tuning fork and holding it near to another tuning fork. The second will also
start to vibrate even though they do not touch.
Rapport occurs between people when they work in an open, trusting and contented
relationship. Rapport is all about:

 meeting people on their level

 making them feel at ease

It is based on mutual respect and agreement.

When you relate initially to your prospective co-teacher, you can choose one of two
standpoints from which to start:
You can focus on the differences between you.
OR
You can emphasise the similarities between you (the things you agree on, feel and think the
same about and react the same way too).
If you emphasise the differences, it will be virtually impossible to achieve rapport.
The emphasis on similarities occurs not just in the words you will use when talking to your
co-teacher, but also in the way you express yourself through your body language, speech and
attitude.

Building A Strong Relationship For The Future

Once you have established the initial successful rapport, you can then focus on building a
strong relationship for the future:
Here’s what to do:

 Display honesty at all times. If, for example, you are asked later as to how you feel the lesson
went (led either by you or your co-teacher) tell the truth honestly and objectively, supported
by actual events and evidence (not how you feel it went).
 Demonstrate your desire to help at all times. Don’t just wait until you are asked. Observe and
think about where you can support your co-teacher and act on it. Ensure your actions speak
louder than your words.
 Demonstrate your competence at all times. Don’t go into your co-teacher’s class without
being fully prepared in terms of your knowledge, attitude, skills and habits.
 Keep all your promises and commitments. For example, if you say you will be ready and
prepared to teach a lesson on Monday at 9 am, ensure you are.
 Always speak naturally and from the heart. Don’t take on different personas to suit the
situation. Be yourself at all times.
 Continue to display empathy, i.e. ‘standing in your co-teacher’s shoes’ and communicating
from her point of view
 Ask more than you tell. Don’t give the impression that you know it all.
 Instead of telling your co-teacher what you can do, word it so that you are seeking her advice,
based on her experience: I think I could do it this way. What do you think? Would it work?
 Show your co-teacher that you care about her and her success. Don’t get wrapped up in your
success in the classroom. Take time, intentionally, to express your admiration about what and
how she achieved as a result of the lesson she led.
 Finally, your unbounded enthusiasm will go a long, long way to establishing a strong
relationship with your co-teacher.

Challenge 3: Collaborating Well

To meet this challenge, you need to reflect long and hard on how collaboration is built.
In essence, collaboration is all about team playing.
Here’s what to do:

1. Listen actively and respectfully

Collaboration is dependent on each co-teacher listening carefully and actively to each other
when the other is speaking, and thereby they can assimilate the messages into one vision.

 Demonstrate reliability and consistency

Successful co-teaching collaborators get the work done together and do their fair share of
working hard and meeting the commitments.

 Share information without restrictions

Excellent collaborators don’t hoard teaching ideas, materials or information; they share it
freely.

 Communicate openly and constructively

Successful collaboration needs people who speak up and express their thoughts and ideas,
directly, honestly, and with respect for each other.

 Function as an active participant

Excellent collaborators are active participants. They’re fully engaged in the work of their co-
teaching team and do not sit passively on the sidelines.

 Be co-operative, not competitive

Excellent collaborators co-operate and do not compete. They are motivated when they see
their co-teacher achieve and, instead of competing with the achiever, they emulate and align
with them.

 Be flexible and adaptable to change

 Flexibility is a necessary trait when working with others. If you are rigid in your approach to
new concepts or change, then your co-teacher will be negatively impacted as they too must
adapt.

 Be a good negotiator

Successful collaborators know how to negotiate, which means that situations that could
become tense instead become a win-win for both co-teachers.

 Show commitment to the team

Experienced collaborators care about their work, the co-teaching team per se, and the team’s
work. They show up every day with this care and commitment upfront.

1. Treat others in a respectful and supportive manner

Excellent collaborators treat fellow collaborators with courtesy and consideration — not just
some of the time but consistently.

1. Work as a problem-solver

Co-teaching teams need to deal with problems. Excellent collaborators are willing to deal
with all kinds of issues in a solutions-oriented manner. They’re problem-solvers, not
problem-avoiders.

1. Be optimistic and happy

To be an excellent collaborator in a co-teaching situation means you need to be the type of

person others want to be around. Positive, confident people are attractive. They draw their
collaborators to them and encourage recognition of achievements.
Challenge 4: The need to communicate well
To meet this challenge, you need to reflect long and hard on what needs to be communicated
and how to communicate it.
Here’s what to do:
The two of you need to discuss and firm up:

 The process for keeping a record of your communications, so that responsibility for the tasks
is crystal clear and there is no confusion.
 The how, where, when, why and what of planning your joint lessons.
 The how, where, when, why and what of giving feedback to each other. Agree that both will
be comfortable with this process. Consider that this is often best done in the café down the
road instead of in the staffroom, where there may be interruptions.
 An agreement that the feedback is welcome, must be objective and clearly explained, and that
neither party will take any feedback personally. Emotions will play no part. The input is for
the benefit of you both and the benefit of your learners.
 Regular communication sessions where you can both bounce ideas and approaches off each
other. Firm up the how, where, when, why and what for these sessions.
 Agreement that it’s OK to disagree with each other and that in these cases the bestnegotiated
agreement, based on a bit of giving and taking, will be fine.

Challenge 5: Plan well

So, you feel you fit in, you’re building a good rapport and relationship with your co-teacher,
you sense there’s a solid basis for collaboration, and you feel that the communication lines
are open and working well.
Let’s now consider the final piece in the co-teaching jigsaw – planning what needs to be done
and how it needs to be done to ensure both of you, and your learners, will achieve the success
you are aiming for.
To meet this challenge, you need to reflect long and hard on what needs to be planned and
how to plan it.
Here’s what to do:

1. Planning, in general

Agree:

 that each must contribute fully to the planning process

 what elements will be taught and by whom
 what each will do during the lesson and that each role is equally important
 what overall strategy/approach/model will be used to achieve the objective(s)
 what must be done to ensure the learners see both of you as equal partners in the learning
event
 how the learners will be assessed and when
 Planning the specific lesson in action

Agree that:

 each will model successful collaboration in the classroom

 both your names will be pinned up to emphasise this partnership in teaching
 the classroom space will be worked out equitably, and two teacher desks will need to be set
up in agreed areas
 learners will be informed that this is a co-teaching event and the benefits of this will be set
out
 both will have a lead role in the teaching and learners will recognise this
 both will take part in the assessment of the learners
 there is or isn’t a need for different groups of learners to be taught at the same time
 changes may need to be made during the lesson, depending upon certain agreed
circumstances
 classroom management will be shared equally

2. Post-lesson activity

Agree that:

 each will provide feedback to the other

 each will take on board any changes or improvements for the future and continue to reflect on
what may make the co-teaching event even better
 both will celebrate the success of the co-teaching event and make it known to others who
have not yet tried this approach

Summary
Overcoming potential co-teaching challenges is all about research, thinking and planning. If
you take on board all the practical points we have set out above, it’s doubtful that you will
face any coteaching challenges.

2.5. Getting To Grips With The School

Syllabus
Congratulations! You have passed this lesson.

2.5.1. What’s A Syllabus?

1. Syllabus
Generally, a syllabus is a document that consists of a series of topics prescribed for an entire course of
study. The actual components of the topics may be either content items, such as words, structures,
functions, or they may be process items, such as tasks and methods.
Sometimes a school department will decide to include some of their own specific rules and guidance which
may not appear in another department’s syllabus. For example, learners are expected to participate
actively, bring textbooks to class, complete homework assignments on time and so on.
No syllabus is perfect, but you will have to be familiar with it if the school dictates that you must follow
the syllabus.
Note: In some schools overseas, there may not be a syllabus as described above. Sometimes a coursebook
is used, and you follow that religiously whether it’s good or bad.
When you are new and inexperienced, it’s best to accept the situation and get on with it. Gradually, you
can add in your self-made supplementary materials and additional topics where you feel something is
lacking.
A general rule is that the more the school administrators see you working hard and guiding the learners to
improve, the more flexibility you will be allowed in introducing new materials and topics.
2. Main Features of a Syllabus
There is no universal structure.
Here is what a typical syllabus might look like:

 Syllabus items are ordered and should have explicit objectives which tell learners the language items (i.e.
bits of language, e.g. words or structures) they will have learned by the end of the course.
 It may contain a general time framework (by the end of this course …) but some syllabi break up the time
framework of their components, prescribing, for example, the specific items that should be dealt with in
the first month, in the second, and so on, and by the end of a course.
 A preferred approach or methodology the class uses may also be defined, e.g. the Communicative
Approach.
 A syllabus may list recommended materials, such as principal textbook(s), visual materials or
supplementary materials.
 A syllabus may explain assessment both in terms of elements to be assessed and how they are to be
weighted.(Some elements may be ‘weighted’, i.e. attributed more importance or value.)
 It may show how the course fits into a broader context (‘the big picture’).
 It may also establish a learning contract with learners by publicly stating policies, requirements, and
procedures for the course.
 It may also set the tone for the course and convey how you perceive your role as the teacher and their role
as learners.
 It is often designed to help learners assess their readiness for the course by identifying prerequisite areas of
knowledge.
 It may be designed to help learners manage their learning by identifying outside resources and providing
advice.
 It can be used to communicate course goals and content to you and your colleagues.
 The syllabus may be linked to or based upon a set coursebook which must be used. Note that you may still
have to build in supplementary materials to suit particular groups or activities. Remember: No coursebook
is perfect and can soon become out of date.

2.5.2. Choosing, Adapting And

Creating Materials
Following on from the final bullet point above, you may need to choose, modify and develop materials to
ensure the best learning experience possible.
Advantages
Here are some advantages:

1. You can ensure the materials better fit the context

Here are the main criticisms of coursebooks and accompanying ready-made materials:

 The coursebook and accompanying materials produced for the global EFL (including EYL) market are
often too generic.
 Often, they are not geared to specific groups of learners.
 Often, they are not geared to any specific educational or cultural context.
 They often contain functions and speech outputs based on situations that most foreign language learners
will never be in.
 They are Anglo-centric in their construction and production and therefore do not reflect any local varieties
of English. ‘Anglo-centric’ typically means centred on or giving priority to England or things English.

By choosing wisely from other sources, or by creating them yourself, you can ensure your materials will
better fit the context.

2. You can make the materials meet the individual learners’ needs

Commercially produced generic materials cannot address the needs of all the unique individual learners in
classrooms. But you can by:

 creating or adapting materials to the individual needs and learning preferences of learners
 creating or modifying materials that consider the learners’ first language and the learners’ culture and
personal experiences
 creating or adapting materials at the right level for your learners, to ensure the materials present an
appropriate challenge and degree of success
 changing the often-repetitive model and organisation in the coursebook to add more variety within the
classroom to meet developing needs (e.g. using whatever is appropriate to reach the goal – topics,
situations, functions, etc.)

3. You can make them fit today’s events

Commercially produced materials cannot keep up to date with local and international events. World and
country changes can happen rapidly, and learning materials need to keep up with changes and happenings
that are of particular interest to learners in their situation.
Only teachers on the ground – as you will be – can make the materials relevant to today’s world.

4. You can overcome the lack of finance

Many schools may not have the budget to supply resources for the TEFL classroom. Instead of moaning
and groaning, most motivated teachers step up to the plate and design their materials as a matter of course.
The school and your learners will be very appreciative of this.

Disadvantage
There is one critical disadvantage of doing so: time spent.
It takes lots and lots of time to choose, adapt and create additional materials to fit the context and match
learner needs and preferences.
Where does the time go? It will likely be taken up by:

1. Going through an interminable amount of inadequate materials on the internet, until you find something
you can use
2. Adapting materials to ensure they meet your learners’ needs as precisely as possible
3. Ensuring the materials fit with the syllabus
4. Ensuring the materials look good
5. Ensuring the materials stretch your learners
6. Ensuring the materials integrate all the language skills
7. Ensuring coherence. That is, ensuring one piece of material links with another in steady progression
towards the language learning goal.
8. Writing clear instructions

What’s the best solution?

The best solution is to create your materials. At first, this will seem time-consuming, but gradually it will
be much faster when you get into this habit.
In Module 8, we will explore the types of supplementary materials you can create and how to do this. Then
you’ll see how easy it is.

2.6. Learner Levels

Congratulations! You have passed this lesson.
 2.6.1. CEFR, Common Labels, English Profile Facility
Note this: There is a lot of information here on the CEFR, Common Labels and the English Profile
Facility. This is information that is good to know and understand. We have taken this information from
the relevant sources.
However, since the information is lengthy and may require you to study this in-depth at a later stage, we
will not be assessing you on this information. So, decide to read and absorb this now or come back to
this at a later stage if you wish.
The information we are referring to is covered in this Section 2.6.1.
Unfortunately, some trainees who are studying other TEFL courses won’t be aware of this. But,
fortunately, you will.

1. CEFR

Different terminology is used in EFL when describing a learner’s proficiency/competency in language as

compared to mainstream English classes in, for example, the USA or the UK.
As you’ll already know, measuring a learner’s proficiency in a language is not an exact science.
No universal system of rating exists.
The Common European Framework of Reference for Languages (CEFR or CEF) is, perhaps, our best
guide. There are other guides.
Many organisations adapt the CEFR levels to suit their particular levels.
Fortunately, nearly all good coursebooks will identify which CEFR level the materials are intended for,
and schools will have similar class labelling to indicate what level the learners are studying. So, there’s no
need to worry!
The Common European Framework of Reference for Languages (CEFR). What is it?

 The CEFR is a standard, international scale of levels for language learning. It has 6 levels in ascending
order from A1 to C2.
 The CEFR gives you a detailed description of learner level by skill, in a language-neutral format. Because
it is language-neutral, it can be used for any language in the world.
 It is useful for school directors, syllabus designers, teachers, teacher trainers and proficient learners.
 Language testers and examination boards are increasingly using the CEFR as their scale of levels, though
some give each level their own name.

The table we will explore in a moment shows the 3 bands (A-C) with each of those bands divided into two,
giving us six main levels. It also describes (provides descriptors) which represent what a learner should be
able to do at each level.
You may have heard of other learner-level terminology in EFL, e.g. Beginner, Intermediate and Advanced.
Very loosely, you can view the CEFR levels as similar to Beginner, Intermediate and Advanced – though
the CEFR levels are more precise than these terms (and calls them Basic, Independent, and Proficient).

2. The CEFR’s Approach: Communicative Language Competence

The CEFR’s approach is based on the notion of communicative language competence – the increasing
ability to communicate and operate effectively in the target language
It will be useful for you if we expand a bit on the CEFR’s view of communicative language competence.
Communicative language competence has several components: it includes linguistic, socio-linguistic and
pragmatic competences. Each of these competences is made up of knowledge, aptitudes and skills.
 Linguistic Competence
Linguistic competence comprises the knowledge and skills related to:

 lexis (generally, words and phrases)

 phonology (generally, relationships among the speech sounds)
 syntax (generally, the arrangement of words and phrases to create well-formed sentences in a language)
 other features of language systems considered independently of the sociolinguistic impact of variations in
use and the pragmatic functions of the utterances produced.
 It concerns not only the range and quality of knowledge (for example, the scope and precision of lexical
knowledge) but also involves cognitive organisation and the way this knowledge is stored in memory. For
example, the question of how a lexical item fits into the networks of associations the speaker has available.
It is also concerned with accessibility (for example, how an item can be recalled, activated and its
availability for use).

Socio-Linguistic Competence
Socio-linguistic competence refers to the knowledge and skills involved in using language functionally in a
social context.
Since language is a social phenomenon, its use requires sensitivity to social norms and customs which
affect to a significant degree all linguistic communication between representatives of different cultures,
even if the participants are frequently unaware of them.
These social norms affect, amongst other factors, rules of address, greetings and politeness, the way in
which relations between generations, sexes, people of different social status, social groupings are
expressed through special language markers, linguistically codified rituals, differences in register, dialect
and accent, through vocal rhythms, for example.
Linguistic competence leads us to consider social and intercultural parameters and how they influence
language use. Pragmatic competence
Pragmatic competence involves the functional uses of linguistic resources (carrying out language
functions, speech acts) using scenarios or predetermined scripts of interactional exchanges.
It also involves mastery of discourse, cohesion and coherence, the recognition of text types and genres,
using irony or parody. The development of pragmatic skills is strongly influenced by interactive
experience and by the cultural environment.
Let’s have a look at these CEFR Bands and Level Descriptors at a Global Level
You will find that the Global Scale is a useful starting point. Study this well. It’s not difficult. It’s an
excellent guide, an aide-memoire, which will keep you on track when you start on your TEFL
journey. CEFR Bands and Level Descriptors – Global Level

Level
Level
Descriptors

Proficient C2 Can understand with ease virtually everything heard or read.

User Can summarise information from different spoken and written

sources, reconstructing arguments and accounts in a coherent

 presentation. Can express him/herself spontaneously, very

fluently and precisely, differentiating finer shades of meaning

even in the most complex situations.

Can understand a wide range of demanding, longer texts, and

recognise implicit meaning. Can express him/herself fluently

and spontaneously without much obvious searching for

Proficient expressions. Can use language flexibly and effectively for

C1
User social, academic and professional purposes. Can produce clear,

well-structured, detailed text on complex subjects, showing

controlled use of organisational patterns, connectors and

cohesive devices.

Can understand the main ideas of complex text on both concrete

and abstract topics, including technical discussions in his/her

field of specialisation. Can interact with a degree of fluency and

Independent spontaneity that makes regular interaction with native speakers

B2
User quite possible without strain for either party. Can produce clear,

detailed text on a wide range of subjects and explain a viewpoint

on a topical issue giving the advantages and disadvantages of

various options.

Independent B1 Can understand the main points of clear standard input on

User familiar matters regularly encountered in work, school, leisure,

etc. Can deal with most situations likely to arise while travelling

in an area where the language is spoken. Can produce simple

 connected text on familiar topics or of personal interest. Can

describe experiences and events, dreams, hopes & ambitions and

briefly give reasons and explanations for opinions and plans.

Can understand sentences and frequently used expressions

related to areas of most immediate relevance (e.g. basic personal

and family information, shopping, local geography,

employment). Can communicate in simple and routine tasks

Basic User A2
requiring a simple and direct exchange of information on

familiar and routine matters. Can describe in simple terms

aspects of his/her background, immediate environment and

matters in areas of immediate need.

Can understand and use familiar everyday expressions and very

basic phrases aimed at the satisfaction of needs of a concrete

type. Can introduce him/herself and others and can ask and

Basic User A1 answer questions about personal details such as where he/she

lives, people he/she knows and things he/she has. Can interact in

a simple way provided the other person talks slowly and clearly

and is prepared to help.

We can also use the ‘+’ to indicate the top half of a level. For example, ‘B1+’ means the top half of the B1
range. You will find this convention in various course books.

3. Why Do We Need the CEFR?

Even among teachers of the same language in similar contexts, there can be much variety in what is meant
by terms like ‘beginner’, ‘intermediate’ or ‘advanced’. This variability increases significantly across
different languages, in different countries, with different age ranges of learners, etc.
The CEFR makes it easier for all of us to talk about language levels reliably and with shared
understanding.
4. What Is It Used For?

The CEFR is used for many different practical purposes:

 Developing syllabuses
 Creating texts/exams
 Marking exams
 Evaluating language learning needs
 Designing courses
 Developing learning materials
 Continuous assessment of others, or self-assessment
 Teacher training programmes

5. Is It Just About Levels?

The CEFR has been very significant in language learning and teaching because its impact goes beyond
merely describing learner levels.
It has underpinned a particular approach to language learning as the one most commonly recommended or
expected in language teaching today. This is the Communicative Approach we explored earlier.
It’s not just about levels. The descriptions of levels in the CEFR are skills-based and take the form of Can
Do statements, as in the examples below. These descriptions of ability focus on communicative purpose
and make for a very practical approach, which looks at what people can do – rather than on specific
linguistic knowledge.
The CEFR is particularly useful because it applies the same set of levels to all the various sub-skills and
areas of competence:

 the basic four skills (speaking, reading, writing and listening)

 communicative language (e.g. turn-taking, asking for clarification)
 types of interaction (e.g. obtaining goods and services, interviewing)
 and more linguistic skills (e.g. lexical range, phonological control) It allows you to link up skills in each of
these areas with the learner’s overall level.

Examples of ‘can do’ statements from the CEFR:

 Can describe in simple terms aspects of his/her background, immediate environment and matters in areas
of immediate need. [A2, Global Scale]
 Can understand enough to follow extended speech on abstract and complex topics beyond his/her field,
though he/she may need to confirm occasional details, especially if the accent is unfamiliar. [C1,
Listening]
 Can understand a wide range of long and complex texts, appreciating subtle distinctions of style and
implicit as well as explicit meaning. [C2, Reading]
 Can write personal letters and notes asking for or conveying simple information of immediate relevance,
getting across the point he/she feels to be important. [B1, Written interaction]
 Can use stock phrases (e.g. “That’s a difficult question to answer”) to gain time and keep the turn while
formulating what to say. [B2, Turn taking]

You can view a list of ‘Can Do Statements’ at

https://rm.coe.int/CoERMPublicCommonSearchServices/DisplayDCTMContent?documentId=090000 168
045b15e

6. What’s in It for You? How Can the CEFR Be Useful for You?

1. Understanding Language Levels Better

 The CEFR helps you to understand a standardised terminology for describing language levels. National,
local and school policies are increasingly being expressed in CEFR levels – and so it’s essential to
understand what they mean.

2. Seeing More Clearly What Learners Need To Work On

The CEFR describes what learners need to be able to do to reach the next level. You will find it
particularly useful in showing how different component skills are described at each level.
You may have an idea of what a B2 learner is like, but what should they be able to do in terms of listening
to lectures/speeches, or writing correspondence, or spoken fluency? The CEFR helps you see what is
needed for different aspects of learning English.

3. Assessment Grids

The CEFR scales are also beneficial for creating your assessment grids. These use the descriptors in the
scales and can help teachers with assessing their learners during and at the end of a course.
They can also be used for self-assessment by the learners – though it’s usually necessary to simplify them
for this purpose, or even translate them in some situations. You can find links to official translations of
some of the scales on the Council of Europe
website: http://www.coe.int/t/dg4/education/elp/elp-reg/cefr_grids_EN.asp.

4. Curriculum Plan

If a teacher is responsible for working out what is going to be taught in a class – just her own or for the
whole school – it is beneficial to use the CEFR as a broad framework.
Look carefully at the descriptors for the levels you need – not just the Global Scale, but component scales
as well where relevant.
What do you want your learners to achieve in each course on their path to the target level? This can be
further elaborated by looking at the information coming from the English Profile, which we’ll come to in a
moment.
Of course, most teachers do not need to create their curriculum. By choosing a coursebook that is aligned
to the CEFR, you have a syllabus designed by experts – which you may then choose to adapt for your
circumstances.

7. Should You Introduce Your Learners to the CEFR?

Yes, it’s advantageous for learners to understand how mastery of a language builds up from beginner to
mastery. Of course, this needs to be suitable for their level and age, and it is probably adults and teenagers
who will find it useful.
Scales – adapted to their language level – are very useful for self-assessment, which can be very helpful in
developing language skills.

8. Common Labels

Other frequently used labels for the various levels, both for the learner and coursebook, are (in ascending
learning level from Beginner):

 Advanced
 Post-intermediate
 Intermediate
 Pre-intermediate
 Elementary
 Beginner

Get to grips with this labelling structure too. Note that under this structure, there is an additional level for
Elementary and a different heading of Post-intermediate compared to Higher Intermediate on the CEFR
levels.
The two different structures have much the same descriptor content – it’s just that they have been moved
around a bit.
So, a few tweaks may have to be made.
Remember! Don’t worry about this. Until that time, you would be best advised to use the grading of items
provided by the class coursebook as a guide to the language that you should be presenting, if you have a
class coursebook.
And, of course, you can seek help and advice from your Head of Department/Director of Studies and your
new teaching colleagues.

9. English Profile

The English Profile Programme involves major research projects that are all working towards a reliable,
detailed description of the actual learner English that is typical of each CEFR level.
Initially, the focus has been on vocabulary and grammar, and the English Vocabulary Profile is now
complete for all six levels, A1-C2. A separate research team is developing a similar resource, the
English Grammar Profile, which describes the gradual mastery of grammar across the six CEFR levels.
Cambridge University Press has given teachers around the world access to their research into vocabulary
learning across the CEFR.
Go to the English Profile website – www.englishprofile.org – and click on Free Registration English
Vocabulary Profile. This will allow you to find out which words and phrases – and individual meanings of
each word – are typically mastered by learners at each CEFR level. It is a valuable tool to make decisions
about what to teach learners as they progress. Cambridge University Press authors and editors make
extensive use of this research in developing their course materials.

2.7. False Beginners Versus Absolute

Beginners
Congratulations! You have passed this lesson.
Before we leave the subject of levels, we must make you aware of the phenomenon of false beginners.
By the time you are in action, you will have picked up this Very Important Point from this course
– beware of false beginners.
Note that at the beginner level, CEFR A1 Level, a distinction is often made between teaching false
beginners and absolute beginners.
False beginners
False beginners are those learners who have perhaps had a little English learning, or who have picked up
English more informally and inconsistently, perhaps through travelling or from bi-lingual
parents/caregivers.
 False beginners may give the appearance of knowing some English, which initially makes them easier to
teach. However, their superficial knowledge can present some teaching challenges, as these learners may
have developed early bad errors/habits.
Their classroom motivation may also be affected, as they may think that they already know the material
just because they recognise it. Look out for false beginners.
Absolute beginners Conversely, absolute beginners have a high intrinsic motivation from day 1 and will
catch up to the false beginner learner very quickly.

2.8 Practical Tips For The Beginner Level

Congratulations! You have passed this lesson.
While we are discussing absolute beginners, it seems a good idea to give you some guidance on teaching
beginner level learners. To get the best out of your beginner level learners and aid their progress, you need
to reflect deeply on your teaching approach.
For example, you need to ensure you have a clear objective of what you are aiming to achieve during the
lesson. Do not try to accomplish too much. There may be exceptions to the ‘rule’ you are teaching. Leave
these for another day.
Time to reflect
Following on from the information above, what do you think would be sound practical advice for
teaching absolute beginners?
Take some time out to make a drink and/or sandwich and reflect on this.
Then you can return to check your thoughts with what we think below. Have a go!

Well done!
Practical advice for teaching beginners

1. Ensure you have a clear objective of what you are aiming to achieve during the lesson. Do not try to
accomplish too much. There may be exceptions to the ‘rule’ you are teaching. Leave these for another day.
2. Ensure you have clearly mapped out the steps of your lesson. Stick to these. There needs to be a logical
progression. This will also ensure your timing is right.
3. Engage and involve your learners. Do not act as if you are the sage on the stage. Engagement and
involvement are critical.
4. Praise them several times, e.g. when they understand, complete an activity, etc.
5. Involve them through questions, drills and exercises.
6. Tell them what you and they are going to do and why it’s essential. Remind them why it’s important on
several occasions.
7. Use a variety of activities/ examples to get your point over.
8. Also, make effective use of gestures and mime to help get the message across.
9. Get them involved in pair and group work. Use pair or group activities that encourage interaction by
providing learners with situations in which they must negotiate meaning with partners or group members
to complete a task. (When speakers negotiate meaning, they are attempting to reach a clear understanding
of what each person is saying. Achieving this involves several strategies such as rephrasing, asking for
clarification, and confirming what you think you have understood.)
10. Ensure your instructions are clear.
11. Never give out the worksheets until you are sure they know what to do.
12. Model what they need to do. That is, show them how to complete an activity. You can do it, or you can
choose a learner or pair to do this.
13. Always check their understanding before they start an exercise.
14. Ensure any activities they are doing to demonstrate accuracy are scaffolded, i.e. arranged from easy to
hard.
15. Monitor when they are completing an activity.
16. Ignore spelling during this lesson. Your focus is on ensuring they understand the learning point. You can
come back to spelling at a later time.
17. Note any recurring error. This can be addressed at the start of the next lesson.
18. Correct as a whole class in a random fashion.
19. Checking pronunciation via whole-class and individual drilling is vital.
20. Leave ample time to summarise what they have learned:
 They can tell you what they have learned.
 Ask them to tell you why this learning is vital for them.
 A pair or pairs can do a final, quick demonstration if time allows.
 Always finish by praising what they have achieved.
21. Keep it all simple: grade your language carefully. Remember! There are no prizes for you for using fancy,
complicated language.
22. You’ll need to speak slower but not too slow and deliberate such that it sounds like you are talking to a
baby; otherwise, the learners may feel patronised.
23. Don’t miss out essential words and structures. Don’t say Ah, you go to party tonight. Learners need to hear
specific structures even if you haven’t reached that learning point with them. Otherwise, they may think
that’s how English really is spoken.
24. Make a personal connection. Ensure you know the learners’ names. If you have any difficulty with this,
draw up a seating plan with their names on it. When you’re away from your desk, you can use some tricks
of the trade:

1. You: Well done, Maria (whose name you have remembered). Who will I ask now? You
tell me, Maria. You can point to the person and say their name.
Maria: Juan (pointing to Juan)
You: Thank you, Maria. Juan (whose name you had forgotten), what is the dog’s name?
2. You: The next learner I will ask is a boy, he has a red shirt, and he sits near the window.
Who is it?
They: Alejandro! (pointing to him)
You: That’s right. Well done! Alejandro (whose name you had forgotten), what is the
dog’s name?
25. Learn a bit of their language. They will appreciate your effort. The learners will enjoy helping you learn a
few new words each day. By learning bits of a new language, you will have more empathy for your
learners’ struggles to learn English.
26. Review continuously. You are the beginners’ textbook and study guide as well as their teacher. Provide
review sessions at the beginning of every class, so learners will practise what they’ve learned and acquire
the language.
27. Minimise your learners’ cognitive burden. Cognitive, as you will know, is the fancy word for the mental
action or process of acquiring knowledge and understanding through thought, experience, and the senses.

When teaching groups of beginner learners, it’s best not to write a lot of information on the board and have
learners copy it down while you continue to explain concepts. We can easily forget these learners cannot
multi-task with their current language proficiency level, and it is essential to break down tasks into smaller
components.
 Do one thing at a time.
Note that most of the points above will also apply to a good number of elementary learners.

2.9. Example Lesson Plan

Congratulations! You have passed this lesson.
It now seems logical and apt to introduce you – softly, softly – to lesson planning and lesson presentation
for all learner levels.
Lesson planning and lesson presentation is the most critical teacher skill of all. Planning lessons and
presenting lessons successfully will be your core activity for most of your time when you are teaching.
To ensure you get this skill right the first time, we will introduce it gradually.
Here we introduce you to the 5 Step Lesson Plan, which you will be using for all your lesson planning, no
matter which learner level you will be teaching. Most of our teachers have been using this for years and
years.
Here is a brief explanation of the 5 Step Lesson Plan. We will delve into this again in Module 6. Then, in
great depth in Module 7.

Step 1: Opening
Your learners need to know where you are taking them, i.e. what they are about to learn and why it’s
important to them. But there’s more to a good opening. It needs to engage your learners and incite their
interest.

Step 2: Introduction Of New Material

Here you will clearly and succinctly introduce your learners to the new learning. It could be a new
language form, skill or concept which you’ll introduce, explain, model, demonstrate, and so on.

Step 3: Guided Practice

Your learners must have sufficient time and opportunity to practise their new learning. In this step, it will
be guided, controlled practice, practice which is supported by you.
The principal intention of this step is to help the learners internalise the learning, in a sheltered
environment, from their short-term memory (information memorised during your Introduction) into their
long-term memory for the future.

Step 4: Independent Practice

This is where learners refine the language form, skill or concept on their own, without your assistance. It’s
generally free, uncontrolled practice, but you will still be there to give help and guidance where needed.
This step is usually conducted in pairs or groups.

Step 5: Closing
Here your focus is on:

 Keeping up their engagement by asking the learners what they have learned. Ask them:
 What have we learned in this lesson?

 Keeping up their interest by asking the learners to tell you about the significance of what they have
learned. Ask them: What is the significance/importance of what we have learned? How will this benefit
you?
 Issuing homework, as necessary.

Activity: Example Lesson Plan

1. Go to a quiet place. This activity requires your full concentration.

2. It’s not difficult but it needs total focus to get the right feel of it.
3. We have set out your example lesson plan below, on 2 pages. Note that this is a rough template. In Module
7, we will introduce you to a thoroughly professional template.
4. Through time, when you are teaching, your lesson plans may be a good bit shorter, by adding in
abbreviations, using mnemonics, etc.
5. Take your time and trawl through this example lesson plan several times. Get the feel of the order of the
steps and what you do at each step.
6. Once you’ve got a good feel of it, refer back to Section 2.8. See if you can identify some of the listed
practical points within the lesson plan. Every listed point won’t be in the lesson plan because some of the
listed points relate to general advice, such as the teacher learning a bit of her learners’ language.
7. Try not to query too much. For example, we haven’t included handouts or worksheets. Accept it as it is at
this stage. Everything will be explained as we carry on through the course. Your entire focus should be on
getting the feel of the order of the steps and what you do at each step.
8. Hopefully, you’ll recognise that the 5 Step Lesson Plan is an excellent format, keeping you and your
learners on track all of the time.

Lesson Plan: Comparatives of Adjectives Level: CEFR A1

Class:1B Page 1
Objective: To introduce my learners to the comparative form of 1 adjective (‘big’ to ‘bigger’) initially
and demonstrate they can use this structure with many other short adjectives.
Step 1: Opening – getting them engaged and telling them what’s going to happen
Show building blocks. Build a big tower. Elicit ‘big’. Repeat out loud. Then build an even bigger tower.
Through head shaking and face gestures, try to elicit words for this bigger tower. No correct responses.
Then focus on the word big using Anjelica and Carlos – front of class. Don’t have a word to describe
Carlos, who is bigger. They return to their seats. Tell them: It’s important to know this and other words to
describe differences in people, animals, things. Show words on board then use Anjelica and Carlos
again. Then a written activity and some fun games.
Step 2: Introduction of new material – introducing the new learning
Board. Draw Anjelica. Then draw Carlos. What can they see? Carlos is….?? Gestures and hand
movements to show Carlos bigger but don’t have a word. Tell them Carlos is bigger. Write bigger under
Carlos, underlining the ending –er. Get them to repeat bigger as a class and ask learners at random to
repeat the word. Get them to repeat: Anjelica is big. Carlos is bigg er. Point to the ending -er. Bring out
Anjelica and Carlos again. Ask the class at random. Who is big? Who is bigger? Confirm and praise.
Anjelica and Carlos return to their seats.
Now ask all the learners to get into pairs, swiftly – with one partner being bigger than the other. Go round
the pairs, checking they can identify themselves as big and bigger. Confirm and praise.
Now demonstrate again from board work that for the comparative (won’t use this word) they add –er to the
basic word when the other person, thing or animal is bigger – both in speaking and writing. Remind and
demonstrate to them on the board that this happens with most words that they know, e.g. small-smaller,
young-younger, old-older, miming these and using the learners to demonstrate your point.
Keep them engaged! Emphasising these new words is very important. But they’ll use lots of words they
already know. Finish with a fast-moving question/answer session to ensure engagement and interest.
Step 3: Guided practice – practising the new learning, to check their accuracy, under my guidance
and control

Activity 1

Tell and demonstrate. Pin up (Blu-Tack) flipchart sheet – a large copy of the worksheet. Ensure all can see.
Hold up the worksheet. Explain they are going to write in their answers on their worksheet. The exercise
has 4 questions.
In questions 1-4, they need to fill in words, using the same form as they learned about the word big by
adding –er on the end of the word. Check understanding.
Hand out the worksheet. Then monitor, help and correct throughout this step. Ignore spelling. Then correct
as a whole class, asking pairs at random to give their answers, confirming each got it right and checking
pronunciation by class drilling and by random selection of learners. Confirm and praise. Clear up any
mistakes.
Then, l will introduce some realia: toy animals and things that they can compare, giving out their responses
orally, while using the practised structure, e.g. bigger, smaller, younger, older. This will further
consolidate their learning.

Page 2
Step 4: Independent practice – practising the new learning, to check their fluency, independently
(I’m observing and listening, but will help as need be)
Emphasise again that these new words are very important. Again, work in pairs, which always engages
them. Keep encouraging and praising them – this also engages them.
Clearly state what I want them to do.

Activity 2

Demonstrate by using a flipchart sheet with a blown-up copy of their worksheet – a copy of a map of
South America (learners are Colombian) with country names clear. Pin it up with Blu-Tack. There are no
sizes on the map – learners will decide visually and ask me to referee if necessary.
Will identify who is A and who is B in the pair. A selects two countries, tells B what they are and A writes
in his workbook, for example, Bolivia is big. Colombia is bigger. At the same time, B does the same for
two countries, but he must choose two different countries from those that A chose.
A now reads aloud his first comparison to B who reads and checks aloud the comparison and country size
and then B does the same with A. They do the same format again, choosing different pairs of countries,
this time using small/smaller. Check understanding by questions and eliciting. Use a pair of learners to
model this.
Give out worksheets.
During all this time I will be walking about, listening, answering a few questions, giving help as necessary,
but not teaching or interrupting the flow. I will quietly ask the pairs to read out their selections to me.
Monitor the structure of the sentence and the pronunciation of big, bigger, and small/smaller. Confirm and
praise. Take note of any recurring errors and address this at the start of their next lesson.

Stop Activity
Step 5: Closing – summarising and checking further what they’ve learned and discussing how useful
this is for them. Praising them.
I’ll get their engagement by telling them they have done very well and that I have some very important
questions to ask them. I’ll tell them I need their help. It’s vital in this step to ask the learners to summarise
what they learned. So, I’ll ask them. They can give an example to support this.
It’s also important to remind them about what I said at the start – that these new words are important. So,
I’ll ask them: Do you think these new words are important, helpful, etc.? How? Why?
My learners have been given opportunities to demonstrate their mastery (so far) of some comparatives, but
I think it’s always good to have a final round-up, particularly focussing on those who did not get enough
time to display their mastery fully during the activities. So, at great pace, and giving lots of praise, I will
ask some of the pairs if they would like to come out to the front of the class and do a short display in front
of the class. I’ll include other pairs, though, who can read out their attempts while seated.
Finally, I will remind them that they have been involved in speaking, listening, writing and reading English
during this lesson, and I will praise them for this.
End of Lesson Plan
Well done! Another Module completed! What you have learned here will help you better understand
your role and the knowledge, ability, skills and habits required in your role.

Time for a little break. Then, come back and have a go at Quiz 2.
It’s not too challenging. Good luck!
After that, we’ll move on to Module 3, where we will focus in-depth on your EFL learners. We will
be covering a lot, so take your time and get it right the first time.

3.1. Motivation
Congratulations! You have passed this lesson.
A massive proportion of learners need to be motivated to learn.
Learner motivation makes learning, as well as teaching, immeasurably easier and more pleasant and more
productive.
Theories of motivation are sometimes of value but are unlikely to add much to your practical learning at
this stage. You can delve into these theories if you wish.
You know what motivation is, and you know that sometimes you are highly enthused and driven. At other
times, you don’t quite feel the same drive, or you’re bereft of any drive at all. Of course, your learners are
no different.
When you are motivated, there’s some inspiration and eagerness to succeed in what you are doing. If you
apply this awareness to your learners, you can identify the motivated learner. This is a learner who is
willing and eager to invest significant effort and substantial time in language learning and is driven to
make progress.
Instead of digging into the numerous theories, let’s consider some different types of motivation and how
knowledge of motivation will be of great practical use in your role.

3.1.1. Different Types Of Motivation

The types of learner motivation in Point 1 below are the best known and most talked about:
1. Intrinsic motivation v Extrinsic motivation

Intrinsic Motivation
This is the urge to engage in a learning activity for its own sake, for the enjoyment it provides, or the
feelings of accomplishment it evokes. This type of learner is driven by personal achievement.

Extrinsic Motivation
This comes from external incentives and reward and success, e.g., a qualification, need for a high
proficiency score (e.g., to gain entry to an English-speaking university). Or, perhaps, the desire for higher
pay (where language proficiency offers that).
Whether one type of motivated learner is more motivated than another is up for grabs. There is not enough
conclusive research. Give thought to this when meeting up with your new class, particularly adults.
Ask them why they have decided to take your course (and note the reasons why). This will benefit you
when you are teaching them or when you happen to mingle with them during some other school activity.
2. Integrative motivation v Instrumental motivation
Let’s have a look at another two types of motivation.

Integrative Motivation
A learner who is integratively motivated wants to learn another language because he wants to get to know
and better understand the people who speak that other language. He is also interested in the culture
associated with that language. For example, a learner may have a significant relationship with a person or
persons in another country and wants to learn their language and learn about their culture.

Instrumental Motivation
A learner who is instrumentally motivated wants to learn another language for practical reasons, e.g.,
getting into college, achieving a salary increase, securing a post overseas, etc.
3.1.2. Key Elements Of Motivation
Here are some key elements of motivation, drawn from our wide-ranging TEFL and Learning and
Development experience of over many years:

1. You Need To Be Motivated To Motivate Them

You must be motivated before you can motivate your learners. Don’t expect your learners to be motivated
if you are not.
Yes, there will be occasions when you find it challenging to overcome a temporary lacklustre feeling.
Tough though this is, you will need to get out of it, or your learners will quickly become deflated.

2. Most Learners Can Be Driven In Some Way Or

Another
There may be the odd learner who appears to lack motivation but, generally, most learners can be
motivated in some way or another.
Perhaps there are cultural considerations. For example, he may not like you taking up his learning time
when the class is involved in fun activities. Alternatively, he may be finding the work too hard. Or,
perhaps, he’s not convinced by the whole communicative approach.
Therefore, you need to find out as much as possible about your learners from Day 1.
What are their likes and dislikes? How have they previously been taught? Did they communicate with you
during the lesson or were your lessons wholly teacher-centred?
If you cannot identify a reason for the drop in drive, make up some reason to meet with the learner after
class (away from his classmates). Try and determine the reason for his lack of, or decline in, motivation. It
is incredible how a little chat can help.
Once you trace the reason why, you can work out ways to help build up his motivation.

3. Motivation Should Be Multi-Directional

When you take up your teaching role, remember that motivation should be multi-directional. Don’t just
think that your purpose is only to motivate learners. You can also help to stimulate a colleague when she is
feeling down. You will reap the rewards from this in the future when she helps you when you are a bit
lacklustre.

4. Motivation Doesn’t Last

Motivation doesn’t last. You need to keep at it all the time. Motivating others is a strenuous activity, but
it’s also rewarding. You cannot give up when you, your learners or any of your peers are feeling down.
Dig into your reserves and help as much as you can.
Remember this, again! The whole person comes to school, be it learners or teachers. They come with
all their personal baggage, e.g., worrying about a sick parent/caregiver, or upset due to a breakdown
in some special relationship.
 So, the motivated person yesterday may not be the motivated person today. Help and show empathy
wherever you can.

3.1.3. The Relationship Between Motivation And

Language Learning
As research has shown, and as your learning and any teaching experiences probably confirm, motivation is
very strongly related to achievement in language learning. You will be in a position to strongly influence
your learners’ motivation to learn their new language.
You will need to ensure, for example, that your lessons have clear objectives and clear goals and that your
activities are varied and personalised for your learners. Also, ensure that you give feedback and assess on
an ongoing basis.
By doing so, you will be able to foster, stimulate, or even rekindle your learners’ motivation to learn.
If you can accomplish this, learning will happen regardless of whether your learners’ motivation is
extrinsic or intrinsic.
There’s little doubt about it.
Remember this: The most successful learners are not necessarily those who naturally find language
learning easy. It is often those who have specific motivational and attitudinal characteristics, for example:

 the need for achievement

 goal orientation
 perseverance
 tolerance of ambiguity

3.1.4. Recognising A Motivated Learner

What do you think are the characteristics of a motivated learner? How will you identify a motivated
learner?
Think of motivated learners you have observed in the past. You may have thought: She’s always on the go,
wanting to learn. How does she do it? What traits and qualities did she have?
Or, perhaps, you have always been a motivated learner. What motivation traits and qualities do you have?
Reflect on this.
Time to reflect
Focus on a motivated learner you know – past or present. It could be yourself.
What traits and qualities does/did this person have?
Try and do this without looking at the next Section.
Take some time out to make a drink or sandwich and reflect on this question.
Then you can return to check your thoughts with what we think below.
 Well done!
Research has shown that the motivated learner will typically display most or all of the following
characteristics:

 Perseverance; a ‘never-give-up attitude’.

 The learner is willing to face tasks and challenges and has confidence in her success.
 The learner finds it essential to succeed in learning, to maintain and promote her positive self-image.
 The learner needs to achieve, to overcome difficulties and succeed in what she sets out to do.
 The learner is ambitious, goes for demanding challenges, high proficiency, and top grades.
 The learner is acutely aware of the goals of learning, or specific learning activities, and directs her efforts
towards achieving them.
 The learner consistently invests a high level of effort in learning and is not discouraged by setbacks or
apparent lack of progress.
 The learner is not bothered or frustrated by situations involving a temporary lack of understanding or
confusion; she can live with these patiently, confident that understanding will come later. In essence, she
has a tolerance for ambiguity.

3.1.5. How To Influence And Drive Learner

Motivation
Always focus on practical ways in which you can influence and drive motivation.
Here’s what to do:

1. Personalisation
Learners are more likely to be interested in tasks that relate to themselves or their interests. Ask learners to
share their opinions, tastes, experiences and suggestions. This can be very motivating because they’re
connecting the learning material to their personal life experience and context.
We have taught boys-only classes in the Far East where the English Premier Soccer League was king, as
was David Beckham at the time. Every single boy in the class was passionate about football(soccer) and
anything to do with football, e.g., magazines, strips, soccer cards with their favourite player’s picture on
the front and details about him on the back, etc.
There was no need to motivate them when a lesson was built around, for example: What are the three
questions you would ask David Beckham if you met him? OR Draw your own football strip and tell your
group why you chose the patterns and colours on the strip and badge.

2. Realia
 Your learners will be much more engaged when you use realia: real-life, authentic language materials.
Authentic materials are materials that are unscripted and unedited and are not explicitly developed for
language learning purposes. These could be, for example:

 Restaurant menus
 Extracts from newspapers, magasines: photos, advertisements, classifieds, crosswords, horoscopes,
features, etc.
 Travel tickets
 Recordings of casual conversations amongst native speakers
 Radio and TV news and weather broadcasts

Realia material can help to bring the language classroom to life.

3. Gamification
Gamification is where a teacher adds in-game elements to motivate her learners. Some teachers have been
doing this for many years.
As learners now grow up with video and computer games as part of their everyday life, the concept of
gamification is becoming more prevalent in the classroom.
In general, it mirrors several elements found in the video/computer games context:

 the excitement when participating, individually or in a team

 a fast pace
 rewards, and sometimes ‘punishments’
 time limits, often with a visible countdown (a big alarm clock)

For example, the teacher might set up a lexical recycling activity (re-meeting lexis they have learned
recently), where the groups of learners need to look at pictures and complete the gaps in sentences with the
correct recently learned word. The rules of the game could be:

 a countdown period for completion

 points for finishing earlier than others (but answers must be correct)
 marks for correct sentences
 points not given (or deducted) for incorrect sentences
 possible additional points added by the teacher for observed group organisation, e.g., the group appoints a
‘checker’ to check the answers before they say they have finished

Generate a bit of tension and challenge, now and again.

4. Choice
Occasionally, let your learners choose what they want to do or how they want to do it. When they have
choices, they have a feeling of autonomy.
An example of autonomy would be to allow learners to pick from a list of topics to debate. Or you can let
learners choose partners with whom they would like to team up with for a specific activity or game.

5. Projects With Tangible Results

Projects are very motivational. Everyone can contribute. There can be many tangible results.
 For example, the short and simple storybook, The Very Hungry Caterpillar, can be extended into a very
motivational project. Here are some of the many tangible results:

 The life cycle of a butterfly – mapping the stages, making drawings, making wire butterflies and hanging
them up in the room, raising butterflies from caterpillars in the classroom, observing and noting their
growth, identifying differences in the butterflies
 Learning strategies such as predicting, guessing, hypothesising, sequencing (putting the days of the week
in order or the life cycle steps in order), memorising (what he ate on Tuesday), researching (what
caterpillars eat and drink), etc.
 Art and design: making cardboard or cloth models of caterpillars, and making patterns and colouring
 Music, drama, and movement: singing butterfly songs and rhymes, reciting poetry and taking part in
performances for an audience, and moving like a caterpillar and butterfly

6. Warmers
When you engage your learners and inspire their interest at the start of a lesson, you are using a ‘warmer’.
This is very important; more than likely they’ll have just come from classes and situations where they have
been using their native language. So, a warmer will get them swiftly engaged and participating, and into
the ‘English mode’ immediately.
Always try to make the warmer related to what they have already been learning or what you are
about to teach. That is, don’t use an unrelated warmer just for fun.
We have included several warmer examples in Module 7. Here is an example of a warmer with a
purpose:

Example
In the previous lesson, they have learned the structure: Would you prefer to…?
For the start of their next lesson, make up some two-set fun choices, headed up with: Would you prefer
to …
The options could be anything:

 be a lion/be an elephant
 eat popcorn all the time/eat potatoes all the time
 be stranded alone on a deserted island/be stranded on a deserted island with someone who plays the
trumpet all day and all night

Then, the learners choose, and you can encourage them to tell the class why they chose one of the options.

7. Make Them Aware Of Their Success

An effective way to motivate your learners is to make sure that they are aware of their success. You can
convey this message by a nod, a tick on the page, or a smile. But a sense of pride and satisfaction may, of
course, also be enhanced by explicit praise or approval, or by a comment in the learner’s answer book.

8. Vary Classroom Topics And Tasks

Topics and tasks should be selected carefully to be as inspiring as possible. However, there are very few
single types of activities that interest everyone, so you should use a wide range of different ones over time.
 Even within a lesson, you can organise a series of tasks that have learners doing different things to keep
them engaged.
For example, get your learners to listen to a dialogue about ‘School Routines’. Then ask them to complete
a worksheet and get them to compare their answers with a partner. Next, then have learners partner up to
create an original dialogue on the same topic. Variety is a primary key to success.

9. Create A Fun And Friendly Atmosphere

Entertainment produces enjoyment, which in turn adds motivation. Entertainment can be teacher produced,
such as jokes, stories, mimes, songs, or even dramatic presentations. It can be recorded, such as movies,
video clips, or television documentaries.
Other activities such as role-play and simulations that use the imagination and put learners in different
situations can be very motivating.
It is important to note, however, that some learners are inhibited and may find such activities intimidating
at first. As such, you especially want to avoid running learners up to the front of the class to ‘perform’
spontaneously.

10. Create Open-Ended Exercises

A cue that invites several possible responses is usually much more stimulating than one with only one right
answer. By aiming for this, the participants’ contributions become more unpredictable. They are also more
likely to be insightful, original, or even humorous. For example, If I won a million yuan, I would …

3.2. How To Identify An Effective

Learner In Your Class
Congratulations! You have passed this lesson.

3.2.1. Techniques
Here are some practical techniques that effective learners apply. This will help you to reflect on the
traits and attributes you want to nurture in learners who are lacking in some areas.
Look out for those who:

1. They know and understand their learning preferences.

These learners are self-aware. They know themselves. They know how they prefer to learn and choose
learning approaches that suit their way of learning.
2. They take responsibility for the learning.
They take responsibility for their learning. In addition to learning in class, they create opportunities to
learn the language elsewhere, e.g., films with English sub-titles, watching CNN or the BBC. They know
that practice is critical.
3. They grasp all opportunities to keep learning.
They grasp all opportunities for speaking the target language (L2) and actively take part in the learning
process. They are keen to experiment.
 They will also use different ways of communicating to overcome gaps in linguistic knowledge. For
example, when a word is not known, the effective learner will try to describe the object or its function, e.g.,
for scissors: They’re made of metal, and you use them to cut paper. Or she will find another word
approximate to the meaning of the word she is looking for, e.g., pot for saucepan or she will make up an
innovative word, e.g. foot-finger for toe.
4. They try to work out how the English language works.
They aim to come to grips with the language as a system. They pay close attention to form and look for
patterns in the language.

They are good guessers, continually monitoring the context of the conversation or text and then revising
expectations when necessary. They use clues from the situation to help them guess the meaning of
unknown words and phrases rather than giving up.

For example, once an effective learner grasps the idea of the infinitive form made up from to plus the verb
stem, e.g., to go, to eat, to sleep, he will likely grasp that it is the base form of a verb (verb stem) which
will complete the blank in the following sentence:

John likes to __________ .

So, he will likely complete it with swim, play, run, paint, etc. and not with, for example, a gerund
(swimming), a noun (football), or adverb (quickly), etc.
5. They know that language is used to communicate, and they take risks.
They pay attention to meaning. They have effective techniques for practising listening, speaking, reading,
and writing. In the initial stages of their language learning, they do not worry about making mistakes. They
take risks and are not embarrassed when they get it wrong.

They speak to achieve the goal of becoming fluent. They seek out opportunities to talk with native
speakers. They realise that language learning is not merely an academic subject but is also a means of
communication.
6. They study like detectives.
They are always inquisitive, looking for evidence and clues that will help them to grasp how the language
works. They guess and ask people to correct them if they are wrong. They compare what they say with
what others say.

They keep a record of what they have learned and reflect on it. They monitor themselves. They keep a
careful eye on the forms of the language to discover patterns that will aid learning.
7. They use the language outside the classroom.
Effective learners create opportunities to try out what they have learned and do not merely complete the
homework. They are not content only with the exposure to the language that the classroom can provide but
like to find opportunities outside.

Remember this! You’ll know effective learners when you see them. Be wise. Use them to help others
achieve in the classroom. Don’t single them out in front of others. Just ensure that your pairs and groups
are strengthened by an effective learner so that some of their skills and attributes can brush off on others.

And, use the list above as a reminder to nurture learners who are lacking in some of these areas

3.3. Learners’ Learning Preferences

Congratulations! You have passed this lesson.
3.3.1. What Exactly Is A Learning
Preference?
A learning preference is how a person better perceives, conceptualises, organises and recalls information.
This could be a preference for learning through visual activities as opposed to, for example, audio activity.
For example, one learner may prefer to look at graphs while another may prefer to listen to the information
on a podcast.
There are other preferences, as we will see below. Proponents say that learning preferences are influenced
by the individual’s genetic make-up, previous learning experiences, culture, and society.

3.3.2. Identification Of Learning

Preference – Useful Or Not?
There are different views as to the relevance of the identification and usage of learning preferences in the
classroom. Unfortunately, many of the views from either side of the debate lack real or scientific proof as
learning preference methodologies remain unproven.
However, our opinion based on our experience is that learner preference identification is useful and is
pretty successful, particularly with adult learners.
Many teachers and educators see the benefit of using learning preferences approaches. Remember,
though, that there is likely to be usage which is appropriate and other usages which are not.
So, especially if you are working with young people, use methodologies with care. It is wrong to apply
any methodology blindly and unquestioningly, and wrong not to review and assess the effectiveness of
methods used.
In any case, we feel it’s vital that you are aware of learning preferences, no matter whether you end up
being in favour of them or not.

3.3.4 The VAK Approach

There are many different approaches used to determine an individual’s learning preference(s).
We will focus on one of these: The VAK Approach. We’ll also summarise some other
approaches/methods

1. The VAK Approach

This is our preferred approach. It’s simple and easy to administer.
The VAK analysis identifies three learning preferences: Visual, Auditory and Kinesthetic.
Sometimes kinesthetic is said to include tactile learning, and sometimes this is added as a separate learning
preference.
Key points underlying this approach:
Any individual will operate in all three modalities, but with a preference for one or two.
 Visual learners are likely to prefer mind-maps, diagrams, graphic language, flow charts, use of colour,
white space on the page, etc.
Auditory learners are likely to prefer discussion, explaining things to others, using a recording machine,
and teaching linked to anecdotes/jokes, etc.
Kinesthetic learners are likely to prefer group work, using models/objects in describing things, walking
around while learning, hands-on activities, role-plays, books with strong plots, etc.
When doing a learning preferences analysis with learners, the learners should be made aware of their
individual preferences.
Some research has shown that learners can perform better in tests if they change their study habits to fit
their learning preferences.
For example, visual-learning learners will sometimes have difficulty during written exams, because they
can’t recall test material that was spoken in class. However, by using a visual aid when studying, e.g.
outlining materials in colour, they may absorb more. For these learners, visual tools may improve their
ability to recall information more thoroughly.
Key characteristics of the visual, audio and kinaesthetic learning preferences based on the VAK
approach
Visual learner characteristics
Visual learners learn best by seeing things. A visual learner:

 is likely to be good at spelling but may forget names

 needs quiet study time
 has to think and reflect for some time before understanding a lecture
 likes colours and fashion
 dreams in colour
 understands and likes charts
 is good with sign language

Use these types of resources to capitalise on the visual learning preference when using warmers and
doing activities:

 A map of events or timeline, when reading a story

 Lots of whiteboard activity: colour coded words, matchstick drawings, games
 Flashcards
 Making coloured markings of everything: using highlighters, circling words, underlining
 Comics and cartoons. Erase the existing speech in the bubbles and get them to put in their own story.
 Copying what’s on the board, and then colour coding them (into nouns, verbs, etc.)
 Illustrated reading: using books with lots of illustrations
 Word puzzles, e.g., crosswords, word searches
 Making a diagram/sketch/flowchart/mind map
 Making lists
 Watching videos: identifying key actions
 Pictionary, but you may have to adapt it to suit your learners’ level
 Graphic organisers
 Multimedia, e.g., PowerPoint

Auditory learner characteristics

Auditory learners learn best through hearing. An auditory learner:

 likes to read to self out loud

 is not afraid to speak in class
 likes oral reports
 is good at explaining
 remembers names
 notices sound effects in movies
 enjoys music
 is good at grammar and foreign languages
 reads slowly
 follows spoken directions well
 can’t keep quiet for extended periods
 enjoys acting and being on stage
 is good in study groups

Use these types of resources to capitalise on the auditory learning preference when using warmers
and doing activities:

 Participating in group discussions, e.g., discussing the learning materials

 Phonetic reading: using rhyming and word games
 Using word association to remember facts and lines
 Listening to lectures and recording lectures
 Listening to others reading aloud and learner reading aloud
 Oral presentations
 Watching videos – identifying specific dialogue, words, and phrases
 Memorising and repeating facts and spelling (often with eyes closed)
 Using audiotapes for language practice
 Books which have been recorded
 Taping notes after writing them
 For younger learners, use melodies, beats, and rhythms to reinforce the learning (e.g., pronunciation)

Kinesthetic learner characteristics

A kinesthetic learner is someone who:

 needs tomove, do and touch

 is good at sport
 can’t sit still for long
 is not great at spelling
 does not have great handwriting
 likes working in science labs
 studies with loud music on
 loves adventure books, movies
 likes role-playing
 takes breaks when studying
 builds models
 is involved in martial arts or dance
 is restless during lectures

Use these types of resources to capitalise on the kinesthetic learning preference when using warmers
and doing activities:

 Games with action, e.g., quickly finding someone who…, and running to the board to add/change some
word
 Total Physical Response activities, e.g., songs with movement (Simon Says; Wheel on the Bus; Head,
Shoulders, Knees, and Toes)
 Use lots of realia: e.g., fruits, vegetables, clothes, tea set
 Craftwork, e.g., arising from a storybook read or a project based on a storybook
 Studying in short blocks
 Experiments, e.g., as part of a project on butterflies, looking after, watching and noting the growth of
caterpillars into butterflies
 Role-playing
 Taking field trips and visiting museums

Key points to consider when you start teaching:

To what extent does your teaching provide a range of activities to cater to the visual, audio and kinesthetic
learning preferences?
How can you enhance the range of activities in your classroom?
What learning preference do you have? Is it visual, audio or kinesthetic? Or is it a mix of two or more?
Some people find that their learning preference may be a blend of two or three preferences.
Naturally, it is not always practical or even possible to account for all learning preferences in a class.
But you may discover that an awareness of the various kinds of learning preferences will help you to create
more creative and appealing lessons. This, in turn, promotes more learner engagement, as learners will be
leveraging learning modes that match their strengths.
Your learners’ increased engagement and success in learning may also stimulate you to raise their
expectations. This initiates a powerful expectation-response cycle that can lead to higher achievement
levels. This, in turn, leads to increased motivation for your learners and you.
You can do your analysis of learners’ learning preferences through close observation, noting what you hear
and see.
There’s also a range of materials on the internet which will give you some ideas as to how to approach this.
And you can carry out a learning preferences analysis on yourself to find out what learning preferences
you may have if you are not aware of this already.
Please note that materials on the internet may be protected by copyright and you may be restricted to using
materials for your personal use. Check carefully.
The best route is always to carry out your analysis via your approach, by observing your learners closely
and noting what you hear and see.
Summary – the VAK approach
As with any learning approach, you need to decide whether this offers you any practical usage. The VAK
learning preferences approach has its proponents and detractors. Overall, however, we feel it serves as a
useful aid/for you when choosing appropriate learning activities:

1. Structure Learning Materials Around The Learners’

Strengths
If you have individuals or groups who have particular interests or strengths, e.g., sport, music, and you
want them to be involved and successful in their language learning, then structure your learning materials
around these interests and strengths.

2. Variety Brings Life To The Classroom

Providing a vibrant mix of learning activities derived from a blend of the different preferences will result
in a lively and engaging class for all your learners.

3. A Whole-Person Approach
 Every individual uses all preferences to some degree or another. A multi-faceted teaching approach that
appeals to all preferences addresses the whole person in ways that more one-sided approaches do not.
The VAK approach helps to develop the whole person within each learner, which best serves the person’s
language learning requirements as well.
Give it a try – preferably with older learners.

3.3.5. Additional Learning Preferences

Here are two other learning preferences models, for your information:

1. Kolb Learning Preference Model

Four learning preferences:

1. Convergers (they do and think):

1. Learn by solving problems
2. Prefer doing technical tasks
3. Good at finding practical uses for ideas • Like concepts and experimenting with new ideas
2. Divergers (they feel and watch):
1. Learn by observation
2. Good at brainstorming and gathering information
3. Are imaginative and sensitive
4. Like practical experience and reflection

Assimilators (they observe and think):

 Prefer to put information in a concise, logical order

 Use reflective observation
 Like abstract modelling and concepts
 Like theoretical reasoning

Accommodators (they do and feel):

 Prefer a practical, experiential approach

 Rely on intuition rather than logic (‘gut instinct’)
 People-oriented
 Hands-on learners
 Rely on feeling more than logical analysis
 Like practical experience and active testing

2. Honey-Mumford Model
This is similar to Kolb’s model.
There are four learning preferences.
According to this approach:

 Activists like practical work such as labs, fieldwork, observation exercises and using visual source
material for information, etc.
 Reflectors like to learn by watching other people, taking time to consider observations of their own
experience, etc.
 Theorists like lectures, reading papers on topics, considering analogies, etc.
 Pragmatists like simulations, case studies, homework, etc.

Thus, the four types might approach learning a software programme in different ways:

 Activists might start using it and feel their way into it.
 Reflectors might have a go at using it and then take time to think about what they have just done.
 Theorists might begin by reading the manual.
 Pragmatists might start using the programme but make frequent references to the help files.

The four types of learning are viewed as cyclical stages through which a learner can progress
(Watch>>>Think>>>Feel>>>Do), as well as categorising specific kinds of learning experiences.

3.4. Different Learning Strategies

Congratulations! You have passed this lesson.

3.4.1. What Learning Strategies Did

You Use?
Reflecting on your own experiences is a powerful aid when teaching. You were a learner in the past.
Consider which learning strategies you used at school, college, university. If a strategy worked for you, it
may likely work for some of your learners.
But avoid limiting learning methods and techniques based on your learning preferences.
It’s paramount to experiment with a variety of activities that will in turn appeal to a range of learning
preferences.
Your learners will likely have a mix of learning preferences.

Example
Somewhere in the past, you may have picked up the idea of mind mapping. You even go the extra mile by
highlighting and colouring bits of your mind maps.
You believe that mind mapping is a potent tool which, of course, it is. So, when you take up your teaching
post, lots of the board work you do is based on mind mapping as this is second nature to you.
However, this technique is hardly likely to fully satisfy those learners who have a strong leaning towards
auditory or kinesthetic learning.
So, remember to vary your methods and techniques.
Remember: The ways your learners learn best can be different due to a range of factors, such as learning
preferences, age, prior learning experience, and so on.
Be aware of these differences and try and not to limit learners to think that they can only learn in one way.
Achieve this by ensuring that your lessons have elements that not only cater to the different learning
preferences of your learners but are also conducive to the various learning strategies of your learners.
 You can influence and help to develop such strategies. Of course, it is not always feasible to meet the
learning characteristics of each learner all the time. However, you can try to vary how you teach across a
series of lessons or classes so that you can match the learning characteristics of a range of your learners
most of the time.
In short, being aware of your learners’ learning characteristics, preferences and learning strategies will go
a long way to ensuring that you can motivate them to learn.

Here Are Some Examples Of Effective Learning Strategies

You Can Encourage Your Learners To Use:
 Repeating new words in their heads until they remember them
 Experimenting/taking risks by using recently learned language in conversations
 Guessing the meaning of unknown words
 Asking you to offer feedback about their use of language
 Using the foreign language as much as possible without resorting to their native language
 Recording themselves speaking, then analysing and correcting their pronunciation
 Asking a speaker to repeat what she said
 Deciding what area of lexis they need to learn and then learning it
 Thinking about how to remember all the new words they learn in each lesson and then writing each one on
a separate card to review

Paraphrasing, or using language indirectly to say what they want to say

3.5. Learner Autonomy

Congratulations! You have passed this lesson.

3.5.1 Autonomy
We touched on autonomy previously. It’s a critical element in successful teaching, so let’s
draw it all together.
Effective learners generally take responsibility for their learning, both inside and outside the
classroom. Therefore, effective learners take steps to become autonomous.
Autonomous learners:

 are aware of learning strategies and learning preferences

 do not hold back from the learning task at hand
 are willing to take risks, i.e., to communicate in the target language at all costs
 are good guessers
 address the form and structure of the language as well as content; that is, accuracy and
appropriateness are both essential to them
 are willing to revise and reject hypotheses and rules that do not apply

Studies have shown that as learner autonomy increases, so does learner motivation. And,
thus, so do learning results.
While the competent teacher will always try to get his learners to become autonomous
learners, learners can also learn to become more autonomous on their own.
These days, in some schools, there are just as many learner resources available as there are
classroom materials. For example, learners can access grammar reference books, dictionaries,
lexis exercise books, and CD-ROMs that supplement the main textbook series. There are also
endless online learning resources.
And, remember that there are also many ways for learners to get exposure to English outside
the classroom, even if they are living in a non-English speaking context.
Here are a variety of ways in which you can increase learner autonomy.

1. Learner Journals
Use journals for different purposes. Here are some examples:
Encourage your learners to keep a learning journal of new words and their meanings (with a
sentence showing the usage of the word), then learn these and later test them out in the
classroom in pairs.
A dialogue journal is an ongoing written dialogue between the learner and you, akin to
writing notes or short letters to each other. It is used specifically for assessing writing ability,
but it is also useful for gaining insight into the learner’s views, goals, motivation, and attitude
to learning.
An open-ended journal allows a place for learner reflection and commentary. The learner
chooses what they feel they should address in their learning, e.g., what they should read,
questions to ask, how they might apply the learning to their personal experience, etc.

2. Self-And Peer-Assessment
In self-assessment, the learners are asked to reflect and rate themselves on their
performances.
In peer assessment, a learner assesses another learner’s work. Remember this: The youngest
of learners, though, are not able to give very detailed peer feedback because they are not yet
ready to think in-depth.

3. Self-Access Centre (SAC)

A self-access centre is simply a place in your classroom or another designated room, where
your learners can work independently or in pairs at their own pace.

4. Outside-Classroom Activities
Allowing your learners to practise activities outside the classroom will enhance autonomy.
For example, they may discuss the route to the park or public library with their peers. They
 may say hello to passers-by or talk to the librarian in the public library and ask for a book. Or
they may discuss road signs amongst themselves, and so on.

5. Strategy Training
We have already explored several strategies for better learning. The more learners use these
strategies, the more autonomous they will become.

6. Goal Setting
If you aim to get the best out of your learners, it’s important to remember that setting learning
goals is not all down to you.
You should encourage your learners to set their own goals in some areas. What do they want
to be able to do?

7. (Online) Dictionaries And Resources

Demonstrate the value and benefits of utilising a good English language dictionary, in hard
copy or online. Then encourage them to use this resource independently – and frequently.
The same applies to other language resources.

8. Homework
Teachers have different opinions on the use of homework.
Our long experience tells us that it is a potent activity for increasing autonomy – and
learning.
It needs to be issued regularly, and there should be open-ended pieces, allowing the learners
to respond as they wish to the content and length.
To get the best out of it, it needs to be well-planned and inspiring. And, wherever possible, it
should involve the learners’ parents or caregivers – even where the parents or caregivers do
not speak English.
Here is an activity we have used on many occasions with young learners whose parents did
not speak English.

1. We encouraged the parents/caregivers to supply their child with a memory stick. We ‘bought’
the parents/caregivers into participating – merely listening to the child’s pronunciation of the
words/expressions on the stick and encouraging the child.
2. For pronunciation practice, we recorded lots of relevant and practical words and short phrases
onto each stick. The content progressed from easy to hard.
3. The only ‘rule’ was that the learners needed to practise the words/expressions in order. There
were no ‘rules’ as to how many they needed to practise and no timescale was set.
4. The results were remarkable. The class learned much more in a quicker timescale than classes
where this activity was not used. This kept us well ahead of the syllabus.
9. Learner ‘Experts’/ ‘Helpers’
You will increase your learners’ autonomy if you encourage them to be ‘experts’ and
‘helpers’.
An ‘expert’/’helper’ who has finished first could, for example, help others in her group who
are struggling a bit.
Remember this! It’s essential to try and get everyone involved in a role. Don’t just choose
the seemingly higher achievers all the time. Learners have different attributes. The seemingly
high achiever in listening and speaking may not be so good at writing skills or pronunciation.

3.6. The Plateau Effect

Congratulations! You have passed this lesson.

3.6.1. What Is A Learning Plateau?

A learning plateau occurs when learning progress in learning a new skill seems to stop. These plateaux
are normal and commonly experienced periodically when learning a new language.
This also happens when learning to play a musical instrument or tackling some other complex discipline.
The plateau effect refers to the stage when learners reach a point, either real or perceived, where their
language learning ‘flattens out’. This only affects some learners. Others march on, unaffected.
At the beginner level, a learner’s progress (generally) tends to be quite rapid and evident.
But once some learners hit the intermediate level, their progress slows down and learning speed declines.
And, it gets increasingly challenging for you and your learner to measure that progress.
At the advanced stage, learning speed can decline even further for some learners and the length of the stage
increases again.
Some people used to think learning plateaux could not be overcome because a plateau represented the limit
of your genetic ability. They believed that no amount of exertion, practice or education would help to
overcome this ‘wall’.
However, psychologists have discovered that with the right approach and a few attitude
adjustments, most of us can break through our plateaux and reach higher.
So, what can you do to help get any of your learners off their plateaux and move onwards and upwards?
Here are some practical ideas:

1. Explain The Plateau Effect

Explaining to your learners that plateaux are a natural and expected occurrence in any learning process will
help ease concerns or anxieties about their progress. This will show them that the language learning
process is not a linear one.
It will help learners visualise where they might expect to experience the highs and lows of a typical
language learning curve.

2. Encourage Them To Take Risks

Growth and progress come when we stretch past our comfort zone. Instead of challenging ourselves to
develop further, we stick with routines that we know we can do effortlessly. This reluctance to risk is a
recipe for plateauing.

3. Get Them To Embrace Their Failure

Plateau learners must embrace their failure. To overcome their reluctance to take risks, learners have to
permit themselves to fail. Instead of avoiding the challenges, the achievers in the world specifically focus
on these challenges; they purposefully focus on the areas in which they make the most mistakes.
This keeps them from getting stuck and drives their performance. So, instead of focussing on failure as a
negative thing, plateaued learners should be helped to consider their failures as steps to success. If they
choose to learn from their failures, they can drive themselves closer to their goal.

4. Be An Honest Mentor
Another reason some learners reach a plateau is that everyone around them is telling them that everything
is OK. We often listen to people who tell us what we want to hear, not what we need to hear.
Be an honest mentor who doesn’t hold back and gives the learners the honest criticism they need to
improve, and guidance on how to achieve improvement. Yes, their ego will get bruised, but perhaps that’s
the price one must pay for personal and professional growth.

5. Get Them Back To Basics

Even when a learner has already reached an advanced stage, delving back into the basics of learning can
give her fresh insights that can help her progress even further.
6. Help Them To Think Long Term
When we think short-term, we tend to feel that plateaux are permanent walls we will never get past. But
when we take the big-picture view of things, we start to see plateaux as temporary hurdles that we will get
over with some extra work.
By thinking long-term, we give ourselves more space to take risks and fail, because we see that problems
are just momentary setbacks in the long journey of learning.
To help a plateaued learner cultivate this attitude, ask him to reflect on a time (any learning situation)
where he felt he had reached the end of his development in some area, only to later burst through the
plateau. If it was possible then, and it’s possible now.
Well done! Another one bites the dust. Module 3 completed. What you have learned here will help
you better understand your EFL learners and will have demonstrated what you should and
shouldn’t do. And there’s lots more excellent, practical stuff to come!

Time for a little break. Then, come back and have a go at Quiz 3.
It’s not too taxing. Good luck! After that, we’ll move on to Module 4, where we will focus on some
challenging English Language Elements. It may be some time since you studied these language
elements, so this will bring you up-to-date.

4.0 Intro
Congratulations! You have passed this lesson.
Some learners worry a bit when hearing words such as ‘language elements’, ‘phonology’, etc. We
felt the same when we were in your position. However, pretty swiftly we realised that much of
language study is just common sense and is not particularly difficult to grasp. It just takes a bit of
time.
Knowing, understanding and being able to apply and explain key language elements is a great skill,
just like reading and writing. Being well-skilled in language elements makes a teacher’s role much,
much easier. And your learners will admire your in-depth knowledge.
Take it easy as you go through this Module; there’s a lot to be covered. If there’s anything that stops
you in your tracks, there are several ways you can get back on track.
If you are a bit unsure about any English grammar/language element, here are some very
reliable recommendations to help you:
 Books
1. Grammar for English Language Teachers: by Martin Parrott (Cambridge University Press)
An invaluable resource helping teachers at all levels of experience to develop their understanding of
English grammar. Grammar for English Language Teachers is designed to help practicing and trainee
teachers to develop their knowledge of English grammar systems. It encourages teachers to appreciate
factors that affect grammatical choices and evaluates the rules of thumb presented to learners in course
materials. In paperback and hardcover.
2. English Grammar in Use (Fourth Edition): by Raymond Murphy (Cambridge University Press)
Raymond Murphy’s classic reference and practice book for learners of English at intermediate (B1B2)
level. Perfect for self-study, but also ideal for supplementary grammar activities in the classroom. This
book has been used by millions of language learners and teachers around the world.

The fourth edition is available as a printed book, an eBook with audio, a mobile app for iOS and

Android, and online with a Learning Management System for educational institutions
3. Practical English Usage (Fourth Edition): by Michael Swan ( Oxford University Press)
Revised and updated for the fourth edition, it answers the questions that teachers and learners ask about
English grammar and vocabulary with clear, corpus-informed explanations and examples.
 Hardback with online access
 Paperback with online access
 Paperback
 Online (1 year’s access)
4. Oxford A-Z of Grammar and Punctuation: By John Seely (Oxford University Press)
 Handy pocket-size format
 Provides the information about grammar and punctuation that people need on a day-to-day basis
 Accessible design and diagrams with related terms make the Oxford A-Z of Grammar and
Punctuation simple to use
 Uses examples of real usage to clarify grammatical points
 Contains longer feature entries on a wide range of tricky issues, such as the difference between active and
passive, and hyphens

Grammar Websites
1. The Internet Grammar of English from University College London at: https://www.ucl.ac.uk/internet-
grammar/
2. Grammar Tips from Grammarly at https://www.grammarly.com/blog/category/handbook/

Grammar Dictionaries: Online

All the major English language dictionary companies publish both paper and free online learner’s
dictionaries. They provide lots of useful grammatical and vocabulary information about words and give
examples of how words are used. The three dictionaries listed below are all free online. However, the
online versions are not as comprehensive as the paper dictionaries. Thus, we recommend you buy one of
them in paper format.

 Cambridge Oxford Advanced Learners Dictionary

 Oxford Advanced Learners Dictionary
 Macmillan Dictionary
 Website Covering A Mix Of Grammar
And Language Elements
The British Council resources. Some would say that this is simply the best. There’s a huge amount of
practical English language resources to suit your language teaching needs:

 grammar
 lesson plans
 activities
 ideas for stories and poems
 songs
 teaching tools

There are full lesson plans to choose from, covering different topics and themes, all organized according to
the levels of the Common European Framework of Reference for languages (CEFR).
They also have shorter activities, as well as ideas for using songs, poems and stories to help your learners
improve their English in engaging, motivating and enjoyable ways.
All their practical materials are written by experts in English Language Teaching and are free to
download.
See:
Grammar: https://learnenglish.britishcouncil.org/grammar
Young Learners: https://www.teachingenglish.org.uk/resources/primary
Secondary/High School Levels: https://www.teachingenglish.org.uk/resources/secondary
Adult: https://www.teachingenglish.org.uk/resources/adults Let’s get started!

4.1. Phonological And Phonemic

Awareness
Congratulations! You have passed this lesson.
Let’s explore phonological awareness and phonemic awareness. You may not be aware of these terms.
You’ll soon find out, though, that they’re not difficult to grasp.
Lots of people, including some teachers, get a bit confused with these terms. Some teachers put all of this
under the heading ‘Pronunciation’ but, as we will see, this is wrong.
So, take your time with this Section and see if you can grasp the differences between these elements.

4.1.1. Phonological Awareness

Although your focus in the initial stages will be on helping your learners to grasp the meaning of words,
you need to help them become aware of the sounds of words.
 Not only will they be better able to produce the right sounds for words that they hear and become familiar
with but also this attention to the sounds of words will prepare them well for later success with reading and
writing.
Phonological awareness is the ability to focus on the sounds of the language. It’s about making your
learners aware that words are made up of individual and different-sized sounds.
You need to help them to improve their ability in this, bit by bit. It can be a bit challenging for some
younger learners, but it needs to be done.
So how do you promote this phonological awareness?
Here is a practical route to follow. Stick to this order as best as you can:

1. Do lots and lots of listening games that focus your learners’ attention on words.
2. Move on to rhyming practice, e.g. rhymes, songs, and poems, to draw their attention to the sounds at the
end of words
3. Then, focus on alliteration (e.g. A big, bad bug bit the little beetle.) which will draw their attention to the
sounds at the beginning of words. Look out for stories and rhymes and songs that will help them with this.
4. Building on what they have learned in the rhyming and alliteration work, focus on and practise the
comparison and contrast of sounds at the beginning and end of words.
5. Move on to sentence segmenting, helping them to be aware of, and counting, the number of words in
sentences.
6. Then focus on syllable segmenting and blending, clapping and counting the syllables in words and then
blending (combining) them back together into words. Remember: A syllable is a part of a word that is
pronounced with one uninterrupted sound. For example:
 lion: li-on (two syllables); clap and count the syllables li-on, li-on, li-on then blend back to lion; help them
with the pronunciation at the same time
 elephant: el-e-phant (three syllables); clap and count the syllables el-e-phant, el-e-phant, ele-phant and
then blend back to elephant; help them with the pronunciation at the same time
If you are unsure about syllables, check out http://www.howmanysyllables.com
7. Move on to onset and rime, dividing one-syllable words by their initial consonant sound and all their other
sounds. You can usually split a syllable into two distinct parts:

1. The onset. This consists of the initial consonant or consonant blend.

2. The rime. This consists of the vowel and any final consonants.
So, in the word cat, c is the onset and at is the rime. So, following on from cat, you could
then use m-at, s-at, b-at, etc.
8. Focus on phoneme deletion and phoneme substitution of sounds in words. A phoneme is each meaningful
sound in a language. Here is an example of phoneme deletion: Now, class, let’s look at the word smile.
Smile. Take away the /s/ sound. What have we got? That’s right, mile. Smile without the /s/ sound is
mile. Here is an example of phoneme substitution: Now, class, I saw a bug. Let’s look at the word bug.
What sound does it end with? That’s right – /g/. Now, change the /g/ sound to /n/. What’s the new word?
That’s right – bun.
9. Then focus on phoneme blending – blending individual sounds. The learners listen to a sequence of
separately spoken phonemes and then combine the phonemes to form a word. Then they write and read the
word, e.g. /b/, /i/, /g/ to make big.
10. Focus on phoneme segmentation, breaking down words into individual phonemes. Your learners break a
word into its separate sounds, e.g. breaking down grab into /g/, /r/, /a/, /b/, saying each sound as they tap
out or count it. Then they write and read the word.
11. Then help them to move to overall phoneme manipulation, replacing individual sounds in a
word. Phoneme manipulation includes deleting phonemes from words, adding phonemes to words,
blending phonemes to make words, segmenting words into phonemes and substituting one phoneme for
another to create a new word.

Strategies to promote phonological awareness

Here’s what you must do (and what you mustn’t do):
 1. Ensure It Is An Integral Part Of Communication
Learners will do well with their phonological awareness so long as it is not run in isolation, and you ensure
it becomes an integral part of communication in the classroom. Don’t just suddenly bring up a word out of
thin air and start to analyse it.

2. Do Not Aim For Perfection

No, the more realistic goals for you are that your learners:

 develop intelligibility (the degree to which the learner’s speech can be understood in different language
situations)
 increase communication ability
 develop increased self-confidence in speaking the language and listening and understanding the language

3. Plan The Phonological Awareness Experiences

Don’t just do these as they come up. You have a route to follow, as outlined above. So, plan what you’ll do
when and how.
The activities need to be fun. Always add a bit of fun to keep up their motivation and participation.
It’s so easy to promote enjoyment and fun when dealing with younger learners. For example, when guiding
them through alliteration, you could easily change a song they love, such as Twinkle, Twinkle Little
Star into Binkle, Binkle, Bittle Bar. They’ll find it funny but will be learning at the same time.
Utilise all the activities they are already familiar with. There’s no need to try and introduce some
unfamiliar activity. Their focus may be more on understanding the unfamiliar activity than the
phonological awareness you are striving for.
So, use experiences they are familiar with, e.g. singing songs, rhyming games, chanting nursery rhymes,
poems, etc. Just adapt what’s already there.
However, don’t just focus on games and activities. Use familiar routines to practise and recycle their
phonological awareness. For example:

 Everyone whose name begins with the llll sound, bring your books to me. Remember this: you must
emphasise the sound and not the letter name.
 When lined up outside the class, you could say: All those whose name begins with a ssss sound come in
first. Next, those with a tttt sound. Each time you would vary the order. You could also do this when they
leave your class.

Think about how you can involve parents/caregivers in this. In some countries, learners’ parents/caregivers
may not know a single word in English. However, depending on the cost and the effort you are prepared to
put into it, you could record this week’s sounds onto copies of CDs or memory sticks that the children take
home with them and the parents/caregivers support them in the sound activity practice.
This won’t be too challenging for non-English speaking parents/caregivers.
Generally, you are best to start with phonological awareness activities and then move on to phonemic
awareness activities. But sometimes, it will be apt to interlink the two at the same time.

4.1.2. Phonemic Awareness

 Phonemic awareness relates to the correspondences between letters or groups of letters and the sounds
they represent.
If the learners do not first become phonologically aware, later instruction in phonemic awareness
and decoding (breaking up a word into sounds) will not make sense.
Learners with phonemic awareness can break up words into their different sounds. They can join sounds
together to make words.
It helps beginning readers to see the links between the spoken and written words. Once they grasp this,
they can recognise familiar words quickly and can have a go at figuring out unfamiliar words.
Research shows that progress in learning to read depends on how much phonological and phonemic
awareness a learner has.
Remember this: Phonemic awareness aims to help learners see the correspondence between letters and
sounds so that when they see a letter or sometimes a group of letters, they learn that these symbols (letters)
represent speech sounds heard in words.
Children can demonstrate that they have phonemic awareness in several ways, including:

 recognising words, in a set of words, which start with the same sound (e.g. bell, bike, and boy all have /b/
at the beginning)
 identifying and speaking the first or last sound in a word (e.g. the beginning sound of dog is /d/; the ending
sound of bit is /t/.)
 linking, or blending, the separate sounds in a word to say the word (/m/, /a/, /p/ = map.)

When learners break up a word into sounds, this is called decoding. The end goal is for the learner to join
the individual sounds in a word and then utter the word as a whole.
Inexperienced teachers get confused between phonemic awareness and pronunciation and often use the
word pronunciation as a label for all aspects of sound production in the classroom. This is wrong.
Phonemic awareness is the teaching of sounds as part of decoding letters in words to decipher the
individual sounds.
Pronunciation is different. It refers to how a person articulates specific sounds.
Decoding – the deciphering of individual words – is of immense importance. In English, decoding can be
tricky due to the exceptions there are between sound and symbol correspondence. It differs from other
languages such as Spanish, which has a straight one-to-one sound and letter correspondence.
Learners of English can find this very tricky as there may be no indication of how the letter symbol should
be pronounced. For example, the letter c can be:

 a hard sound, /k/, as in can, cake, cage

 a soft sound, /s/, as in cent, circle, city

The key points to remember when enhancing learners’ phonemic awareness:

1. Always remember that the end goal is the understanding of meaning, not phonemic awareness. Phonemic
awareness instruction is a critical objective which needs to be met on the way to the goal of reading
comprehension. It is certainly not an end goal in itself.
2. In some schools, a full phonemic awareness approach early in the programme may be the norm. If this is
what the school leaders have set down, there’s not much you can do about this, at least until you have been
there some time.
Or this type of approach may be followed because that’s the way it has always been done. The problem
with a full phonemic awareness approach is that it’s unlikely to work well in the initial stages of learning,
where your learners have limited meaning of words in English and lack oral proficiency. Unlike native-
English learners, they don’t know lots of chunks and phrases which native-English speakers have already
 picked up from songs, stories, rhymes and chat from their parents/caregivers and siblings. It will be wise to
remember this.
3. Some teachers, for various reasons, often overemphasise the role of phonemic awareness. Perhaps it’s
because they and the learners enjoy this type of activity. Or maybe it’s a comfort zone for the teacher, and
he stays in that zone just a bit too much. The problem is that where there is more emphasis on phonemic
awareness than on meaning and comprehension, the learners may lose sight that they are reading words.
The decoding is critical, but it must not replace meaning and comprehension (understanding). Phonics
teaching should enhance comprehension; it should not usurp or be deemed more important the
primary goal of comprehension/understanding.
4. Never ask learners to decode a word where they don’t know its meaning. You need to focus on the words
they already know.
5. Phonemic awareness instruction should be tackled briskly and relevantly. It should always take place in
activities which are relevant and have a purpose. Learners should not be involved in phonics instruction
which has the effect of isolating letters and sounds from meaningful use in text.
6. It should emphasise chunks and patterns in words that learners will recognise when reading other words
with similar chunks and patterns.

4.1.3. Phonological And Phonemic

Awareness Activities
Here is a mix of phonological and phonemic awareness activities. We’ve put them together as you’ll likely
be doing quite a bit of interlinking of activities. A variety of activities and lots of practice are the keys to
success.
Explore and reflect on what’s best to meet the need. And, remember, make it fun. Here are some activities:

1. Listen and imitate: This is a technique in which learners listen to a model (you or a recording) and repeat
or imitate it, e.g. breaking up a word into its syllable parts and noticing the change in mouth and lip
movements.
2. Minimal pairs: Seeing if learners can distinguish between minimal pairs. A minimal pair is simply a pair
of words that differ in only one phoneme (each meaningful sound in a language). Examples of common
minimal pairs are:
 ship/sheep
 pin/pen
 buy/boy
 hut/hat
3. Contextualised minimal pairs: In this technique, you establish the context/setting, such as a blacksmith
shoeing a horse, and present key lexis. Learners are then trained to respond to a sentence stem with the
appropriate, meaningful response (a or b) – Sentence stem: The blacksmith (a. hits / b. heats) the
horseshoe. Cued learner response: a. with the hammer / b. in the fire.
4. Visual aids: For sound formation, it may help to use a sketch of the mouth or a colour wall chart, and to
describe the pronunciation of a sound in terms of lips, tongue, teeth, etc.
5. Tongue twisters: This is a technique from speech correction strategies for native speakers. One well-
known example is: She sells seashells by the seashore. You could make up your own twisters. Rhymes
and jingles are also effective, as are chants.
6. Drilling: These can include imitation drills, with repetition of sounds, words and sentences and varied
repetition of drills (varied speed, volume, and mood)
7. Linking: Trying to link the sound to a word that they already know. For example, they may find the sound
in cheese quite easy, but then find it quite tricky when it appears in the middle of a word like purchase.
Reminding them of the sound in the word cheese will help them to form it correctly in purchase.
8. Same or different: Read a short list of three words to the learners and ask them to tell you if you are
reading the same word, or if there is a different word in the list. If the words are all the same, they
say same, and if there is a different sound, they say different. The learners will not see the list of words, of
course, e.g. sit sat seat; ship sheep ship
9. Stop me: Very similar to the example above, except that the learners stop you when you use a different
sound, e.g. ship, ship, ship, ship, ship, sheep
10. Listen!: Place minimal pairs in sentences so that the learners listen carefully and decide on the word being
used.
Notice that both words must make sense in the context, e.g. Come here and have a look at this lock/rock; If
you sit up straight you won’t slip/sleep; He came to ask me about his cut/cat.
11. Pictures: Pictures can be very effective with learners of all ages. The learners can have pairs of pictures in
front of them; e.g. ship and sheep. When you say a word (or read out a sentence), they must point to the
appropriate picture.

4.2. Pronunciation And Teaching

Techniques
Congratulations! You have passed this lesson.
Remember: Pronunciation refers to how a person articulates specific sounds. Let’s
explore 5 critical elements of pronunciation.

4.2.1. Pronunciation: Vowels, Consonants

And Syllables
When teaching pronunciation, you’ll want to have a good knowledge of vowel sounds.
Vowels sounds are made with the mouth open and the airway unobstructed (just recite a, e, i,
o, u). With consonants, however, the flow of air is briefly obstructed in some way (just
recite b, f, v, for example).
In speech, the exact number of vowels depends on the regional accent, but there are more
than 20 English vowel sounds.
Diphthongs are an essential element of pronunciation. A diphthong is simply a vowel sound
that is composed of a sequence of two vowels. The vowel in the word so, for example, begins
with the o sound of hot and then glides into the u sound of put. Other diphthongs are the
vowel sounds in high and late.
When teaching pronunciation, you’ll also need to know a bit about consonants. As mentioned
above, a consonant is a sound that is made by blocking the flow of air while speaking.
For example, the first sound in the word mark is made by closing the lips briefly, while the
last sound is produced by pressing the blade of the tongue up against the hard palate. There
are 22 consonants in spoken English.
Let’s consider some other critical features of speech which you need to know to help your
learners’ pronunciation.
 4.2.2. Pronunciation: Stress At Word And
Sentence Level
Word stress is where we say part of a word with greater energy, i.e., with more length, more
depth, more emphasis and sound on the vowel sound. Distinguish the stress in the vowel
sounds in the stressed syllables and the other syllables in the words pencil, photography,
volunteer (stressed syllables are underlined).
Like English, many languages give especially strong stress to one syllable in a word. Other
languages give similar length to all the syllables.
Stress can also influence how we pronounce sentences and incomplete sentences.
We apply more or less stress to different parts of the sentence, i.e., slower and louder, or
quicker and more softly. This is called sentence stress.
Generally, one word in the sentence will have the main stress. This is the word which the
speaker thinks is most important for the meaning of the utterance.
Other words can have secondary stress. This is not as strong as main stress and falls on words
which are not as important to the meaning as the word with the main stress.
Other words in the sentence are unstressed.
For example, in this spoken sentence: She came home late last night, the word with the main
stress is the underlined one – late; the words with secondary stress would probably be came,
home, last, night; and the unstressed word is she.
But remember: It is possible to stress any word in a sentence if the speaker thinks it is
important.
Whether you are focussing on word stress or sentence stress, provide the class with some
guidance about the position of the stress in one of two ways.
Either write the word/sentence on the board and show the stress by using a symbol or use a
hand to make a gesture (perhaps a chopping movement) to demonstrate where to place the
stress when you say the word.
Here is how it could look if you were using a symbol on the board:
pencil

Word Stress And Sentence Stress Rules

We’re going to stick to the simple rules here as many rules are full of exceptions. For
example, there are many two-syllable words in English that are spelt the same but their
meaning changes depending on the stress:

1. You will progress a lot with your English if you follow this rule.
You will make a lot of progress with your English if you follow this rule.
2. He rejected the plan.
This bowl was a reject, so I bought it at half price.
3. Everyone was present at the meeting.
I will present my ideas to the company tomorrow in a presentation.

Here are some fundamental word stress rules:

1. One word has only one primary stress. One word cannot have two primary stresses. If you
hear two stresses, you hear two words. Two stresses cannot be one word. There can be a
secondary stress in some words. But a secondary stress is much smaller than the main
(primary) stress and is only used in long words.
2. We can only stress vowels, not consonants.

Here are some fundamental sentence stress rules:

1. Content words are stressed. Content words carry meaning, e.g. main verbs, nouns, adjectives,
adverbs and negative auxiliaries (don’t, can’t, aren’t)
2. Structure words are unstressed. Structure words are used for correct grammar, e.g. pronouns,
prepositions, articles, conjunctions and auxiliary/helping verbs (e.g. do, be, can, have, must).
3. The time between stressed words is always the same.
There’s the odd exception to sentence stress rules, but far fewer than word stress exceptions.
For example, we have said that structure words are unstressed in a sentence. But look at the
structure word she below, which the speaker is stressing for emphasis while confirming
information:

Lisa didn’t do that, did she?

Yes, she did.

4.2.3 Pronunciation: Intonation

Intonation is another important part of pronunciation. It is the movement of the level of the
voice, i.e., the tune of a sentence or a group of words.
We use intonation to express emotions and attitudes and to emphasise or make less important
particular things we are saying.
We also use intonation to signal to others the function of what we are saying; that is, to show
we are starting or stopping speaking, or whether we are asking a question or making a
statement.

Practice
To hear these intonation uses, try saying School’s just finished with these meanings:

 stating a fact
 with surprise
 with happiness
 as a question
 to emphasise just

You should hear the level of your voice rising and falling in different patterns.
 Different intonation patterns can show many different meanings. However, there is no short
and simple way of describing how the patterns relate to meanings.
Intonation patterns can also be demonstrated with the use of arrows on the board or hand
gestures to show the ‘musical’ pattern. Wherever possible, try to speak in a normal manner
without a distorted intonation pattern as this will provide the learners with a better model to
follow.

4.2.4. Pronunciation: Rhythm

Sentence stress is what gives English its rhythm or beat. Look at this sentence:
Will you CLOSE the DOOR because he’s GONE to WORK?
In our sentence, the 4 key content words (close, door, gone, work) are stressed.
Why is this important for pronunciation? It is important because it adds music to the
language. It is the rhythm of the English language. It changes the speed at which we speak
(and listen to) the language. The time between each stressed word is the same.
There is 1 syllable between CLOSE and DOOR and 3 syllables between DOOR and GONE.
But the time between CLOSE and DOOR and between DOOR and GONE is the same. We
maintain a constant beat on the stressed words.
To do this, we say the more slowly, and because he’s more quickly. We change the speed of
the small structure words so that the rhythm of the key content words stays the same.

4.2.5 Pronunciation: Linking

Learners need to hear natural, fast, relaxed pronunciation as we speak it every day, not a
carefully over-articulated, overly-pronounced one-word-by-one-word phrasing of sentences.
Speaking too slowly and too emphatically is a common characteristic of the inexperienced
teacher.
Speaking unnaturally can have a detrimental effect:

 Your learners will imitate your speaking style and speak unnaturally too.
 They will not recognise and understand rapid natural speech when they hear it.

This doesn’t mean you shouldn’t slow your speech down a bit to help your learners get some
basic ideas, but it does mean that you should speak naturally most of the time. It also means
that you need to teach them what natural speech sounds like.
There is some evidence that says that if learners don’t speak naturally, they won’t recognise
normal speech when they hear it.
Some examples:

 How much is it? sounds something like How muh chi zit?
 Don’t eat apples! sounds something like Don tea tapples!
 If you habitually speak slowly and over-enunciate, your learners will listen for How much is
it? and won’t understand when they hear the normal speech sounds of How muh chi zit? You
need to instruct your learners in these differences, how to pronounce them and how to listen
for them.
Where the end of one word connects to the beginning of the next word, this is called
‘linking’. Linking is a naturally occurring phenomenon in the speech of every native speaker
of English and is not the result of sloppy or defective speech.
One major feature of linking occurs when a word ending in a consonant sound precedes a
word beginning with a vowel sound – as in don’t eat apples.
When the native-English speaker says this, the consonant sound at the end of don’t runs into
the vowel sound at the beginning of eats and the consonant sound at the end of eats runs into
the vowel sound at the beginning of apples. Thus, it sounds like don tea tapples.
Many learners of English tend to separate the words into distinct units and so their speech
sounds ‘staccato’.
Other structural features cause this, e.g. linking between one word that ends in a vowel sound
and the second which begins with a vowel sound.
You should encourage your learners at least to attempt to approximate these linking features
of English because they are so commonly used in everyday speech. This, in turn, should raise
their awareness of the existence of these features and will make the task of listening easier.

4.2.6. Teaching Pronunciation

1. Key Points
The overall aim of teaching pronunciation is for the learner to develop spoken English so
that:

 the learner is easy to understand when speaking English

 it allows a positive image of himself as a speaker of English

Here’s what you must do (and what you mustn’t do):

1. Ensure it is an integral part of communication

Learners will do well in the pronunciation of English if the pronunciation episode is not run
in isolation and instead becomes an integral part of communication in the class.
2. Do not aim for perfection
The goal of pronunciation in the CLT class is not the attainment of ‘perfect’ pronunciation.
Who has this, anyway, and who says it’s ‘perfect’? And how can it be proved? No, the more
realistic goals for you are that your learners:
 develop intelligibility (the degree to which the learner’s speech can be understood in different
language situations)
 increase communication ability
 develop increased self-confidence in speaking the language and listening and understanding
the language
3. Give lots of practice

Remember! The more practice given, the better the pronunciation will be.

2. The Phonemic Chart

All the activities listed above under Phonological and Phonemic awareness activities can
be used to enhance pronunciation, as can the Phonemic Chart.

The Phonemic Chart

This is an alternative method of approaching the teaching and learning of English
pronunciation.
A phonemic chart provides a set of symbols, each one intended to represent an individual
sound of the language, irrespective of the way it appears in the standard written script.
There are a few different phonemic charts.
We highly recommend that you use this British Council phonemic chart. Go to:
http://www.teachingenglish.org.uk/activities/phonemic-chart where you will see the
symbols, can hear all the sounds and can download it to your computer or iPad.
It may take several weeks for you to familiarise yourself with all the sounds. But it will be
worth it.
In preparation for your TEFL career, you should start to familiarise yourself with the chart
and the sounds. Once you have had a first look at it, the following information will be useful.
The individual sounds of English are called phonemes, and the set of symbols representing
the sounds is called the phonemic alphabet.
Having received a basic knowledge and teaching in this system and by using a good quality
EnglishEnglish dictionary, most older learners should be able to discover the pronunciation
of unknown words without your help.
Many teachers are reluctant to introduce the phonemic chart to their learners for several
reasons:

 They do not feel that the time spent learning the system is justified.
 They feel that learners already have an uphill task dealing with English spelling without
asking them to learn another alphabet.
 They feel unsure about the system.

But:

 Learning the phonemic alphabet is not as challenging as it first appears, and it can be made
considerably easier by introducing it piece by piece to the class as part of your daily lesson
plan.
 With a little application, you often discover that the system becomes second nature.
 Note:
Other languages have their own unique phonemic systems. When learning English, it is
common for the phonemic system of their first language to influence the production of
sounds in English.
Please remember that in an English-speaking country, dialectal differences should be
considered when using phonemic charts.
Note there is not always a correspondence between the number of letters and the number of
sounds.
Also, note that most English dictionaries show where the stress of a word is by using the
mark ‘.
Give it a go!

3. Moving Pronunciation From The Brain To The

Mouth
An excellent technique for teaching pronunciation well and faster is to enable learners to
move pronunciation from their brains to their mouth.
Some teachers who see pronunciation only as a cognitive activity will take longer to achieve
their pronunciation goals, and it will be less engaging and practical for their learners.
The solution is to make it both a cognitive and physical activity.
Make it a wholly physical activity by getting your learners to focus on the muscles that
produce sound, rhythm and articulation.
You need to get them to sense physically what their muscles are doing so that they become
aware of the interaction between muscle movement, sound production and aural perception.
This will enable them to:

 Adapt their pronunciation, e.g. adapt/change the way they say a sound or stress a syllable
 See the muscle movement and adapt/change it if necessary
 Increase their awareness of the internal sensation/ movement from the muscle movement

Thus, you are encouraging them to:

 Listen to the sound they are emitting, e.g. from a recording

 ‘See’ the sound, e.g. in a mirror
 Feel the sound, e.g. by placing their fingers on their lips, tongue and jaw.

This is a much more practical and successful method for teaching pronunciation.
Before doing this, it would be wise to explore a modern pronunciation text with lots of
illustrations of lip, tongue and jaw movements when pronouncing. You could copy these and
distribute them to your learners. Using illustrations, demonstrations, mirrors and muscle
movements will make your pronunciation sessions much more engaging, practical and fun.
4.3 Lexis
Congratulations! You have passed this lesson.

4.3.1. What Is Lexis?

You have met this word briefly before.
In the past, when many native-English speakers were being taught English, one primary approach used by
the teacher was to teach grammar (often as a separate session), and from time to time she would introduce
new vocabulary (often arising from reading exercises).
And sometimes, vocabulary was taught by the teacher making up a list of words that the learners needed to
learn. The point is that these two activities – grammar and vocabulary – were often handled separately.
In Communicative Language Teaching, the approach you will be using, there has been a shift over recent
years to using the word lexis to signify both the teaching of vocabulary and certain areas of grammar
together.
Vocabulary is usually seen as individual words, whereas lexis is a somewhat broader concept and consists
of words, phrases, collocations (words that are commonly connected), chunks and formulaic grammatical
expressions.
It also includes set patterns that were previously designated as grammar elements, e.g. If I were you …; Do
you mind if …, etc. These words, chunks and patterns are now often called lexical items.
Recognising specific grammar structures as lexical items means that they can be introduced much
earlier, without structural analysis or elaboration in a separate grammar session.
Since the idea of notions and functions made its way into language teaching, mainly as
Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) has gained prominence, some structures associated with
grammar started to be taught lexically (or functionally).
I’d like to is not taught as the conditional tense but is taught as a chunk of language we use to
express desire. Similarly, many ‘traditional’ grammar items can be introduced lexically, early on.
So, the proponents of lexis see vocabulary and certain areas of grammar linked together, so there is
neither a separate grammar session (except for difficult concepts) nor a separate vocabulary session.
These are married together under the umbrella of lexis.
You may teach in a school that is well up-to-date and talks about lexis and lexical items OR you may be in
a school that separates the two and talks of grammar and vocabulary. Neither is better. The key is to be
aware of this.

4.3.2. Selecting Appropriate And

Relevant Lexis
You may be a little bit apprehensive when you are reflecting on what lexis you will teach when you take
up your post. Don’t worry about this; this thought comes into the minds of all new teachers.
But remember: There are always solutions.
Here’s what to do:
1. Local standards/curriculum
The most critical point of all is that you need to find out first whether there are local standards and a
curriculum set down by the local government and/or the school concerning the relevant lexis (and related
content) that you must teach.
If there are standards and a curriculum set down, then you must adhere to these for the level(s) you will be
teaching. Note that this doesn’t mean you cannot add additional lexis to the standards and curriculum set
down.
Let’s imagine your learners are studying a theme/project on food. An individual or group may ask you to
tell them the name of, say, a kitchen utensil they have seen but they don’t know what it’s called or even,
perhaps, what it does. Maybe it’s an apple corer.
The utensil is not set down in any of the curriculum lexical lists. If you feel it’s relevant and they may
come across this utensil reasonably frequently in the future, then it would be a good idea to introduce them
to this new word and its pronunciation.
If you have never come into contact with educational standards, have a browse through the USA Common
Core State Standards Initiative at http://www.corestandards.org/. This will give you some background to
educational standards but note that any educational standards set down outside the USA are likely to be
different.
2. Coursebook – or not
In some cases, you will be helped in the selection of new lexical items by the coursebook that you use, if
there is one.
From this point forward, let’s imagine there are no standards, curriculum or coursebook, and
you’ve been asked to teach a beginner class. We’ve been there and done this. Easy-peasy. Read on.

4.3.3. Relevant Lexis

Here are some very practical ways to decide on the relevant and appropriate lexis to teach:

1. Ask Your Experienced Colleagues

Meet with your Head of Department/Director of studies and ask for her advice. It may be that last year’s
group first tackled a group theme/project, e.g. My family. This would be a great start, and you’d have a
pretty good idea of the type of lexis you could use.

2. Meet With Last Year’s Teacher

Meet with the teacher who taught last year’s beginner class if he is available. Ask for his advice.

3. Observe The Previous Year’s Class

If points 1 or 2 don’t work out, ask the teacher who is now teaching the class who were beginners last year
if you can sit in on some of her classes, if possible, to see if you can get a grasp of what they learned in the
previous year.
With her permission, carry out a simple needs analysis to see what relevant lexis and chunks they learned.

4. Find Out How They Spend A Typical Day

 Find out from your teaching colleagues, as best and as soon as you can, what a typical day for a school
child in your class looks like, for the age and level you will be teaching. This will give you lots of
information to help you in deciding what lexis is relevant:

 Do some walk long distances to school?

 Do some travel on buses?
 Do they go shopping?
 Do any of them come from large families?
 What sports are they mad on, both for the girls and boys?
 Do they go to watch matches?
 What are the frequent types of food they eat?

And so on. Information like this is like gold dust and will keep you on track with the content/themes you
will major on and the relevant lexis to teach.
Remember: your focus is always on introducing language in meaningful contexts. There’s little point in
basing a theme around The World of Computers if few have access to these.
Always keep asking yourself this question: What are the typical situations my learner group get involved
in? Your learners will find themselves in many situations which will be typical for your group, e.g. going
on a bus, buying something in a shop, apologising for bumping into another learner in the school corridor,
etc.
So, you need to make sure that you identify the critical situations for your learners and include these in
your content. As their language improves, you won’t need to ask your colleagues. You can ask your
learners about the kinds of things they do in their normal daily life.
This will then guide you to the essential lexis you need to teach.
Identifying situations will lead you to introduce functions and exponents. Once this happens, you won’t be
worrying about what lexis you should be teaching. You’ll be full of ideas. We will explore functions and
exponents later.

5. Frequency Is Paramount
One significant factor in the selection of relevant lexis is the frequency of the word. There would be little
point in teaching words to your learners if they are rarely likely to need them or use them.
In terms of language input, the frequency of lexis is accorded a high level of significance. The rationale for
this is quite simply that the most frequently occurring words in the English language will be those which
are most useful to learners.
For example, the beginner level of many series of coursebooks will have a basic lexical syllabus
formulated from the first 500 to 800 most frequently occurring words in English.
Here is a list of what are purported to be the 200 most common speaking words in English:
 This table is merely a guide, and should only be viewed as such, but there is merit in this. It gives you a
rough guide to fundamental constructions and chunks that you could first major on, e.g. I like.., I don’t like
…
Then you would add in the new and relevant lexis to these constructions, e.g. I like gazpachuelo
malagueño, which would lead you on to introducing very pertinent lexis in English such as fish, potatoes,
mayonnaise, wine vinegar, shrimps, clams, etc.

6. Research The L2 Language Reading Books

Let’s imagine that all your learners are native-Mandarin speakers in China.
Think outside the box, particularly with anything that can make your job easier. In China, what Chinese
reading books, pertaining to the age and level of your learners, can you get your hands on, say, from a
library or your learners?
These will help to indicate the level of Mandarin lexis for your group but, more importantly, it will provide
you with an indication of the type of lexis used at their level, i.e. what words they have been learning in
Mandarin. You may have to get a Mandarin speaker to translate for you.
This will make your choice of relevant English lexis easier, and they will be able to relate to the new
English words easier when you show them you can speak some of these words in Mandarin. Remember,
though, not to overdo this translation-type activity.

7. Remember The English Profile Programme

This will keep you on track when deciding which words are appropriate for the learner’s CEFR level.

4.3.4. Appropriate Lexis

You wouldn’t be taking this course if you were not regarded as being a person with integrity.
Choosing appropriate language is all down to your integrity, and you can work out much of this for
yourself. For example, if your first class is a beginner class, you can work out that it wouldn’t be sensible:

 to give lexis which is outside of their interests, needs and view of their world
 to give beginners long and complex words with several syllables
 to introduce them to words that relate to cognitive concepts such as analyse. It’s much too soon for that.
 to introduce them to any words which are recognised almost everywhere as taboo for earners, e.g. certain
parts of the male and female bodies
 to introduce many idioms, which are much too complicated for this stage
 to introduce many city-dwelling words if the learners are based in a rural area, and viceversa
 to introduce words and ideas through words, which are outside of their culture

A significant point to remember is the difference between surface culture and deep culture.
Surface culture relates to topics such as the customs, food, holidays, places, situations, famous people and
traditions that are relevant to the learners’ local context. Lexis for these activities would be very
appropriate.
Deep culture issues relate to concepts such as attitudes, perceptions, and values. Keep away from these in
the early stages. There may be occasions where these can be discussed with advanced learners.
The opportunities for being misunderstood, due to the learners’ lack of lexis, meaning and the
understanding of nuances in English, are enormous. Stay clear.
 Always try to avoid getting bogged down with lexis in subjects which are regarded as taboo in all but very
advanced levels, e.g. religion and politics. Again, the opportunities for being misunderstood are immense.
For example, if you were a royalist from the UK and proud to mention your Queen, this could easily
backfire on you in a country whose bloody history involved getting rid of royalty. A learner could go home
and state to his anti-royalist parents/caregivers: We learn about queen. She very nice person. Everybody
like her.
So, be sensible and act with integrity. To save you from falling into traps like the one above when, say,
you are teaching in China, you should research China’s history and make-up, using a reputable site such as
The World Factbook at https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/resources/the-worldfactbook/geos/
co.html
We will be delving further into cultural aspects a little bit later.

4.3.5. Types Of Language

1. Words And Chunks
When learners have listened to the English language for a large period of time, they will gradually and
naturally start to utter words and chunks of language they have heard you say.
So, once they are comfortable with hearing the words, they will take the wonderful step to say the words.
You will notice this in different scenarios:

 Speaking out phrases and chunks they have learned through listening to you, e.g. please, thank you, open
book (to their friend), etc.
 Joining in with the Total Physical Response (TPR) activities you’ll use with rhymes and songs, but now
uttering some of the chunks. Learners listen to rhymes, songs or stories, and mime to them without having
to produce the language. TPR links language learning to physical actions and ensures that learners hear lots
of English in meaningful contexts without having to say any words. The key principle of TPR is that
learners have lots of opportunities to absorb the language before they have to say anything. Then they start
to repeat the words/chunks.
 Answering simple questions you ask them, e.g. Are all the books open? and answering: Yes! or Yes, Miss,
or Yes, Miss Brown or My open or Book open, etc.
 Memorising short dialogues through time: How are you? I fine or See you!
 Introducing themselves: Me, Lucy.

And you’ll notice that they generally use them at the right times. For example, when you always say Open
your books, they’ll know what to do as you always say that chunk after handing out the books.
Or, if you always say Bye, children at the end of the lesson and perhaps add a little wave, they’ll recognise
that this always happens when they leave so you must be saying something like goodbye.
Of course, at this stage, they won’t be able to analyse your chunks into separate words or understand what
each of the words means on its own.
As adults, we all use chunks. These may vary a bit depending on our native-English type, but these will
demonstrate the point:

 See you later!

 Goodness me!
 What a (pleasant) surprise!
 That’s awesome!
 What’s up?
 What do you think?
 How do you feel about that?

These are called fixed chunks. They are all complete and ready to use at any time.
Other chunks are partially fixed – they are not complete, and they need some other items or elements so
that the whole chunk then makes sense. For example:

 What do you want to …?

 Where would you like to …?
 I like …
 I don’t like …
 Have you got …?

The critical point is that chunks, whether fixed or partially fixed, help learners to produce their language
output much faster. The learners don’t need to give any thought to the individual words making up the
chunk.
Grasping these chunks is a crucial step not just for building their lexical bank, but it is vital for building up
their knowledge and skills so that they can participate in communication. To speak the new language,
they need to participate.
Once they can participate, you can then guide them on how they can participate.
Your next step is to build on this by introducing them to set phrases as chunks. These will open up new
horizons for them.
Your first step, of course, is to help them grasp the meaning of the chunks, then how they can use these
effortlessly in meaningful situations. Here are examples of the types of chunks you’ll likely want to cover
with them. You’ll be able to think of many more. The chunks are underlined:
A: What do you want to do?
B: I want (to play, to play soccer, to sleep)
A: What do you like?
B: I like (football, sleeping, ice cream)
A: Do you like (cheese, tomatoes, apples or oranges)?
B: I like cheese.
A: Where are you going?
I’m going to (school, the cinema, the toilet, etc.)
A: What do you have (in your hand, in your bag, for tea)?
B: I have (a pen, a book, rice for tea)
A: Are you a (monkey, fly, flower) – as in a classroom guessing game, identifying a mime)?
B: Yes, I’m a (monkey, fly, flower, etc.)
B: No, I’m a (caterpillar, teacher, snake, etc.)
These chunk structures need to be practised a lot, and they may seem repetitive to you. But they are
necessary. You should try to make them fun and ensure that they are meaningful and can be used well,
time after time by the learners.
Then you’ll really start to see them advance so long as you continue to introduce them to other meaningful
language they can use in their immediate world.
Examples: Chunks used by British tourists
 To reinforce the importance of chunks, a useful example in the UK is the annual holiday exodus that many
make to Europe. Let’s use France as an example. In general, UK holidaymakers don’t make a significant
effort to learn foreign languages. Maybe it’s because they think everyone should speak English.
Even although they may never have had any L2 input whatsoever, it’s interesting how they pick up chunks
to get over the meaning of what they want to have, do, find out, etc. They learn these from their children,
from listening to other British tourists, from films etc.
It’s unlikely that many of the visitors would recognise the words written down or be able to analyse the
separate words in isolation. But they get by when meaning is essential.
For France, most of them will have picked up:

 Avez vous … ? (Have you got …?) and they’ll fill in the word from a dictionary, or mime.
 Où est …? (Where is …?) and they’ll fill in the words from a dictionary, or mime.
 Quelle heure? (What time?) Here they ask the time but are not sure how to finish off the sentence.
However, it doesn’t matter since the meaning is clear.
 Merci beaucoup! (Thank you very much)! Here, they use a whole chunk.
 S’il vous plaît. (Please.) An essential whole chunk.

2. Metaphors and similes

Learners need to get to grips with unusual language. Let’s consider metaphors and similes.
Similes and metaphors are both used to make comparisons or elucidate concepts but tackle these in a
different form.
Metaphors state a comparison. Similes use the words like and as to make a comparison.

 That country’s a melting pot. (metaphor)

 She’s the light of my life. (metaphor)
 The room is like a furnace. (simile)
 He is as bald as a coot. (simile)

The difficulty for L2 learners is understanding these expressions and, importantly, using the correct
wording. We don’t say That country’s a melting saucepan or She’s the luminosity of my life.
This inability to use other words in these expressions demonstrates the collocations that exist in all
languages, where words seem to go together naturally. These are constructions that your learners will have
to learn bit by bit through study and practice.

4.3.6. Lexis Activities And Exercises

Here are some practical options for presenting new lexical items. These are best carried out in pairs
or groups:
Context: Learners see the text that contains lexical items and deduce the meaning of the item based on the
surrounding language.
Miming or gesturing: Learners guess the meaning of a lexical item based on your or another learner’s
miming and gesturing.
Substitution drills: These kinds of drills enable learners to focus on structure while learning related lexis.
For example, a dialogue or sentence structure is first taught, then learners substitute different content
words.
Antonyms/synonyms: Learners match items from a list of synonyms or antonyms to the word(s) in a text.
 Hangman: The classic lexis game where learners choose letters to spell out the lexical item in a limited
number of rounds.
Odd-Man-Out: You list four words for your learners to analyse. Learners must determine the relationship
between the words and then explain why one word does not belong.
Matching definitions: Learners match words to a list of definitions.
Gapped dictation: You read a text with some lexis missing, and the learners must deduce what the lexical
item is, based on the context.
Using dictionaries: These can be used for several reasons:

 Using the alphabet and placing words in alphabetical order

 Checking the pronunciation of new words
 Positioning the stress correctly
 Distinguishing different uses of the same word
 Distinguishing different meanings of words with the same spelling
 Checking the grammatical role of a word
 Identifying British and American spelling or meaning
 Checking on the formality or informality of a new word

Keeping a lexis record: Jotting down any new words. You can then use this as a warmer exercise, a few
days later, to check whether the word and its meaning and usage have been embedded.
Using drawings/pictures: These can be used very effectively to teach lexis.
Labelling: Working in pairs or small groups, or pairs and then small groups, the learners can, for example,
label the various parts of a picture of a bicycle or the parts of the body.
One learner alone may not possess all the lexis that is needed, but by working in pairs or small groups they
are likely to have a larger group of words. They can then combine with another pair or small group to see
if they have a complete list.
When teaching lexical items to learners, you should keep in mind that a learner’s learning of a word means
not only knowing its dictionary meaning but also understanding its form, different connotations and its
correct use.
Rather than simply giving learners the meaning of a lexical item, you need to make sure that your learners
understand the meaning.
To this end, you can help your learners develop effective lexis learning strategies. You can also develop
learner-centred presentation techniques, such as eliciting and effective concept checking, which make lexis
learning, and teaching, much more engaging.
Recycling
Remember this!
All your excellent work may be undone if there is no recycling.
Recycling is where your learners meet and use a word several times so that eventually it is remembered
and recalled naturally.
Don’t just focus on your learners learning new words. Continue to recycle words they have met already.
This will help to ensure that words are embedded in their long-term memories.
And remember this! Where your learners have learned a word successfully, and enjoy using it, introduce
them to other words in that lexical set. A lexical set can be defined as a group of words embracing the
same topic, function or form. For example, recycling the word amazing will provide a solid foundation for
introducing them to a variety of words with somewhat similar meanings, e.g.
wonderful, great, fantastic, awesome and remarkable.
 One of the best times to recycle lexis is during the warmer the next day. Here’s a simple example.

Example
 Let’s say you covered a lexical set of fruit the previous day.
 Split the class into small groups of, say, three or four learners.
 Give them a real-life picture of fruit from their local marketplace. It contains all the fruit they learned.
 In turns, a learner must identify and speak out one of the types of fruit you covered the day before.

Rules: No repetition allowed. A learner can be challenged if others think he’s wrong. Each learner has 3
lives. If they can’t identify and say a fruit name, they lose a life. The winner is the last person to have a life
left.

4.4. Connotation And Denotation

Congratulations! You have passed this lesson.

Connotation
Connotation refers to the associations, or positive or negative feelings, which a lexical item
evokes. It is an idea or feeling which a word invokes for a person in addition to its literal or
primary meaning, e.g. the word discipline has unhappy connotations of punishment and
repression for some people.
Words may have positive or negative connotations.
For example, consider the words childish, childlike and youthful. They have much the same
literal meaning, but they have different connotative meanings. Childish and childlike have a
negative connotation as they often refer to the immature behaviour of a person. On the other
hand, youthful implies that a person is lively and energetic.
Here are some other examples. Cultural and emotional associations shape their suggested
meanings:

 A dove has connotations of peace or gentility.

 Hollywood connotes such things as glamour, celebrity, and dreams of stardom.
 Home suggests family, comfort and security.
 Politician often has a negative connotation of insincerity while statesperson connotes
sincerity.
 Pushy refers to someone loud-mouthed and irritating.

‘Strong-willed‘ and ‘pig-headed‘ have much the same literal meaning – ‘stubborn‘.
However, strongwilled connotes some degree of admiration for the level of someone’s will
and drive (a positive connotation), while pig-headed connotes frustration in dealing with
someone (a negative connotation).

Denotation
Denotation is typically defined as the literal meaning or dictionary meaning of a word in
contrast to its connotative or associated meanings. If we compare the following two
 statements with the first two examples above, you’ll see the difference between connotation
and denotation:
A dove denotes any of the various birds of the family Columbidae, having a heavy body,
small head, short legs, and long pointed wings: order Columbiformes. They are typically
smaller than pigeons.
Hollywood denotes a NW suburb of Los Angeles, California: the centre of the American film
industry. In literary works, it is common practice for writers to deviate from the dictionary
meanings of words to create fresher ideas and images. Even in our daily conversation, we
diverge from the dictionary meanings of words and prefer connotative or associated meanings
of words to convey our message better.

4.5. Appropriacy In Relation To Cultural

Contextualisation
Congratulations! You have passed this lesson.
We mentioned ‘appropriate lexis’ above, but here our focus is on appropriacy in relation to cultural
contextualisation. A subtler aspect of meaning that often needs to be introduced to learners is whether a
particular item is appropriate for use in a specific context.
Appropriacy of a piece of speech is measured against sociocultural norms.
However, the same piece of speech in one society’s culture may not be considered appropriate in another
culture.
Possible repercussions may arise from a learner saying words that could be viewed as inappropriate in
another culture and society.
For this reason, you must make your learners aware of possible cross-linguistic problems.
Thus, your learners must know that a particular word or phrase is very common, or relatively rare, or
‘taboo’ in, say, polite conversation. Or, perhaps, the word tends to be used in writing but not in speech; or
that it is more suitable in formal, than in informal discourse.
For example, weep is virtually synonymous in denotation with cry, but it is more formal and poetic, tends
to be used in writing more than in speech, and is much less common.
So far, we’ve focussed on the learner. But what about YOU?
Here’s what you need to know and reflect on to ensure you get cultural contextualisation right the
first time:

1. Remember this: Communication is culture-bound. The way an individual communicates and the words
and structures she uses emanate from her culture.
2. Learners with different cultural norms are at risk if you have little knowledge, sensitivity or appreciation of
the diversity in communication styles. You may perceive differences as problems and respond to learners’
diversity with a negative attitude, low expectations and culturally inappropriate teaching and assessment
procedures.
3. Remember: Cultures vary internally and are changeable. There are usually many cultural differences
within a single race or nationality. Avoid stereotyping your learners.
4. What is logical and essential in your culture, e.g. always tagging on please to a request, or taking turns to
speak, may seem irrational and unimportant to learners in another culture.
5. In describing another culture’s language, teachers tend to stress the differences and overlook the
similarities. Do not fall into this trap.
6. Avoid some inappropriate cross-cultural communication barriers:
 Be aware of words, images and situations that suggest that all or most members of a racial group are the
same.
 Be aware of possible negative implications of word/colour symbolism and usage that could offend people
or reinforce bias. For example, terms such as black magic or black market can be offensive in some
cultures.
 Avoid words that have questionable racial or ethnic connotations. For example, a phrase such as you
people may have a racial overtone.
 Be aware that words, objects, characters and symbols may reflect different beliefs or values for different
groups. For example, the Confederate flag and Uncle Remus stories may offend African Americans
because they reflect the culture of slavery and the Old South.
 Be aware of different approaches to taking turns during conversations. For example, some cultures
frequently perceive ‘breaking in’ to reinforce or disagree with another’s point of view to be perfectly
permissible, indeed desirable.

Cultures often have different standards/levels for loudness, silence, speed of delivering a message,
attentiveness and time taken to respond to another’s point. For example, Far East societies place a high
value on contemplation and tend, therefore, to feel little responsibility to make immediate responses during
conversation.
Understanding another culture’s language is a continuous process.

4.6. Word Formation

Congratulations! You have passed this lesson.
If you are a native-English speaker, you’ve probably never given much thought to word formation.
However, as an EFL teacher, you must reflect on this. It will help your learners greatly.
Lexical items, whether one-word or multi-word, can often be broken down into their component ‘bits’, or
morphemes.
A morpheme is defined as the smallest linguistic unit that has meaning. Let’s start with the
word approach and change it to unapproachable. The new word unapproachable has three
morphemes: un + approach + able.
The prefix is the part of a word that comes before the base. So, the prefix here is un. Prefixes add to or
alter the base word in some way. The prefix un means not or opposite of, so by adding it to approachable,
it has given the word a negative meaning.
The base or stem of the word is approach. The base is the word or part of a word to which prefixes and
suffixes are attached to make new forms.
The suffix is that part of the word that comes after the base. So, the suffix here is able. When we add a
suffix, we make a new word out of the base. A suffix often changes the base word from one-word class
(part of speech) to another. So, for example, the base word approach has now been made into an adjective
by adding able.
Another example is adding –ish to the noun child, which then makes childish, which is an adjective.
So, we can see from this simple activity that:

 If a learner knows what the prefix means, she’ll be on her way to understanding a part of an unfamiliar
word.
 If the learner knows what the suffix generally indicates, she’ll be on her way to identifying whether the
word is a verb, adjective, adverb or noun, if there isn’t any other evidence available.
 A little bit of guessing with the meaning of the base/stem may get her right to the meaning of an unfamiliar
word.
 Note that the process of adding prefixes and suffixes comes under the umbrella heading of affixation,
which means the linguistic process speakers use to form different words by adding morphemes.
You can find lists of common prefixes and suffixes on internet sites, etc.
Ensure your learners take care with a word that may appear to have a prefix, but it’s not; for example, the
prefix post, meaning after, is not the same post in postman.
Compounding
Many words have been formed by compounding. Compound words are typically formed by combining two
lexical items. These items can be two nouns, or a noun and a verb, or a gerund and a noun. (A gerund is
the –ing form of a verb used as a noun, e.g. Smoking is not permitted.)
The resulting compounding can be in the form of a single word, as in the following examples: bookcase;
lifeguard; baseball. We can also create one word out of two separate, sometimes hyphenated words, as in
the following examples: follow-up; white-collar; paper clip. Help your learners to understand word
formation. This will encourage them to take risks in forming words once they know the base word.

4.7. Word Relationships

Congratulations! You have passed this lesson.
The relationship between words can be an advantageous, practical way to present lexical items.
These relationships will help them to expand their language and make it more varied.

Synonyms
A synonym is a word having the same or nearly the same meaning as another word or other words in a
language. Synonyms can be any part of speech, but the words used as synonyms must belong to the same
part of speech. Here are a few examples:

 preposition: on and upon

 verb: buy and purchase
 adjective: big and large
 adverb: quickly and speedily

Antonyms
These are items that mean the opposite; rich is an antonym of poor; big is an antonym of small.

Hyponyms
These are items that serve as specific examples of a general concept. Dog, cat and donkey are hyponyms of
animal. Potatoes, carrots and onions are hyponyms of vegetable.

4.8. Phrasal Verbs, Idioms And

Collocations
Congratulations! You have passed this lesson.
 These items exist in all languages. We never think of them as we acquire our native language. However,
for all L2 learners, these present enormous challenges when learning English. There are few robust
learning strategies you can present to them so that they can learn these.
You need to explain these when they come up in the classroom and encourage them to rote-learn other
examples as much as possible.

1. Phrasal Verbs
We mentioned before that phrasal verbs are a VERY significant feature of the English language and are
very challenging for learners. Sentences such as I put it down to the weather, or I made it up with my sister,
are usually gobbledegook to beginner non-native-English speakers.
Phrasal verbs are composed of:

1. a verb, and
2. a preposition or adverb, or both, added to the verb.

The addition of the preposition or adverb often changes the meaning of the verb entirely, for example:
look up – consult a dictionary for the meaning of a word (look a word up in a dictionary) look for – seek,
search for (look for her contact lens) look forward to – await eagerly (look forward to meeting someone or
attending an event)
There are no definitive rules that can explain how phrasal verbs are formed correctly. Some linguists have
tried to set out rules, but their efforts have not been persuasive. Unfortunately for the learner of English,
there are thousands of phrasal verbs.
Teaching Phrasal verbs
Here is the method we use to teach phrasal verbs.
The key: Think of an everyday context and topic that applies to all of them.
Ask yourself: What do all my learners do to some degree?
Choose a relevant and meaningful topic to bring out a tranche of related phrasal verbs.
All your learners need to eat, be it at home or in a café/restaurant. They may either buy the food or make
the food or watch their parents or friends making food.
All your learners are likely to use a phone to different degrees.
All your learners need to shop.
Most of the communicative functions are the same, e.g. Do you have …?; I would like a thing that …; Can
you show me a selection …? All these will include relevant and appropriate phrasal verbs in everyday use.
All your learners need to travel from school to home, be it on foot, by bus, etc. Again, all these events will
include relevant and appropriate phrasal verbs in everyday use.

Example
Let’s choose ‘Making a Sandwich’ as the topic. All learners will likely have had some experience of this,
either making a sandwich themselves or watching their parents or siblings doing this in the kitchen.
You could use your teacher’s table as the kitchen top and use plastic vegetables for your demonstration.
Here are some of the phrasal verbs that you could plan to bring out:
 peel off (fruit or vegetable skin)
 fry up (breakfast or vegetables)
 slice off (meat from the bone)
 cut up (into slices)
 cut off (fat)
 chop up (into small pieces or cubes)
 boil away (the water boiling in the pan for a set time)
 boil over (the water boiling over because there’s too much heat)

You would explain these, get them to repeat the sound, write what’s necessary on the board and handle any
queries. The learners could role-play a simple scenario of making a sandwich explaining to each other
what they are doing and who should do what next. You could also reinforce these later by, say, a gap-fill
exercise or a short written piece on ‘How to Make the Perfect Sandwich’.
Then, perhaps, you could bring in some dictionary work which would add to the phrasal verbs which they
can use in this context.
And you could encourage them to use these phrasal verbs at home. You could ask their parents or
caregivers to encourage the learners to do the activity while explaining to the parents or caregivers what
they are doing.
This is how to do it, focussing on meaningful language they can frequently use in familiar everyday
contexts.

2. Idioms
These are a series of fixed lexical items that have their own figurative meaning which is different from
their literal component elements.
That is, an idiom is a phrase (a group of words), where the words joined together have a different meaning
from the dictionary definitions of the individual words. Idioms are tricky for EFL learners. For example:

 We’ll get that contract. That’s a given. I’m not sure about the other one.
 He knew he had done wrong, and the only choice left was for him to go back to them, cap in hand.
 There was absolute silence. You could cut it with a knife.

Introduce these as necessary but only one at a time on separate occasions. They must be introduced in
context. Take care to ensure that an idiom does not have an alternative rude or offensive connotation.

3. Collocations
This is an arrangement of two or more words or other elements, especially those that commonly co-
occur: rancid butter, bosom buddy, or dead serious. These combinations sound ‘right’ to native English
speakers, who use them frequently.
Other combinations/constructions seem unnatural and just sound ‘wrong’. For example:

 We say fast food but not quick food.

 We say quick shower but not fast shower.
 We say Let’s have a quick meal but not Let’s have a fast meal.

Why is this? Nobody knows!

 4.9. Language Functions
Congratulations! You have passed this lesson.
When discussing Lexis, we mentioned the need for you to find out the various situations that learners are
involved in, so that you then have a reliable indicator of what lexis you should then teach.
Once the key situations have been identified, the typical English language in these situations can be
identified and added to the content. Your focus will be on functions and exponents.

4.9.1. Examples Of Functions

We’ve mentioned these before, and we mention them again. They are so important.
A function is the communicative purpose we have for speaking, the reason why we say or write something,
e.g. agreeing, offering to help, requesting, apologising, complaining, inviting and asking permission, when
we are in a particular situation.
Functions are sometimes also called ‘situational language’ because the situation or context in which they
are used is critical.

4.9.2. Exponents
An exponent is the language we use to express the function. Sometimes the exponent is a set phrase, for
example, Sorry, I don’t quite follow that, or sometimes it is placed at the beginning of a sentence that
could have a variety of different endings – for example, Do you mind if I …?; Please can I …?; If I were
you, I would …; You should …
To choose the right exponent, we need to think about:

 the situation
 what the function is
 who the audience is
 the relationship of the speaker and receiver of the message

Remember: One function can be expressed through several different exponents, e.g.

 Coming for lunch?

 Shall we have lunch?
 What about lunch on Sunday?

The words that are used will depend on the context. Exponents express various levels of formality.
Examples: linking situation + function + exponents

1. Situation: Your learner Cristina has toothache.

 Function: She needs to ask permission to go home.
 Exponent: Please, Miss, may/can I go home? I have got toothache.
2. Situation: Your learner Chen sees an old lady having difficulty crossing a busy road.
 Function: He wants to find out if he can help her.
 Exponent: Excuse me, Madam, can/may I help you across the road?
3. Situation: Your learner Brett arrives at the ticket office in the bus station.
 Function: He needs to buy a ticket to Edinburgh.
 Exponent: Please may I have a ticket to Edinburgh?
 Let’ try another example from the Business English arena.

Example: Linking Situation + Function + Exponents

Situation: Here is a typical business situation. Cristina’s boss, Chen, has asked her to attend a conference
with the specific aim of chatting to attendees, telling them about his business and persuading them to think
about buying from his business.
Cristina is a non-native-English speaker and won’t know any of the attendees. In this socialising situation,
one of the things (functions) she’ll need to conquer is introducing herself to people she doesn’t know
(using the right language, i.e. the right exponents).
Situation: Socialising at an event
Function: Introducing herself to people she doesn’t know in a socialising situation
Exponents: The language she needs to learn to help her start the conversation:

 Excuse me, could you explain this to me? My English is not so good. (This may be a little white lie, but it’s
an excellent conversation starter. People are always willing to help, and this will lead to further discussion
about her English being good, where she comes from, etc.)
 Hello! (Hi!) My name’s Cristina. Is it OK if I join you (your group)?
 Excuse me. Do you mind if I join you?
 Are you here on your own or with a group?
 Do you know many people are here tonight?
 Is this your first time here?
 Have you travelled far?
 Sorry, do you have a light?
 Sorry, could you pass me the sugar?
 Are you giving a presentation?
 Are you enjoying the presentations?

4.9.3. Functions In CLT

Reflect on these key points:
The concept of communicative language stresses that teaching grammar alone will not prepare learners for
using the language independently.
This method of teaching proposes that learners need to understand the meaning and the communicative
function of a language to learn the language.
Communication goals can be conveyed in terms of situations/contexts, functions and exponents. You plan
the situation (e.g. buying a ticket at the station) within which learners will be able to use their language for
a purpose in the classroom.
These functions represent the basic units underlying a communicative system more realistically than the
categories of lexis and grammar, which may be taught detached from communicative contexts.
Communicative functions are a big part of CLT since they promote authentic communication. As
mentioned before, you won’t need to worry about what lexis you need to cover once they are ready for
learning communicative functions.
When teaching functions and exponents, you need to:

 make the context (situation) clear to learners

 establish the relationship between the speakers in the activity
 highlight the grammatical form
 ensure the meaning is understood
 provide learners with plenty of controlled oral practice

A textbook grounded in the Communicative Approach will guide you through the situation/context,
function to be addressed and the exponents, i.e. the words used.
You must understand the concept of language functions. You also need to recognise the importance that is
placed on the learner’s need to be familiar with a wide range of functions and their exponents to
communicate effectively. Additionally, a functional approach to teaching language helps you leverage real-
world, authentic contexts in which to present and to have learners practise other language skills and
systems, such as reading, writing, lexis and grammar.

4.10. Language Analysis

Congratulations! You have passed this lesson.

4.10.1. Form, Meaning And Use

Aim to balance form, meaning, and use. Learners must understand not only the mechanics of the language,
but also the how, why, when and where a particular structure, word, or phrase gets used.

1. Form
Form refers to the visible (what is seen)) and audible (what is heard) parts of lexis and functional
expressions. This includes the words in a phrase, the spelling, the phonemes, the syllable stress, the
prefixes or suffixes, the word order (syntax), the choice of noun or verb, etc. for a particular place in a
sentence, and punctuation.
It refers to the mechanics of the language, either in terms of grammar or lexis. With regards to grammar,
learners (and you) must understand the sentence structure of a specific grammar rule.
It answers the question: How is the lexis unit, functional expression, or grammar structure formed?

2. Meaning
There are two aspects of meaning:

1. the literal meaning (the usual or most basic sense) of the word(s) or phrase or functional expression or
grammar structure
2. the meaning in the context (situation) it’s being used?
For example:
 He’s wearing a red shirt. (red=colour)
 His face is red; he’s been lying on the beach for too long. (red=sunburnt)

Meaning is the comprehension or mental image that is created by the word(s) or phrase or functional
expression or grammar structure. Learners connect the structure with the meaning. For example, the future
tense signals events that will take place in the future.
Once you have presented the structure, you should talk about the meaning too.
It answers the question: What meaning does the lexis, functional expression or grammar structure have in
the (specific) context?
 3. Use
This is how the grammar or lexis gets used.
The word(s) or phrase or functional expression or grammar structure we choose to use are determined by
the situation (context) we are in and what we want to communicate to our listener(s). Use is
interconnected with meaning.
For example: As you know, Good morning! or Morning! is a typical greeting we use with family, friends,
our neighbours, our boss, etc. when we see/meet them before noon.
However, let’s shift the same greeting to the afternoon. If we say Good morning! or Morning! to a family
member, when he gets up in the afternoon (because he was out too late the night before), we are being
ironic or perhaps indicating a degree of disapproval. It’s unlikely we would ever say this to our boss when
she comes in late!
It answers the question: When or why is the lexis, functional expression or grammar structure used?
Remember! This does not mean you should stand in front of the class delivering one grammar point after
another in the hope that your learners will then be able to produce it. The form and meaning of a structure
need to be integrated into the lesson through topics, situations and functions for them to be learned
effectively and to be used.
But, the structure of a language item and its use are, of course, essential and will still need to be presented
to your class.

4.10.2. Analysing Language Items Before

And During Class
Hopefully, in this Section, you will see the value of the points we have included above on pronunciation,
lexis, functions and form, meaning and use.
We included all these areas not just to make you more informed. Together with other knowledge and tools
you will study in the grammar Sections, we intend to get you ready and confident for analysing language.
You don’t need to be an expert – all you need to have is the motivation to get to grips with all of it. A bit at
a time.
Why would you want to be able to analyse the language you are teaching?

1. Before A Lesson
Before introducing a new structure, you’ll want to do your analysis during your lesson planning stage. You
might consider some questions like these:

 What is the form?

 Is this a ‘rule’?
 Are there exceptions to the rule?
 Do I need to introduce new (grammar) terminology, i.e. metalanguage, language about
language, e.g. noun, determiner, etc. – or not?
 How can I take them from the past to the past perfect tense?
 Is the form static?
 Are there any irregularities in form?
 How can I best explain the meaning?
 How can it be used? How does the context affect it?

This kind of analysis will ensure you are fully prepared and have planned well to ensure the smooth
running of your lesson. The learners may still have some difficulty with the new item, but they’ll know
they are in safe hands with you.

2. During A Lesson
Being able to analyse language competently will help you to resolve quickly any language issues which
arise. Competence in this gives you a great feeling. Let’s imagine that any of the following come up out of
the blue during a lesson (they will!):

 She has many magasine.

 My father drives a car very big and fast.
 I needs some informations about the trip.
 My sister has got a long blond hair.
 Most of Canadians speak a few French.
 I go town this afternoon
 Horse is in field.
 I have an idea. It just came out of the black.

Some of these mistakes/errors are more serious than others. We’ll discuss the difference between
‘mistakes’ and ‘errors’ later in the course. For now, though, let’s agree that I needs some informations
about the trip needs to be resolved immediately.
There are two different issues, and you may choose only to tackle one of them at once. Most teachers
would agree that needs has to be addressed right away. In any case, you can’t cover two quite tricky
concepts at the same time. So, you can come back to informations later.
The point is this. How do you approach this if you don’t have the knowledge and the tools to do so?
You can’t just say: We say need, Huong. Will she think this is only for the word need or can she apply this
rule to other ‘’I’ situations with other verbs? Or might she think she shouldn’t ever say needs, so she may
then say he need.
By being able to express the reason, clearly, and succinctly, as to why she should say I need, both the
learner and you will be delighted. Your study in the analysis of language will have served you well.
What are the concepts and tools you need in your analytical toolbox? Well, you’ll need to have a solid
grasp of everything mentioned in this Module along with other concepts we have covered and will cover in
the grammar Module. Then you’ll be fine, and you’ll feel good.
You’ll hear some new and inexperienced teachers saying things like: I get by OK without much
language analysis or grammar knowledge. Oh really? What a lot of nonsense! We wonder then how
the learners will get by in their learning.
Well done! Another Module completed! What you have learned here will help you better understand
some critical English language essentials which will come up in your classroom.
And there’s lots more to come!
Time for a little break. Then, come back and have a go at Quiz 4.
It’s not too challenging. Good luck!
After that, we’ll move on to Module 5, where we will explore the world of grammar. We will be
covering a lot, so take your time and get it right the first time. You already speak and write the
English language, so it shouldn’t be too challenging. Much of grammar is simply common sense.
 5.1 Grammar
Congratulations! You have passed this lesson.
Remember: If you are unsure about any aspect of grammar, take a look at
the reliable recommendations sources we listed at the beginning of Module 4.
In the teaching grammar arena, it’s often said that there are two kinds of teachers:

 those who worry about teaching grammar, and

 those who don’t

It’s as plain and simple as that.

Those who worry about teaching grammar probably don’t have a full grasp of it. We’ve observed teachers
who have allowed themselves to get into this stressful situation.
Some often use delaying tactics such as: We’ll come back to that later, but they seldom do.
Or they stand by some unfounded principle that communication is king and grammar is not essential. Oh,
really?
Or they wing it, and learners get confused.
Even from the point of view that it makes for a happier life inside the classroom, knowing and
understanding grammar is an excellent skill.
More than that, though, is the satisfying feeling that we are helping learners on their language journey and
we’re doing as best as we can to ensure that they get to their destination.

5.1.1. What Do We Mean By The Term

‘Grammar’?
The term grammar generally refers to the rules and conventions by which words are ordered and
changed to form a sentence.
Grammar can be prescriptive or descriptive.

 Prescriptive grammar sets out rules which should be followed if you wish to write ‘correct’ English.
 Descriptive grammar describes how language is used in the real world.

We must explore prescriptive and descriptive approaches because you need to decide how you will
approach the teaching of grammar.
Prescriptive grammar sets out rules which should be followed if you wish to write ‘correct’ English.
Sometimes, these ‘rules’ are based on observation of how ‘educated’ speakers use the language. At other
times, they are based on what the speaker was taught at school, many moons ago.
For example: My teacher always said you should never start a sentence with And or But. Oh, really?
Prescriptive grammar rules are the ‘right’ rules, according to some ‘experts’. Prescriptive rules make a
judgement about how and why an utterance is correct or not.
Descriptive grammar aims to describe how language is actually used in the real world.
Descriptive ‘rules’ accept the patterns a speaker uses and attempts to account for them. Descriptive rules
allow for varieties in a language; a construction is not ignored because some prescriptive grammarian
doesn’t like it.
 Descriptive rules describe the way grammar is actually used. Descriptive grammar is a reaction to the way
people speak and is accepting of alternative, less nit-picking forms.
Descriptive rules also tend to change because language itself is always changing.
Have a look at these example sentences:

1. Let’s Start At The Very Beginning.

Prescriptive rules of grammar would tell us that this is wrong because the beginning is a specific start
point, and you can’t make it any more specific. However, descriptive rules say that this type of phrase is
common in spoken English. So, we’ll align with the descriptive side, and we’ll keep very in.

2. That’s Absolutely True.

Native speakers also say absolutely true. Again, prescriptive rules of grammar would tell us that this is
wrong because you can’t have anything stronger than true. Something cannot be more true. However,
again, descriptive rules say that this type of phrase is common in spoken English. So, again, we’ll align
with the descriptive side.

3. Whom Do You Wish To Speak To?

Proponents of descriptive rules would say this sentence is fine.
Proponents of prescriptive rules would say the sentence is incorrect; we should never end a sentence with a
preposition, they say. To satisfy the prescriptive group, we would need to change this to: To whom do you
wish to speak?
To us, this seems cumbersome and outdated, so we’re happy with the construction: Whom do you wish to
speak to? But you decide which is best.

4. You Must Not Start A Sentence With And Or But.

How often have we heard this? Thousands of times. Let’s have a look at this prescriptive rule a bit further
by exploring these sentences:
Sentence 1: It’s a pretty smart long-term business plan but do you think those amendments go far
enough?
Sentence 2: It’s a pretty smart long-term business plan. But do you think those amendments go far
enough?
Sentence 1 fits with the prescriptive rule. Sentence 2 does not and fits with the descriptive approach.
There’s no doubt in our minds that Sentence 2 creates a more powerful effect. The introductory
conjunction But gives more weight to the thought expressed in the sentence and is more emphatic.
So, again, we’ll align with the descriptive side.
However, don’t get the impression that prescriptive rules are not important:

1. When we adhere to most prescriptive rules, we are adhering to a standard and acceptable form of a
language that is accepted and recognised by most speakers of that language. By doing so, this allows us to
be understood by the highest possible number of individuals.
2. Most prescriptive rules are critical for those who are learning a foreign language. It just wouldn’t work if
there were no guidelines for English grammar.
3. Most prescriptive rules allow a speaker of a non-standard dialect to learn and accept the rules of the
standard dialect and use them in appropriate social circumstances – if they wish to.

Unfortunately, non-standard dialects are still frowned upon and not accepted by many groups and can
inhibit a person’s progress in society, and business.
Here are some standard prescriptive rules relating to English. If these didn’t exist, there would be lots of
confusion:

 The subject in a sentence must always agree with the verb. We mustn’t say: He go to school.
 In English, capitalise the first letter of a sentence: My computer isn’t working. I need to get someone to fix
it.
 Use subject pronouns after the verb be (It was I who phoned you NOT It was me who phoned.)
 Always use the definite article the before names of rivers and geographical areas but not before the names
of lakes or continents (the Amazon, the Far East; Lake Superior, Europe).

Being able to distinguish between the two approaches is crucial since you will need to ensure that your
learners are familiar with critical prescriptive grammar rules, while also alerting them to alternative or
more informal descriptive uses.
Both types of grammar have their supporters and their detractors, which probably suggests that both
approaches have their strengths and weaknesses.
So, you need to decide how you will approach the teaching of grammar.

5.1.2. Key Reasons For Teaching

Grammar
1. Metalanguage
Grammar is essential because it is the language that makes it possible for us to talk about language
(called metalanguage); for example, noun, verb, tense, subject.
It enables us to talk about how sentences are built, and about the types of words and word groups that
make up sentences. This is ‘knowing’ about grammar. People always seem to associate grammar with
errors and correctness. But knowing about grammar also helps us understand what makes sentences and
paragraphs clear and engaging and precise.
If your learners understand grammar and put it into practice, there are great possibilities that they can
construct language that others will understand. The more they know and understand, the better they will
communicate and make themselves understood.

2. Comprehensible Communication
When we know how to build certain structures and know-how and when to use these structures, it enables
us to make understandable communication. Without these structures, there may be little comprehension.

3. Acceptability
However, there is often a need for more than just comprehensible (understandable) communication.
 We alluded to this a few moments ago when we said that non-standard dialects are still frowned upon and
not accepted by many groups and can inhibit a person’s progress in society, and business.
Any divergence from the usual or accepted standards in a society may hinder integration and even produce
a form of prejudice.
So, your learners need to be inspired and motivated to strive for more than just comprehensible
communication, particularly where potential employers and examiners require grammatical competence.
Grammatical competence is the goal.
However, remember this! All of the above will depend on the learners’ situations and aims. You will
need to decide on what elements of grammar are necessary to meet these situations and aims.
And remember this! Your role is to teach communicative English and not just teach grammar. There’s
just no point in going on and on about modal structures per se if learners can’t go into a café and say: Can
I have a cappuccino, please?

5.1.3. Myths About Teaching Grammar

1. Grammar Is Boring.
 Not if you are creative.
 Not if you avoid repetition of models delivered repetitively and boringly.

2. I Don’t Know Enough To Teach Grammar.

 You’ll know more than they think.
 Feelings are often based on past experiences of learning grammar traditionally.
 What better way is there to learn it than by teaching it?
 The more creative and enthusiastic you become, the more your grammar lessons will become stimulating
and enjoyable.

3. I Can Wing It
If we try to get by winging it, we’re doing a disservice to our learners. In the end, will they come out
saying I’m not knowing that because the teacher didn’t put in the effort? Let’s hope any ‘Winging-It’
teachers don’t continue that habit of winging it when they later become taxi drivers or airline pilots. We
wouldn’t want to travel with them at the wheel.
 5.2 English Language Grammar
Congratulations! You have passed this lesson.

5.2.1. Word Classes (9 Parts Of Speech)

In grammar, all the words that we use in everyday communication can be classified into specific word
groups. The classification is based on the way the word is used grammatically. We call these groups word
classes or parts of speech. We’ll use the term word class as the term parts of speech is a bit dated.
So, for example, lion, which is a noun (a naming word), will be classified under the noun class. It all seems
nice and easy. However, some words can belong to more than one class:

 I am looking forward to Grisham’s next book. (noun, a naming word for people, places and things)
 Thank goodness! It’s time to book our holiday. (verb, a doing word)

We use a combination of three criteria for determining what class a word belongs to:

1. The meaning of the word

2. The form of the word – its shape and structure
3. The position of the word in a sentence. This is also called the word’s environment.

There are nine word classes in English:

 Verbs
 Nouns
 Adjectives
 Adverbs
 Interjections**
 Conjunctions
 Determiners
 Prepositions
 Pronouns

** Interjections are a small group of ‘words’. They are used to express emotions such as pleasure,
surprise, shock and disgust. Many interjections are sounds, rather than actual words, and come at the
beginning or at the end of what we say. Linguists continually debate whether this is a class or not. Just in
case you teach in a school where nine classes is the rule, we have included interjections as a class.
We shall explore every one of these classes. It is critical that:

 you can identify each class

 you know what each class means
 you know how to use these individual words

Word classes can be classified into two groups:

1. The Major/Lexical (Or Open) Word Class

The five major word classes are:

 Verbs
 Nouns
 Adjectives
 Adverbs
 Interjections

They are termed major or lexical because they carry most of the content or meaning of a sentence.
They are also called open because new words can still be added to these classes.
For example, recent new nouns added to Merriam-Webster’s dictionary include:

 crowdfunding: obtaining funding (as for a new enterprise) by asking for contributions from a large number
of people, especially from the online community
 freegan: an activist who scavenges for free food (as in waste receptacles at stores and restaurants) as a
means of reducing consumption of resources
 catfish: a person who sets up a false social networking profile for deceptive purposes

2. The Minor Or Grammatical (Or Closed) Word

Class
The four minor word classes are:

 Conjunctions
 Determiners
 Prepositions
 Pronouns

They are termed minor or grammatical because they tend to perform grammatical functions such as
relating expressions to each other: for example, of relates the hill to brow in brow of the hill.
These are also called closed classes as no new words will be added to these groups in the future.
They are sometimes referred to as structure words because their function is to contribute to the structure of
phrases, clauses and sentences, rather than to add to the meaning content. Note that:

 A phrase is a short, single piece of information. It can be a word, or a small group of words, that forms a
meaningful unit within a sentence.
 A phrase does not consist of a subject and a verb.
 A clause is a group of words that typically has its own subject and verb.

Here are the word classes, with short explanations to whet your appetite. Take your time as you explore
these, they’re not difficult to grasp.

1. Verb
This is a word or phrase that describes an action, condition or experience.

 They are often called ‘doing’ words.

 Verbs are categorised as doing verbs (e.g., read; study) or being or linking verbs, which also encompass
feeling (e.g., be; feel).
 Verbs are conjugated. To conjugate is to list the different forms of a verb that show number, person, tense,
etc. (e.g., I eat; He eats)
 They can be transitive, i.e. taking a direct object (He throws the ball). Note that a direct object is the
person or thing that receives the action of a verb.
 Or they can be intransitive, where there is never an object (I live in Shanghai.)
 Depending on the context, some verbs can be both.

2. Noun
A noun is a word that refers to a person, place, thing, occurrence, quality or substance. It’s often called
a naming word.
Nouns function as:

 a subject (The baby is crying)

 an object (Juan threw the ball)
 a complement of a verb (Manuel is a fireman)

Remember! A compliment is simply a word or group of words (a phrase) added to a sentence to make it
complete. Complements usually tell us more about the subject, e.g. what it is, how it feels, or what it is
like. Here is a complement consisting of a noun phrase:
He became a better worker.
Nouns also come after prepositions in a prepositional phrase (It is on the table.).
Nouns can further be categorised as:

 common: city; man

 proper: Beijing; Santiago Bernabéu Stadium. Proper nouns name a specific person, place, event, or thing.
Proper nouns always begin with a capital letter.
 countable: cat; city. Countable nouns have a singular and a plural form (cats; cities). Countable nouns
refer to things that can be counted.
 uncountable: mud, snow, butter. These do not regularly have a plural form and are called uncountable.
Abstract nouns are normally uncountable, e.g. happiness, dread, darkness, information, furniture.

3. Adjective
Adjectives are words that refer to qualities of people, things or ideas or which group them into classes.
They are often called ‘describing’ words.
Key points:
• Most adjectives can be linked with a noun and usually come immediately before the noun,
e.g. a red car, a fast car. These adjectives are said to modify the noun. Remember: A modifier is any
word or group of words that changes or adds to the meaning of another word.

 Most adjectives can follow verbs like to be, to seem, to appear, e.g. She seemed happy. In sentences like
this, the adjective forms the complement of the sentence and completes the meaning of the sentence
subject.
 Many adjectives are gradable. They can be graded by adding a modifier before or after them,
e.g. a very fast car. Others are non-gradable, i.e. you cannot add a modifier, e.g. They split up after 20
years. They are very divorced (incorrect).
 Many adjectives have a comparative and superlative form, e.g. big, bigger, biggest; unusual, more
unusual, most unusual
 When two nouns are placed together, the first one functions as an adjective, as
in hair products or learner groups.
 4. Adverb
This is a word that describes or gives more information about a verb, adjective or phrase.
Adverbs have several elements. They are often used as adverbials, providing information about, for
example, time, manner and place:

 Time: soon, already, still

 Manner: easily, fast, slowly
 Place: here, away, somewhere

They can also be used as modifiers. They can modify verbs:

He speaks fast.
They can modify adjectives and thus form adjective phrases:

 You are terribly wrong.

 That was very easy.

They can modify other adverbs to make adverb phrases:

He speaks quite fast.
Adverbs can also function as transition phrases (Consequently, he had to move to Paris.)
We all learned that adverbs end in –ly, but also remember those other endings such as -wise, as
in clockwise. Also, all words that end in -ly are not adverbs. Take the words lovely and weekly: these are
adjectives since the root word form, love and week, are nouns; adding -ly makes them adjectives.

5. Interjection
We use interjections to express spontaneous emotions or reactions such as pleasure, surprise, shock and
disgust.
An interjection is an utterance on its own, and it may be just a sound rather than a word.
This class includes such things as exclamations (great!, awesome!, ouch!, wow!), greetings (hi!, hey!
bye!), responses (okay, oh!, m-hm, huh?), and hesitation fillers (uh, er, um).

6. Conjunction
This is a word such as and, but, or, while, and although that connects words, phrases and clauses in a
sentence.
Conjunctions show a connection between words. The most used conjunctions are and, but, and or:

 Chen and Chung

 slowly but surely
 fast or slow

But they can also connect longer units:

 Chen plays football, and Chung plays the guitar.

 I play the guitar, but I don’t play well.
 We can go now, or we can wait till later.

Conjunctions fall into two groups:

Coordinating Conjunctions
These link items that have equal status/importance grammatically:

 Uncomfortable but happy

 Apple pie or jelly
 Their parents arrived, and they called room service.
 I thought it would snow, but it didn’t.

The commonest coordinating conjunctions are and, or, but

Subordinating Conjunctions
If the two items being linked do not have equal status/importance grammatically, then a subordinating
conjunction is used. Most commonly, this happens in complex sentences when a main clause is connected
to a subordinate clause:
Complex sentence: Businesses fail because they can’t pay their bills.

 Businesses fail (main clause)

 because (subordinating conjunction)
 they can’t pay their bills. (subordinate clause)

Another example: I passed the test although I didn’t study.

Other subordinating conjunctions include before, since, till, unless, whereas, whether.
Note that others consist of two or more words, e.g. as if, as soon as, as long as, in that, in order that, so
that, such that:
The burglars ran away as soon as they heard the alarm.

7. Determiner
In grammar, this is a word that is used before a noun to show which particular example of the noun we are
referring to.
These are words that ‘determine’ the nouns that follow them.
For example, articles are determiners (The cat is drinking milk). In this case, ‘the’ as a determiner tells us
that the cat is specific, defined.
Possessive adjectives (not to be confused with possessive pronouns), such as my, your, his are also
determiners.
Essentially, anything that serves to qualify and quantify a noun is a determiner.
Here are some common determiners:
a an the
this that these those
 some any no
my our your his her its their many few little much other last next one two three, etc.
first second third, etc.
all both
half third, etc.

8. Preposition
This is a word that is used before a noun, a noun phrase, or a pronoun, connecting it to another word.
These are typically paired with nouns to form prepositional phrases. For example: The letter is on
the table. Prepositions give learners lots of problems, particularly when they are linked to more than one
preposition, as in out of and in spite of or in the face of.
English has many prepositions, much more than many other languages. Most English prepositions have
multiple meanings. Also, many are monosyllabic and are thus difficult to pick up in rapid speech.
Also, non-native speakers cannot depend on prepositional knowledge from their first language. For
example, the Spanish por could be expressed in English by the prepositions by, for, during and through.
You can see the potential for error when learners are attempting to use English prepositions.

9. Pronoun
This is a word that is used instead of a noun or noun phrase (a group of words built upon a single noun).
Pronouns replace nouns or noun phrases and, similar to nouns, function as subject, object, object of a
preposition, or complement. Pronouns have different categories:

 subject pronouns (I, he, we)

 object pronouns (me, him, us)
 demonstrative pronouns (this, that, these, those)
 possessive pronouns (his, hers, ours, theirs)
 reflexive pronouns: (myself, yourself, himself, ourselves)

5.2.2. Verb Tenses

There are 12 tenses in English. They are all in the chart below. They’re not difficult. Examples of
constructions are given in each box. Study these carefully and get to grips with the name of the tense and
its construction.
So, what is tense?
Tense refers to the location of an event or action in time. There is an inflection of the verb in the present
and past tenses. Remember from before: Inflection is the name given to an additional letter or additional
letters added to nouns, verbs and adjectives in their different grammatical forms, e.g. cat, cats; eat, eats;
big, bigger
Cristina cycles to the gym. (Present tense)
Cristina cycled to the gym. (Past tense)
Reference to other times – the future, for instance – can be made in a number of ways, by using the modal
auxiliary will, or the semi-auxiliary be going to.
Remember from before: For us to use tenses and some passive forms, we need to use auxiliary verbs.
Auxiliary verbs are sometimes called helping verbs.
The verbs be, do and have are the most common auxiliary verbs.
For example, the auxiliary do is needed to ask questions in the present and past simple tenses.
The verb be is necessary for the present and past continuous, and all the passive forms.
The auxiliary have is used in the present and past perfect tenses. Some tenses need more than one auxiliary
(e.g. the present perfect continuous),
Here is the tense chart. Study it well and keep it by your side.
Time to reflect
Go to a comfortable, quiet place to study the tense chart. It’s not difficult; it just takes a bit of time if
you’re a little bit rusty. Take some time out to make a drink or sandwich and reflect on this.

Twelve tenses in modern English

A. There are three simple tenses:
1. Present Simple: showing whether an action or condition occurs
2. Past Simple: showing whether an action or condition occurred
3. Future Simple: showing whether an action or condition will occur
B. There are three perfect tenses
4. Present Perfect: showing whether an action or condition has occurred relative to the present
5. Past Perfect: showing whether an action or condition had occurred relative to the past
6. Future Perfect: showing whether an action or condition will have occurred relative to the future.
C. There are six continuous (also called progressive) tenses:
7. Present Continuous: showing whether a continuous action or condition is occurring in the present
8. Past Continuous: showing whether a continuous action or condition was occurring in the past
9. Future Continuous: showing whether a continuous action or condition will be occurring in the future
10. Present Perfect Continuous: showing whether a continuous action or condition has been
occurring relative to the present
11. Past Perfect Continuous: showing whether a continuous action or condition had been occurring relative
to the past
12. Future Perfect Continuous: showing whether a continuous action or condition will have been
occurring relative to the future.
Tense 1: Present Simple Tense (also called the Simple Present Tense)
With regular verbs, this tense is formed by using the verb stem, adding -s in the third person singular (he,
she, it).

Subject Verb Stem

I like

you
like
(singular)

he/she/it likes

we like

you (plural) like

they like

Positive: You like Real Madrid.

Question: Do you like Real Madrid?
Negative: You do not like Real Madrid.
Tense 2: Past Simple Tense (sometimes called the Simple Past Tense)
This tense refers to actions in the past. With regular verbs, it is formed by adding –ed to the verb stem (or -
d if the verb stem already ends in e):

Subject Verb Stem (adding –ed) Verb stem (adding -d)

 I requested liked

you
requested liked
(singular)

he/she/it requested liked

we requested liked

you (plural) requested liked

they requested liked

Positive: You played tennis.

Question: Did you play tennis?
Negative: You didn’t play tennis.
Note: In irregular verbs, there is a variety of past tense forms: become → became, blow → blew, catch →
caught. These have to be learned.
Note: The past simple can also be formed with the verb be. The past of be, i.e. was and were, is used:
Positive: I was annoyed because the show was cancelled at the last moment.
Question: Were you annoyed because the show was cancelled at the last moment?
Negative: I wasn’t annoyed because the show was cancelled at the last moment.
Tense 3: Future Simple Tense (also called the Simple Future Tense) Form 1
For this tense, we use will or shall, followed by the verb stem:

Subject will, shall Verb Stem

 ‘ll, the
I close
will, and shall door.

you the
‘ll, will close
(singular) door.

the
he/she/it ‘ll, will close
door.

‘ll, the
we close
will, and shall door.

the
you (plural) ‘ll, will close
door.

the
they ‘ll, will close
door.

Note that we often use contractions when using will and shall, e.g. I’ll and We shan’t. Shall is less
common in American English than British English.
With will:
Positive: You will see her on Sunday

Question: Will you see her on Sunday?

Negative: You won’t see her on Sunday.
With shall:
Positive: We shall see her on Sunday.
Question: Shall we see her on Sunday?
Negative: We shan’t see her on Sunday.
Tense 3 continued: Future Simple Tense (also called the Simple Future Tense) Form 2
Often called the going to future, this form is a combination of be + going to + verb stem.

going
Subject am/is/are Verb Stem
to

I am; ‘m going to object.

you
are; ‘re going to object.
(singular)

he/she/it is; ‘s going to object.

we are; ‘re going to object.

you (plural) are; ‘re going to object.

they are; ‘re going to object.

Note that we often use contractions when using the verb be, e.g. I’m, you’re.
Positive: You are going to see the show tonight.
Question: Are you going to see the show tonight?
Negative: You are not going to see the show tonight.
Tense 4: Present Perfect Tense
The present perfect tense is formed by joining the present tense of the verb have with the past participle of
the main verb.
 Present Tense of the Past Participle of the Main
Subject
verb have Verb

the
I have washed
dishes.

you the
have washed
(singular) dishes.

the
he/she/it has washed
dishes.

the
we have washed
dishes.

the
you (plural) have washed
dishes.

the
they have washed
dishes.

Note that we often use contractions when using have, e.g. I’ve and we’ve.
Positive: You have visited the Great Wall before.
Question: Have you visited the Great Wall before?
Negative: You have not visited the Great Wall before.
Tense 5: Past Perfect Tense
This tense is formed by had, which is followed by the past participle:

Subject had Past Participle of the Main Verb

ha again
I failed
d !

you ha again
failed
(singular) d !

ha again
he/she/it failed
d !

ha again
we failed
d !

ha again
you (plural) failed
d !

ha again
they failed
d !

Note that we often use contractions when using had, e.g. I hadn’t.
Positive: You had studied Mandarin before you went to China.
Question: Had you studied Mandarin before you went to China?
Negative: You hadn’t studied Mandarin before you went to China.
Tense 6: Future Perfect Tense
This is a tense formed by will have followed by the past participle.

Subject will have Past Participle of the Main Verb

will my work by 7
I finished
have pm.

you(singular will my work by 7

finished
) have pm.

will my work by 7
he/she/it finished
have pm.

my work by 7
we will have finished
pm.

will my work by 7
you (plural) finished
have pm.

will my work by 7
they finished
have pm.

Positive: Dad will have cooked dinner by the time we get back.
Question: Will Dad have cooked dinner by the time we get back?
Negative: Dad won’t have cooked dinner by the time we get back.
Sometimes, the going to format is used (am/is/are + going to have + past participle]:
Positive: Dad is going to have cooked dinner by the time we get back.
Question: Is Dad going to have cooked dinner by the time we get back?
Negative: Dad is not going to have cooked dinner by the time we get back.
Either form can usually be used.
Tense 7: Present Continuous Tense (also called the Present Progressive Tense)
This tense is formed by using the present tense of the verb be and the present participle of the main verb.

am/is/
Subject Present Participle of the Main Verb
are

Coke
I am drinking
.

you Coke
are drinking
(singular) .

Coke
he/she/it is drinking
.

Coke
we are drinking
.

Coke
you (plural) are drinking
.

they are drinking Coke

 .

Positive: You are watching TV.

Question: Are you watching TV?
Negative: You are not watching TV.
Tense 8: Past Continuous Tense (also called the Past Progressive Tense)
This tense is formed by the words was or were, which are followed by the present participle of the main
verb.

Subject was/were Present Participle of the Main Verb

Coke
I was drinking
.

you Coke
were drinking
(singular) .

Coke
he/she/it was drinking
.

Coke
we were drinking
.

Coke
you (plural) were drinking
.
 Coke
they were drinking
.

Positive: You were sleeping when she phoned.

Question: Were you sleeping when she phoned?
Negative: You were not sleeping when she phoned.
Tense 9: Future Continuous Tense (also called the Future Progressive Tense) Form 1
There are two forms.
Form 1: This tense is formed by will be followed by the present participle.

will
Subject Present Participle of the Main Verb
be

will late
I dining
be .

you will late

dining
(singular) be .

will late
he/she/it dining
be .

will late
we dining
be .

you (plural) will dining late

 be .

will late
they dining
be .

Positive: You’ll be cooking dinner when they arrive.

Question: Will you be cooking dinner when they arrive?
Negative: You won’t be cooking dinner when they arrive.
Tense 9 continued: Future Continuous Tense (also called the Future Progressive Tense) Form 2
Form 2: This form is made up of: am/is/are + going to be + present participle

am/is/
Subject going to be Present Participle
are

going to to
I am jogging
be work.

you going to to
are jogging
(singular) be work.

going to to
he/she/it is jogging
be work.

going to to
we are jogging
be work.
 going to to
you (plural) are jogging
be work.

going to to
they are jogging
be work.

Positive: You are going to be sleeping when she gets home.

Question: Are you going to be sleeping when she gets home?
Negative: You are not going to be sleeping when she gets home.
Remember this: It is possible to use either will be or be going to in order to create the Future Continuous
tense. There’s not much difference.
Tense 10: Present Perfect Continuous Tense (also called the Present Perfect Progressive Tense)
This tense is formed by joining the present perfect of the verb be and the present participle of the main
verb.

has/have Present Participle of the Main

Subject
been Verb

customers for nine

I have been serving
hours.

you customers for nine

have been serving
(singular) hours.

customers for nine

he/she/it has been serving
hours.
 customers for nine
we have been serving
hours.

customers for nine

you (plural) have been serving
hours.

customers for nine

they have been serving
hours.

Positive: You have been standing here for two hours.

Question: Have you been standing here for two hours?
Negative: You have not been standing here for two hours.
Tense 11: Past Perfect Continuous Tense (also called the Past Perfect Progressive Tense)
This tense is formed by using had been followed by the present participle.

Present Participle of the Main

Subject had been
Verb

had for four

I waiting
been hours.

you had for four

waiting
(singular) been hours.

he/she/it had waiting for four

 been hours.

had for four

we waiting
been hours.

had for four

you (plural) waiting
been hours.

had for four

they waiting
been hours.

Positive: You had been sitting there for more than two hours when she finally arrived.
Question: Had you been sitting there for more than two hours when she finally arrived?
Negative: You had not been sitting there for more than two hours when she finally arrived.
Tense 12: Future Perfect Continuous Tense
Usual Form: This tense is formed by using will have been followed by the present participle.

will have
Subject Present Participle of the Main Verb
been

will have for three

I studying
been hours.

you will have for three

studying
(singular) been hours.
 will have for three
he/she/it studying
been hours.

will have
we studying for three hours
been

will have for three

you (plural) studying
been hours.

will have for three

they studying
been hours.

Positive: You will have been waiting here for two hours.
Question: Will you have been waiting here for two hours?
Negative: You will not have been waiting here for two hours.
Another Form: am/is/are + going to have been + present participle. This is not used as much as the usual
form above.
Positive: You are going to have been driving for more than six hours by the time you get back.
Question: Are you going to have been driving for more than six hours by the time you get back?
Negative: You are not going to have been driving for more than six hours by the time you get back.
NOTE: It’s possible to use either form with little or no difference in meaning. Remember to print off the
tense chart and keep it close by you. Unless, of course, you know it all off-by-heart!

5.3 Conditional Forms

Congratulations! You have passed this lesson.
Let’s first set out a short definition for the word clause: A clause is a part of a sentence that typically has
its own subject and verb.
A definition of a conditional clause would be something like this: This is a clause which describes
something possible or probable, depending on something else happening.
Such clauses usually begin with if or unless. In the classroom, we often call these if-clauses. They all focus
on what may or may not happen and what might have happened but didn’t happen. They express different
degrees of reality.
 There are set constructions for these, which learners need to grasp.
Examples
Note that we can put the if or unless clause before or behind the main clause.

 If it snows, we won’t get the car out.

 If we go now, we’ll arrive on time.
 I’m not going shopping unless Jane comes too.
 We’ll never succeed if we don’t study hard.

Note: If we put the condition before the main clause, we use a comma.
Here’s what you need to know:

1. Conditions Can Be Categorised As

Real And Unreal
Real Conditions
With real conditions, we do not know if the condition is, will be or was true. Here are some examples:

 If it rains tomorrow, I’ll stay in.

 If Lisa is coming to the party, you can tell her the news.
 I’m sure she’ll come if Chen has remembered to tell her.

Note: We cannot use will for future time in a condition:

 We say If it snows tomorrow … Not If it will snow tomorrow …(incorrect).

 We say If she’s coming Not If she will be coming (incorrect).

We sometimes use unless at the beginning of a condition:

 Unless it rains tomorrow, I’ll for a walk.

 Unless she’s in Scotland, I’m sure she’ll come.

Unreal Conditions
With unreal conditions for present and future time, the condition is not true, or probably will not be true.
We use a simple or continuous verb formation.

 If Jane were coming to the party, you could tell her the news. (But Jane isn’t coming; you can’t tell her.)
 I would have more cash in my pocket if I didn’t gamble. (But I do gamble; I have less cash.)
 I’d phone Jane if only I could find her number. (But I can’t find her number; I can’t phone her.)
 If I found a pile of money in the road, I’d hand it to the police. (I don’t expect to find any; I’m imagining.)

For past time (the condition was not true), we use a perfect verb formation in the condition:

 If Jane had come, you could have told her the news. (But Jane didn’t come; you couldn’t tell her.)
 I’d have phoned Jane if only I could have found her number. (But I couldn’t find her number; I didn’t
phone.)
 If I had found that pile of money, I would have given it to the police. (I didn’t find it; I’m just imagining.)
 I’m sure Jane would’ve come if Michael hadn’t forgotten to tell her. (But Michael forgot; she didn’t
come.)

2. There Are Different Types Of

Conditional Constructions
There are four types:

1. The Zero Conditional

2. The First Conditional
3. The Second Conditional
4. The Third Conditional

1. The Zero Conditional (Certainty) Form

if + present simple tense (for the condition) and verb stem in the present simple tense in the main clause
(for the result).

Examples
 If people don’t eat (condition), they get hungry (result).
 If you heat ice (condition), it melts (result).
 Babies cry (result) if they are hungry (condition).

Remember this: It doesn’t matter if the if clause is placed at the start of the sentence or in the middle of
the sentence.
Note that it’s possible to replace if with when in a zero conditional.

Use
We use this conditional construction when the result is always true for this type of condition.
The result is certain. It’s a fact.
There is no thought given to the future or past.

2. First Conditional (A Real Possibility) Form

if + present simple (for the condition) and will + verb stem in the main clause (for the result) Examples

 If I see Fang tomorrow, I’ll tell her about the party.

 If it rains, I won’t go shopping.
 If I study hard, I’ll pass my exams.
 I’ll walk to work if the bus is late.
 Will you walk to work if the bus is late?
 Will you go shopping if it rains?

Use
There is a good possibility that the condition will happen at a future time. I may not see Fang
tomorrow, but I might. There is a good possibility that the condition will happen.

3. Second Conditional (Unreal Possibility) Form

if + past simple (for the condition) and would + verb stem in the main clause (for the result)

 If I married Taylor Swift, I’d be the happiest person on earth.

 If I won the bet, I would quit my job.
 I would be happy if I married Lan.
 Would Lan be happy if she married you?
 Would you quit your job if you won the lottery?

Use
We are talking about a specific condition in the future (although we use the past tense in the condition) but
there is not a real possibility that this condition will ever happen. It’s all a bit of a dream, an unreal
possibility that this condition will ever happen.
Note that we sometimes use the second conditional, with the same structure, to talk about certain situations
in the present. These are when the condition is pretty impossible and far from a true situation, and
therefore the result won’t come to fruition.

Examples
 If I knew where he was, I’d contact him. (but you have no idea where he is, and so you cannot contact him
at all)
 If I were you, I wouldn’t go there. (but I’m not you and never will be)

4. Third Conditional (No Possibility) Form

if + past perfect (for the condition) and would + have + past participle in the main clause (for the result)

Examples
 If I had seen Chen, I would have asked him. (but I didn’t see him at all, so I wasn’t able to talk to him)
 If he had not passed, he wouldn’t have entered university. (but he did pass)
 If we had grabbed a taxi, we wouldn’t have missed the train. (but we didn’t grab a taxi, and therefore we
did miss the train)
 If it had snowed yesterday, I would have stayed at home. (but it didn’t snow yesterday, and so I went out)
Use
Here the focus is on the past. We are speaking about a condition in the past that didn’t happen. We use it to
describe a situation or event that didn’t happen, and we imagine the result of the situation.
There is no possibility for this condition, and therefore no possibility of the result happening. Not
then and not now.

3. Teaching Conditional Forms

Conditional forms are tricky for learners. Usually, the key problem lies with an inexperienced teacher who
attempts to take the learners too far too quickly. Learners’ ages and levels will be the critical factors in
deciding whether they are ready for a particular conditional construction.
Then you can wait your time, see how well the learning is embedded in their memory banks and then
decide to try another type of construction.
As we have said before, take it softly, softly.
Here’s what to do:

1. Awareness In Context
When they are ready, start by raising their awareness of conditionals. Get them to notice the use of
conditionals in written pieces/activities you are using in class. Make up your own pieces containing the
odd conditional, for whichever conditional form you plan to teach.
Point attention to the construction and get them to have a go at the meaning. They can then try and mirror
the construction with other situations. Don’t get too hung up about tenses at this time.

2. Start At The Beginning

Some teachers start with the first conditional, leaving the zero conditional till last. We don’t know why.
We have always started with the zero conditional as it’s good fun getting them to think about certainties in
life: If you heat ice, it melts.
Once they’ve come up with lots of suggestions, including some you have written on the board, see if they
can work out the structure and tenses for a particular conditional structure. Then it’s time to practise them.
3. Practice
You can use lots of activities to embed the learning of conditionals. Here are some of them:
Matching exercises: matching the condition with the result and matching the result with the condition.
Cloze activities: where they try to insert a selection of if-clauses into a piece which has six or seven blanks
in it.
Partnering activity: one learner states the condition, and the other completes it with some sensible result.
Then they reverse roles.
Learner surveys: Learners can survey each other about what they will and would like to do in the future,
using the appropriate conditional forms.
Wish lists: emphasising the unreal conditionals, learners can interview each other and make up wish lists
for their partners.
 Advice columns: Learners can write letters of advice to each other or famous figures, such as the President
or Prime Minister, using the conditional. Probability Discussions: Guessing the probability of certain
events, using the conditional, e.g. If Manchester United are on form, they’ll win the match.

5.4 Main Parts of a Sentence

Congratulations! You have passed this lesson.
In this Section, we will cover the main parts of a sentence – morpheme, word, phrase, clause, subject and
predicate. This will ensure you can discuss sentences and the critical elements of sentences in your class
without having any great hang-ups or difficulties with meaning.
You’ll remember that we have mentioned the meanings of phrase and clause before. However, they are
vital parts of a sentence, and so we’ll explore them further.
If you were to look for a dictionary definition of a sentence, it could be something like this:
A sentence is a group of words that is complete in itself. It typically contains a subject and predicate,
conveying a statement, question, exclamation or command. It consists of a main clause and sometimes one
or more subordinate clauses.
A sentence is made up of a range of words to complete a purpose. There are several purposes: one might
be to make a statement, or another might be to ask a question.
Here’s what you need to know:
1. Sentence
A sentence is a set of words standing on their own as a unit of sense. Its conclusion is marked by a full stop
or equivalent (question mark; exclamation mark).
In English, of course, sentences begin with a capital letter and include a verb. There is no minimum
number of words a sentence must contain to be a sentence. The only prerequisite is a main subject and a
main verb.
For example, I exist is as much of a sentence as is The early bird catches the worm.

2. Morpheme
A good definition of a morpheme is that it is the smallest unit of language that can convey meaning. You
cannot break a morpheme down into anything smaller that has meaning. Many simple words are
morphemes, e.g. boy, hut, talk.
Note that some words may consist of two or more morphemes:

 child + ren
 talk + s
 blind + ness

ren, s and ness all provide some meaning, even though none of them is a word in its own right. If we try to
break them down any further, we end up with graphemes or phonemes:
r+e+n
A grapheme is a term from linguistics, meaning the smallest unit in writing that can change meaning. This
is a letter or group of letters representing a single phoneme, e.g.
b ng ea
A phoneme is a distinctive speech sound. We express ourselves using words. In writing, each word is
made up of letters, and in speech, a word is made up of a series of phonemes. There are 44 phonemes in
standard modern English, fairly evenly divided between vowels and consonants. The phonemes in a word
do not correspond to the letters with which we write it.
 For example, the word singing contains 7 letters but only 5 sounds: s-i-ng-i-ng.
3. Word
A word is the smallest meaningful bit of sense in a sentence. Each of these words has a different job to do.
Here are four words:
roared, mighty, lion, the

 Roared is a verb. Its job is to tell us what happens in a sentence.

 Mighty is an adjective. Its job is to tell us more about a noun. We don’t have to have an adjective in a
group of words when we are trying to make a sentence.
 Lion is a noun. Its job here is to name things or people or places in a sentence.
 The is called a definite article. We always use the definite article before a noun when we believe the
hearer/reader knows precisely what we are referring to or because there is only one of this thing in that
place or those surroundings. As you know, articles form part of a larger class of words known as
‘determiners’.

So, a definite article’s job is to tell us which particular noun we are talking about. We don’t have to have a
definite article in a group of words when we are trying to make a sentence.
We put words together to make a phrase.
4. Phrase
A phrase is a short, single piece of information. It can be a word, or a small group of words, that forms a
meaningful unit within a sentence:
mighty lion
Two important types are the noun phrase and the verb phrase.

Noun Phrase
The noun phrase can be a word or group of words built around a single noun or pronoun. In a sentence, it
can function as a subject, object or prepositional object; it can be very simple or very complex. For
example (bolded):

 A pile of books lay on the table.

 He was reading a book about the rise and fall of Napoleon.

Verb Phrase
In grammar, a verb phrase is a verb of more than one word. It includes one or more helping (auxiliary)
verbs and one main verb:

 can see (helping verb can + main verb see)

 would have sent (helping verbs would + have + past participle of main verb send)
 may have been planning (helping verbs may + have + be + present participle of main verb plan)

The main verb expresses the chief idea in the verb phrase. The other verbs are there only to support it.
The main verb is always the last verb in the phrase. Often its form changes as in the previous two
examples in which send becomes sent, and plan becomes planning.
We use phrases to make a clause.
5. Clause
 A clause is a larger word group that includes a bit more information. It consists of at least two phrases –
one is a noun phrase known as the subject, and the other is the verb.
A clause is kind of a mini-sentence: a set of words that makes a sense unit, but it might not be concluded
by a full stop. A sentence can be made up of two or more clauses, e.g. She left (1) because it was late (2)
and she was tired (3); this sentence contains three clauses.
We know we have a clause when there is a group of related words which contain a subject and a verb. For
example:
The mighty lion / roared.
In this clause, the noun phrase is the mighty lion, and the verb is roared.
A useful way to begin identifying clauses in sentences is to count the main verbs. For each main verb,
there will be a clause.
This all leads us to the sentence.
6. Subject
The subject in a sentence is the person, place, thing, or idea that is being or doing something. If you can
find the verb, then you can find the subject of a sentence.
For example, in the sentence The laptops in the self-access centre must be updated, the verb is must be
updated. What must be updated? The laptops. So, the subject is laptops.
A simple subject in a sentence is the subject left when all modifiers are removed.

Remember: Modifiers are any word or group of words that change or add to the meaning of another word.
The simple subject in the sentence below is issue:
The really important issue of the debate, when we take away all other considerations, is the nation’s
morality.
Note that a simple subject can be more than one word, even a whole clause:
What he had already forgotten about computer repair could fill a book.
The simple subject is not he, nor is it what he had already forgotten, nor is it computer repair. Ask what it
is that could fill a book. Your answer should be that the entire bolded clause is the simple subject,
i.e. What he had already forgotten about computer repair
7. Predicate
A predicate is often called the completer of a sentence. This is just a term used to label the part of a
sentence or clause which contains a verb and states something about the subject.
So, the subject names the ‘do-er’ or ‘be-er’; the predicate completes the rest of the sentence. A simple
predicate can be a verb on its own, a verb string, or a compound verb (all bolded):

 The glacier melted.

 The glacier has been melting.
 The glacier melted, broke apart, and slipped into the sea.

More Examples
The part before the slash is the subject and the part after it is the predicate:
People in glasshouses/shouldn’t throw stones.
Chen and Chung/went on vacation.
I/love eating gazpachuelo malagueño.
 8. More about sentences and clauses
We explored some of this before, but it will be of great use to you if we explore this further.
Now that you’ve grasped the terminology, particularly ‘sentence’ and ‘clause’, we’re sure you’re ready to
move on a bit further to types of sentences and clauses.
If we put a capital letter at the beginning of the clause we’ve used, and a full stop at the end, we have a
sentence. From a linguistic point of view, sentences are the largest grammatical units.
They are also intuitively complete in two senses:

 first, they may stand alone as informative units

 second, and more importantly, they include all required grammatical elements The mighty lion
roared. (This has a subject and verb and can stand alone as a meaningful unit)

This is a simple sentence.

1. Simple Sentences
A simple sentence is comprised of a single clause that has a subject and a verb. A simple sentence puts
across one simple idea or thought. It’s a sense unit – a complete unit of meaning.
Here are some examples of simple sentences:

 Fang smiled. (Fang is the subject; smiled is the verb)

 The dog barked. (The dog is the subject; barked is the verb)
 The boys are playing soccer. (The boys is the subject; are playing is the verb)
 Will you help me? (you is the subject; will help is the verb)

There is no minimum number of words a sentence must contain to be a sentence. Again the only
prerequisite is a main subject and a main verb. For example, He phoned is as much of a sentence as
is Barcelona is one of the best teams in Europe.
Note: A simple sentence is a complete unit of meaning which contains a subject and a verb. It may have
other words which help to make up the meaning.
But look at this group of words:
Made in France.
This is correct English, but it is not a sentence. It doesn’t have a subject. To make it into a complete
sentence with a subject and verb, we would need to change it to something like:
My fridge was made in France.
So, that’s simple sentences done.

2. Compound Sentences
Another main type of sentence that speakers and writers use is called a compound sentence. This is a
sentence which is comprised of two or more main clauses joined by a coordinating conjunction (also called
a connective).
Compound sentences have two or more pieces of information, and connectives link the pieces of
information. Coordinating conjunctions are connectives which link text together, such as:

 but
 and
 or

Two simple sentences can be linked together with a connective to make a compound sentence. For
example:

 I do not like eating strawberries is a simple sentence.

 I love eating carrots is also a simple sentence.
 If we join them together, we have a compound sentence: I do not like eating strawberries, but I love
eating carrots.

Note: but is the connective

Here are other examples of compound sentences with the connectives written in bold:

 The boys walked down the road, and they met their friends at the bus stop.
 The postman came to the door, so the dog barked loudly.

One benefit of compound sentences is that a writer can build more variety into her writing. On the other
hand, one big problem is that some writers can get carried away and write long rambling sentences:
We went to the park, and we met some friends, and then we went into town which was not too far, but I
was quite tired when I got there, so I sat down.
Writers and speakers need to take care with connectives. Two in a sentence is usually adequate, and they
don’t need to be used in every sentence.
There is one other main sentence type – complex sentences.

3. Complex Sentences
A complex sentence is used to put across more detailed ideas. A complex sentence consists of:

1. one main clause that can make sense on its own

2. one or more minor (or subordinate) clauses that are linked to it.

We’ll call these minor clauses subordinate clauses from now on. It just sounds better.
When the noisy vehicle passed, the mighty lion roared.
The main clause is the mighty lion roared because it has a subject and a verb and makes sense by itself.
The subordinate clause is when the noisy vehicle passed. Although it is a clause with both a subject and a
verb, it doesn’t make sense on its own. It must be linked to a main clause for it to make sense.
We can add more subordinate clauses to make a more complex sentence. In the following example, the
main clause is in bold, and the two subordinate clauses are underlined.
When the vehicle passed, the mighty lion roared because it was annoyed.
We can even interrupt the main clause with a minor clause and still have a complex sentence.
When the vehicle passed, the mighty lion, which was annoyed, roared.
In a complex sentence, there is one main idea and one or more subordinate ideas. We can take the main
idea out of a complex sentence so that the idea stands on its own. Let’s consider this sentence:
The alarm was raised as soon as the fire was spotted.
We can cut out the main idea (the main clause), and it will stand on its own as a meaningful unit:
 The alarm was raised (main idea/main clause because it is meaningful on its own, has a subject and a verb)
What we are left with is:
as soon as the fire was spotted (even although it has a subject and verb, this clause cannot stand on its
own; it’s not a meaningful unit as it stands and is therefore regarded as subordinate to the main clause, i.e.
it is a subordinate clause.
Note:

 The main clause in the example above is also called an independent clause. It contains both a subject and a
verb and can stand alone as a sentence.

The subordinate clause in the example above is called a dependent clause. It contains a subject and verb
but cannot stand alone as a sentence. It’s dependent on the main clause for it to make sense.

5.5 Modals
Congratulations! You have passed this lesson.
Modals are complex and very challenging to present, and they are complex and challenging for learners to
learn.
They are a set of auxiliary verbs and are often called modal auxiliary verbs.
Modal verbs are used to enable the speaker to express feelings about, say, the probability of an event, or
the ability of a person to carry out a certain action or the level of an obligation – but seldom the actuality
(reality) of it happening.
Other uses of modals are to express one’s attitude, politeness, or advice; modals are also used for making
requests or giving permission.
The modal verbs in this category, although there are some different views on this, are:

can could may might

would must shall should

Examples
 Can you speak French?
 He could speak it well if he studied more.
 May I come in?
 It might rain tomorrow.
 He will speak German once he feels confident.

Here’s what you need to know:

1. Key Points
 1.Modals do not change their form at any time. Must remains must however you use it. There is
no musted or musting. They have no infinitive or past or present participle. There is no infinitive to
can or to must. There are no participles such as canning, musting, canned or musted.
Just plain and straightforward must, can, should etc. at all times.
2. In the verb phrase, a modal verb must always be the first word. After a modal verb, we put the base form
of the verb (the verb stem – without to).

 It will be windy.
 You should look after your money.
 You could go on Saturday.

3. As with the other auxiliary verbs (be, have, and do), modal verbs are of great significance in questions,
negatives, and tags. A modal verb is placed before the subject in questions and can have not after it.

 Positive: Your room should be tidier.

 Negative: Your room shouldn’t be untidy.
 Question: How should I organise my room?
 Question tag: You should tidy it each Saturday, shouldn’t you? I suppose I should.

We do not use do with a modal. NOT How do I should organise my work? (Incorrect)
4. Modal verbs do not take -s in the third person.

Examples
 She should be here by now. (no –s)
 He must try again. (no –s)


5. Will and would have the written short forms ‘ll and ‘d.

 I’ll call her now.

 I wouldn’t do that.

6. Many modal verbs cannot be used in the past tenses or the future tenses.

Examples
 She musted travel there last year. (Incorrect)
 She will can travel with us. (Incorrect)


7. We can stress a modal if we want to emphasise its meaning.

 You really must be quiet. (Meaning: It is very necessary.)

8. A modal verb does not typically include a tense. It can allude to the present or the future.

 Present: We must act now. The instructions might be in my in-tray.

 Future: We must act soon. The instructions might arrive this afternoon.
 For the past, we use was able to, had to, etc. or we use a modal verb + have.
 Past: We had to know then. The instructions might have arrived yesterday.

But in some contexts/situations, could, would, should and might are past forms of can, will, shall and may.

 I can’t remember the password. (present)

 I couldn’t remember the password. (past)


9. A modal verb can link with the perfect, the continuous, or the passive.

 Perfect: She may have told you this before.

 Continuous: They may be waiting at the airport.
 Passive: We may be shown the proposals later.
 Perfect + continuous: You must have been distracted.
 Perfect + passive: The evidence must have been destroyed.

10. We cannot use two modals together. NOT You will must come soon. (Incorrect)

2. Common Uses
Below is a table showing the most useful modals and their most common uses.
This is not definitive as there are a few other constructions that some people deem to be modals.
We’ve stuck by what we think are the frequent and typical modals used on an everyday basis. The tricky
bit with modals is that there are nuances in meaning, so even one native user may choose a different modal
from another native speaker.
That said, the table below will serve you well.

Moda
Example
l

I can speak four languages. They can work out their own travel plans. You can make it if you try. We can’t
Can
that. Can I sit down? Can you give me a hand, please? We can try that when we arrive.

Could I open the window a little bit? Could you repeat that? We could try to repair it ourselves. The bad

Could winter could affect next spring’s crop. He had done it before so he could do it again. We could get the bus

taxi. We could go if I didn’t have to attend that meeting.

 May I sit down? You may play with the iPad once you’ve finished. The rain forests may soon disappear. Sh
May
Walmart or perhaps Dairy Queen.

Your keys might be in your coat pocket. They might give us a lift. You might drop in on Uncle Bill during y
Might
trip. Might I open the window? If I had tried harder, I might have succeeded.

We must leave now. Lucy, you mustn’t touch that. This must be Uncle Bill’s house! You must do a bit m
Must
before you compete.

Ought We ought to own up to that. You ought to stop smoking. Lisa ought to win. The exchange rate ought to

to quarter. You ought to try it. You ought not try it. (notice that the to is omitted)

Shall I help you with that? Shall we meet at the exact same time next week? Shall I do that, or will you? I

Shall the first time we met. We shall overcome. With the economy in its present state, I’m afraid we shall lose ou

more common in British English than American English)

Shoul We should resolve this now. I think we should action this now. Profits should rise next quarter. You shoul

d better work/life balance. I really should be studying right now. I think they should already be in the hotel.

I’ll phone her right now. I’ll do that for you if you like. I promise that I will get in touch as soon as I
Will
arrive. Profits will increase next year. He thinks the office will be closed due to the snow.
 Would you mind if I brought my wife along? Would you pass the milk, please? Would 8 pm in Billy’s Bar s

Would you? Would you like to join us? Would you prefer red or white? If he were more ambitious, he would be th

now. When he first got the car, he would wash it every Saturday.

3. Teaching Modals
We’ve already said that modals are very challenging. One of the best ways to teach modals is to use visual
representations of the modals, where it’s easier to show the degrees of probability, prediction, etc.
This helps to keep the learners’ attention when you are teaching this challenging topic.

Example
The following context shows the least probability:
Chen: Somebody is at the door.
Chung: It could be Mum.
Now look at the range of probability expressed through different modals:
High Probability

 It must be Fang.
 It should be Fang.
 It may be Fang.
 It could be Fang.

Low Probability
Here are the past forms of these modals:
High Probability

 It must have been Fang.

 It should have been Fang.
 It may have been Fang.
 It could have been Fang.

Low Probability
Here is another set of modals that express degrees of prediction:
High Probability

 It will snow in January.

 It should snow in January.
 It may snow in January.
 It could snow in January.

Low Probability
 Finally, here’s a visual representation of modals for giving advice; as you can see, a general suggestion
escalates into urgency:
Urgency

 You must discuss it with your tutor.

 You had better talk to your tutor.
 You should/ought to talk to your tutor.
 You could talk to your tutor.

Suggestion

5.6 Voice, Mood and Theme

Congratulations! You have passed this lesson.

Voice
When we talk about sentences, we also talk about ‘voice’; as with an actual voice, we can look at the way a
sentence speaks to us.

Active And Passive Voices

If the subject of a sentence is the doer of the action, the verb is said to be in the active voice:
The Vikings invaded Britain. (Subject: Vikings; what they were doing: invading Britain)
If the subject is the victim or the receiver of the action, the verb is said to be in the passive voice:
Britain was invaded by the Vikings. (Subject: Britain; what was done to Britain: it was invaded)
By choosing which of these two forms we use, we can emphasise certain words or contrast one statement
with another.
We can even use both forms in one sentence: Liu performed well, but the finest performance was given by
Mei.
Simply put, the verb changes its form to suit whether we say the subject did something or something did
something to the subject. In the end, the meaning is much the same. The point is that the verb needs to
change form to match how something is being said or reported.
Generally, the active voice is much more direct and more forceful than the passive.

Mood
Mood in grammar relates to the form a verb takes to show how it is to be regarded. Verbs change their
form to match the mood of a sentence. For example, a verb tells whether we should regard the information
as a fact or a question, a command or request, or a wish or uncertainty.
Here are examples of verbs changing their form to match the mood of a sentence:
 She is eating an apple. (statement, fact)
 Is she eating an apple? (question)
 Keep quiet! (command)
 Please keep quiet. (request)
 I suggest that she take the bus. (wish)
 I urge that he try to work harder. (uncertainty about him passing his exam)

The verbs in the last two examples (bolded and underlined)) are correct. They belong to a form called the
subjunctive which is only used in specific constructions after certain verbs. It’s all a bit archaic. We needed
to put this in as it is an element of mood.
Don’t concern yourself about it. You won’t be talking about the subjunctive in your classrooms apart from
the very odd occasion with an advanced adult learner, if ever.

Theme
English has a somewhat fixed word order compared with many other languages; still, some variation is
possible. For example:

1. The Girl Guides held the sale despite the rain.

2. The sale was held by the Girl Guides despite the rain.
3. Despite the rain, the Girl Guides held the sale.

The question that should come to your mind is the following: What is the difference in these three word
orders?
Well, the sentences appear to have the same core meaning, so what purpose does word order variation
serve?
The theme provides the point of departure of the message; that is, the part of the sentence where the
emphasis of the message is placed. For example, in 1, the emphasis is on the Girl Guides; in 2, the focus is
on the sale; and in 3, the emphasis is on the rain. In other words, the theme provides the framework for
interpreting what follows.

5.7 Cohesion
Congratulations! You have passed this lesson.
Cohesion is the lexical linking within a written or spoken text or sentence that holds a text
together and gives it meaning. It gives it unity. It is linked to the broader concept of
coherence.
Let’s imagine you write a well-constructed paragraph that all makes sense, one sentence
leading into the next. Afterwards, generally, you cannot move the sentences around willy-
nilly unless you alter them in some way.
It’s the same, generally, with a completed and well-constructed sentence. You can’t often
move words around in a sentence willy-nilly either without making some other modifications.
This is because of cohesion. Five fundamental linguistic mechanisms give writing and speech
their cohesion or unified structure:

1. Reference: The boy wanted to surprise her. The next day, he … (he refers back to the boy)
2. Ellipsis: A: Who wrote the letter? B: Bianca. (The response Bianca elliptically signals that
Bianca wrote the letter.) Ellipsis is when we leave out of a word or words that are redundant
or able to be understood from contextual clues.
3. Substitution: I aim to run a marathon next year. If I do, . . . (do substitutes to run a
marathon)
4. Conjunction: Mike needed to lose some weight. He, therefore, decided to buy an exercise
bike. (therefore shows the causal relationship between the first and second sentences)
5. Lexical cohesion: (here through synonymy): He was grateful for the money he had been
given. He put the cash in his wallet and drove to the shop. (Cash refers back to money.)

We do this naturally, but it can be very challenging for L2 learners, mainly when they are
listening to conversations.

5.8 Register
Congratulations! You have passed this lesson.
Remember this from before! Register is a variety of a language or a level of usage, as determined by the
degree of formality and choice of lexis, pronunciation, and syntax (word order), according to the
communicative purpose, social context, and standing of the user.
Learners need to use language appropriately and in the right context. Selecting the correct language for the
right situation is vital to demonstrate expertise and to save problems arising.
Register denotes the choice of formal or informal language we use to match a given situation.
These examples should make it clear.

1. Situation: Receptionist introducing to her boss a professor she doesn’t know.

Dr Brown. I’d like to introduce you to Professor White. He’s the guy who gave the speech at last year’s
conference.
Guy is far too informal
2. Situation: A husband talking to his wife.
Let’s go to the 8pm show. I’ll accompany you at 7.30pm.
Accompany is far too formal.
3. Situation: A letter of complaint.
Last Tuesday, while shopping in your San Diego store, I was dissed by one of your assistants. Dissed is a
slang word and is far too informal for this very formal situation

5.9 Teaching Grammar

Congratulations! You have passed this lesson.
Remember: Avoid standalone grammar sessions as much as possible.

5.9.1. How To Teach Grammar

Teaching grammar in the EFL classroom is no different from teaching other skills, in that you need to
consider a range of factors, e.g. age, level of competence, previous grammar experiences in the native
language and the like.
It would be a bit rash (and silly) for anyone to say that a specific grammar structure should always be
presented to a particular learner at a specific age. There are several variables at play.
 So, bearing this in mind, it’s best to look at grammar presentations in fairly general age groups. You’ll
soon know it’s time to focus more on grammar when learners start asking you questions, such as: Mr
Thomson, why does this word have an extra letter (dogs) but the other one hasn’t (dog)?
Here is a pretty useful grouping:

 Very Young learners: younger young learners

 Young learners: older young learners
 Teenagers
 Adults

1. Teaching Grammar To Younger Young Learners

Here are some key points relating to teaching grammar to younger young learners – those ranging from,
say, 3 years old up to around 7 years old or so.
Key points

1. It just wouldn’t be appropriate to teach grammar formally and explicitly under the age of, say, 7 years old.
That’s a general age guide. However, that doesn’t mean you won’t be involved in grammar-type activities!
2. You should not use any metalanguage (e.g. the words noun, verb, etc.) with your younger young learners.
However, there is the possibility that your very young learners may already be aware of some
metalanguage, e.g. naming word, noun, and adjective – from their learning in their native/first language
(L1) classes. You need to find out if this is the case. If so, you can use the terms naming word and noun,
etc.
3. Your aim is to get them to notice some forms and patterns, and then use them automatically after lots of
practice.
4. The grammar you help them to notice must emerge from meaningful contexts, and there should be some
meaningful communication that leads to a focus on grammar, e.g. listening to you reading a story or
singing a song such as This is the way we wash our hands.

Remember this: Never teach grammar in isolation when teaching younger young learners. This
would be a recipe for disaster.

2. Teaching Grammar To Older Young Learners

Some would say that grammar learning and metalanguage are best left until children are aged about
8 or so. So, this Section focuses on these older young learners from around age 8 up to the age of 12
or so.
If they are ready for it, you can start to introduce some language analysis and some metalanguage.
1. Key points
1. Use activities such as

 Rhymes
 Chats with individual learners and groups – and discussions amongst themselves
 Some drilling
 Cloze activities
 Questionnaires and surveys
 Information gap activities
 Presentations
 Fun activities and games for motivation and learning
2. Gradually, for older young learners, it will be possible to introduce some specific activities which focus
on separating grammar for study. If the school organisation does not prescribe a set curriculum, you need
to decide when to do this.
You’ll know it’s time to do it when your older young learners show an active interest in grammar forms
such as: Why is it that eat becomes ate, but beat doesn’t become bate?
3. Ensure you are aware of what grammar they have learned and are learning in their first language and
make yourself aware of what metalanguage they know. Don’t overdo this. Sometimes it may be necessary
to introduce some metalanguage.
4. Generally, they should be ready for work on some tenses and punctuation and may be ready for some
self-correcting.
5. Also, they should enjoy puzzles and crosswords where they can start to discover some basic grammar
rules for themselves, e.g. most nouns are formed in the plural with adding –s or –es but other groups make
the plural in different ways.
6. They may be ready for creating basic sentences with models, e.g. Pronoun + Verb + Noun, e.g. I like
apples or Pronoun + Verb + Adjective + Noun, e.g. I like green apples.
Remember this: Always think: How can I make this easier for them to grasp. So, for example, you could
give all the word classes a different colour.
To make it more challenging, you could mix up the order of the words and your learners rearrange them to
the order of the model.
7. Fun grammar activities are essential for older young learners, so include puzzles where learners are
encouraged to discover grammar rules for themselves, e.g. describing differences between two pictures,
which can be used to practise prepositions. Also use some of the grammar activities we will explore later,
adapting them accordingly.
8. As with all learning, recycling is critical for success. So, ensure you follow this up in later lessons.
Learning grammar can be a tricky business for older young learners. It needs much meaningful practice,
recycling and guidance in attending to language form.

3. Teaching Grammar To Teenagers

The Sections above have focussed on young learners up to about age 12. Young teenagers up to age 16 to
17 or so will continue their progress in grammar in the school environment, doing more of the type of
study we have cited for the older young learners but at a more complex level.
Some will continue to progress during that period, and some will reach a plateau in their learning and
further progress in grammar may be difficult for them.
So, for teenagers, there’s not much to add in terms of grammar input. It will be a continuation of the
grammar syllabus.
Sometimes, this group can be a bit challenging, often because the learners have reached a plateau or
because some of them act as if they are a bit ‘too cool for school’ and they lack interest in learning
grammar.
Here’s what to do to make your grammar input more attractive for teenagers, particularly with
those who are struggling a bit or are a bit disenchanted with grammar:

1. Avoid Using Metalanguage

Instead, you could say, for example: Let’s look at another way of describing things you’ll be doing
tomorrow by using an –ing word (i.e. am going to)
 2. Empathise With Them
Tell them you also had struggles with some aspects of grammar when you were younger. But, with a bit of
effort, you came through. And look at you now!
Remind them, from time to time, how useful grammar is for writing blogs and stories that others will
admire, for passing examinations (not only in English), for helping them in later years when they may wish
to travel or work in an English-speaking country, and so on.

3. Play To Their Interests As Much As Possible

Make a massive effort to find out what they really like. It may be watching action movies, or soccer or
fashion programmes on video. Catch their interest.
Then it’s easier to introduce some grammatical aspect by stopping the video at one or two specific parts, to
ask, for example, why the character made two similar meaning statements but used different words for
each statement.

4. Add In A Bit Of Controlled Competitiveness

Always do the competitive grammar activity in pairs or groups, so that learners are not alone and may feel
embarrassed if they can’t find the solution. Put time limits on these types of activities to heighten the
tension. The activity shouldn’t be complicated in any way.
Using the am going to example above, it could be:
I‘m going to give out a sheet to each group. On the worksheet, you’ll see the words will and won’t several
times. Put in am going to or am not going to in place of will or won’t. Be careful. There may be some
parts where you can’t do this. (For example, the text may include the construction Will you come back
tomorrow?)
One person in each group must put their hand up when their group has finished the exercise and has
checked it all over. Remember, it needs to be correct to get points added for your end-of-term group prize.
If it’s not entirely correct, no marks. I’ll then pass it to the second group to have a go at getting points for
the prize. Are you ready?
Remember this: When doing this type of competitive activity, ensure that it’s not the same group that
wins all the time. You may have to change the groups around from time to time to achieve a better balance,
but you wouldn’t tell them the reason for this.

5. Inspire Them By Giving Them More Autonomy

For example:

 Let them do the dictionary work to find synonyms they can use in a passage.
 On occasions, ask those who have grasped a concept to help teach those who haven’t.
 Sometimes, let them choose the video they want to watch or the story they want to read (say, from a choice
of three). With lots of effort beforehand, you will have chosen areas of grammar that you want to major on.

6. Make It Fun
Use lots of games to keep up their interest such as snakes and ladders where they pick up cards you have
prepared, and they must decide whether the sentence is correct or not if they are to move up the board.
Again, give the groups some autonomy in deciding what’s correct or not, but you need to be moving
around, monitoring and listening to ensure they’ve got it right.

4. Teaching Grammar To Adults

In this section, we focus on the older teenager as a young adult, and adults themselves. Let’s call them
all adults.
Our key focus is not on the grammar items you will cover, because these may very much be the same as
we have discussed for older young learners above.
So, what is our key focus? It’s to ensure you have the best practices and approaches in place for meeting
the needs of this group.
This adult class will be a diverse group, diverse in educational background (and therefore competency),
age, employment history and culture.
They will have different goals for attending your English class. Some may be immigrants who need to
grasp English quickly if they are to secure a job and some may be young adults who need this learning to
help them achieve entry to university, college or a vocational programme.
Some may be adults who need this additional learning for their job, and some may be young or older adults
who want to travel, work overseas or want to learn English as it’s good to have. There may be other goals.
The challenge is evident. How do you satisfy the grammar needs of a diverse group with diverse goals?
There is no easy answer to this. However, the challenge is lessened for you due to one essential
characteristic of this group.
All the learners in your group have a desire to succeed in learning English. Otherwise, why would they be
there?
So, they will be motivated. This is a huge plus point. So, what remains to be resolved is deciding on the
best practices and approaches to meet their needs.
Here’s what you need to do:

1. Don’t Assume Adults Are Competent In Grammar

Remember this: Do not fall into the trap of thinking that teaching young and older adults will be easier
because they will have made more progress in grammar learning. It may be the case sometimes; however,
there is no guarantee.
Some may not be any more competent in grammar than a young learner.

2. Don’t Worry About The Level

When you are teaching grammar to young and older adults, all the above information about young learners
and teenagers is wholly relevant. The key differences will be that there will likely be more explicit sessions
on grammar, and you will be helping them to be much more autonomous, identifying and fixing the errors
themselves where possible.
And with all the work you have completed during this course, you’ll be armed and dangerous, ready to
handle any query about the Present Perfect Continuous or Phrasal Verbs.

3. Do A Needs Analysis.
 This is imperative.
A needs analysis is a process of finding out what needs a learner has. Don’t make this into a big formal
event. Do it informally. You could do it during your first meeting with the class or an individual where you
explain that you need to find out their purpose for attending your class.
What you’re trying to find out is:
1. What are the learner’s communicative competence needs at present?
While chatting, think about questions such as:

 How good is her use of English at present?

 What aspects of her English need to be improved to get her to the target situation?
 What are her grammar needs?

2. What are the learner’s communicative needs in terms of her goal for learning English?
Ask directly, questions such as:

 When you go to college next year, what do you have to do in English?

 When you’re at work, what do you have to do in English?

Later, analyse, identify and decide what needs to be done, via your teaching, to get the learners to their
desired situation in the future.

4. Help Them To Become Grammar Detectives

In general, young adults and adults will be able to handle tricky concepts much easier than young learners
can. This is a crucial difference between adult and younger learner classes.
Because of their adult ability to handle concepts, you can introduce them to some concepts directly,
while using the appropriate metalanguage. By doing so, all of this will save time and get them faster to
their goals. They will appreciate your plan.
Your aim is not just to introduce them to concepts: it is to ensure they can put these into practice.
Let’s explore 4 concepts that are critical in the grammar classroom. They relate to words and their
positions and functions in a sentence. By understanding what these are, your adult learners can quickly
become grammar detectives.
They will better and faster understand word classes, word order and the nature of words themselves.
If you ensure that they are entirely au fait with the terminology and meaning of these concepts, you’ll be
off to an excellent start. These concepts are:

 Meaning
 Form
 Framework
 Function

If adult learners understand these terms, it will make their grammar learning easier. Not only that, it will
involve them in analysing a sentence and working out by themselves where something may have gone
wrong. They will be able to self-correct, to a degree. Adults enjoy and get great benefit from this
technique.

1. Meaning
 This seems easy. However, it’s not that easy. Words can have two meanings:

1. A literal meaning- what the word means typically in everyday communication

2. A meaning for the context it’s being used in

Example
The literal and usual meaning of wet is something like this: not dry; covered in water or another liquid, as
in:
I slipped on the wet floor.
However, in the next sentence, the meaning of wet bears no resemblance to the meaning above:
Come on, John, don’t be such a tiresome wet.
In the UK, wet is a disapproving term for someone who displays weak character and does not express any
forceful opinions. He ‘sits on the fence’ most of the time.
So, understanding meaning is crucial. However, it’s not just dictionary definitions which help us to know
the meaning. Grammar constructions help us to work out meanings by creating mental images in our mind,
which help us to work out the meaning.
For example, when reading John was a tiresome … and coming to the last part of the sentence, we expect
the sentence to finish with a compliment, some explanation as to who he was. In this case, it’s a wet.
We can then work out that the meaning of wet here is not the not-dry wet (adjective), but a wet (noun),
some kind of person. We know that it can’t be wet with the meaning not-dry, as that wouldn’t make sense
after the word a.
So, grammatical constructions help us to work out meaning. Grammar and meaning are intertwined. If the
adult learner understands this process, in many cases she will be able to identify the meaning of a word
from grammatical analysis.

2. Form
As you know by now, form is what a word looks like, how it is structured, e.g. boy, boy’s in this sentence:

Example
The big boy took the small boy’s ball.
In our analysis, we can have a good go at working out that boy is a noun, not just because we know its
meaning. We know that nearly all nouns add endings in the plural and in possession, so that’s a good clue
to this being a noun.
We can add –s to boy and it still makes sense. We know too, for example, that adjectives, adverbs,
determiners, etc. don’t do this – they don’t add plural or possessive endings.
There are other ways to confirm this is a noun, but these are not related to form, e.g. it immediately
precedes the verb, so it’s likely to be a noun or pronoun. Then we can eliminate the pronoun forms, e.g. he,
she, it. Yes, it’s a noun
Knowing all about form can help us work out what part a word is playing in a sentence.

3. Function
 Function is another critical element.
Function is what a word does in a sentence. Earlier, you will have taught your learners that nouns are
primarily subjects, objects and complements in a sentence. That is, the noun can function as a subject, the
object or the complement in a sentence. (It can function as other things too.) Example
With this bit of knowledge, learners can better analyse a sentence. Have a look at this intriguing sentence:
The ugggawagga kicked a thnollanugga.
Even if they don’t know what an ugggawagga is, they can work out its function from analysis. They know
that nouns commonly function as subjects, so this is likely to be a noun. It can’t be a pronoun, as there
is The before it.
Plus, the verb functions as a doing word and the shape of the verb tells us that the ugggawagga is doing
something, i.e., something is not being done to it. So, they can work out that ugggawagga is functioning as
the subject of the sentence, and it is a noun.

4. Setting
In a sentence, words form a setting into which other words can fit.
If we recognise the setting, we have a good idea of what type of word can be placed in that setting.

Examples
1. The/A/An —————- ate the apple.

We know that most nouns can fit after the, a, an. So, the word to complete the sentence is likely to be a
noun. It’s not a pronoun, verb, adjective, etc. We could work out again that the missing word is the subject
due to the action word ate and the object word apple.
At this stage, we don’t know if the noun is singular or plural. If we take away The, then we know it’s
singular. If we take away The and A, we know it’s singular and begins with a vowel. In any case, we know
it’s a noun that fits this frame.

 The big boy —————the small boy’s ball.

If we are told that when this is completed it will be a sentence, then it’s easy. Into the frame steps a verb.
We don’t know which verb it is, but we do know it is a verb because it can’t be a sentence without a verb.
We also know it’s a transitive verb because there is an object.
Encourage your adult learners to become grammar detectives applying these four tests/tools to work
out word classes, to find what or who is doing what in the sentence, to find out what’s wrong, and most of
all to enable them to identify and repair errors on their own, where possible.

5. Use Games And Drills Sparingly

Use games and drills sparingly with adults. All of them are there to achieve a goal within a time limit.
Although you may see great benefit in these, some of your learners are unlikely to look at it the same way.
This could have a negative effect on the class atmosphere.
You could use the odd game or two, so long as you carefully explain the end goal.
Many adults see drilling as a childish activity. You can often see a disgruntled look on some of the faces.
Why let this spoil the excellent atmosphere you have built up?
 You’ll need to play this by ear. If you feel it’s right to introduce games and drills now and again, then
we’re sure it will work out fine.

5.9.2 Making An Effective Grammar Presentation

These practical tips will ensure you make an effective grammar presentation:

1. Elicit frequent learner responses. Remember this: Eliciting is a term which describes a range of
techniques which enable you to get learners to provide information rather than you giving it to them.
2. Maintain an appropriate (but fairly brisk) pace.
3. Get their attention: ensure learners are alert, focussing their attention on you and the material to be learned.
4. Keep your learners’ attention.
5. Monitor and, when necessary, correct your learners’ comprehension and responses.
6. Ensure there is equal participation of all learners in the process.
7. Ensure understanding via a range of ways, e.g. written and spoken exercises to ensure your learners
understand the meaning of the material you are introducing. Also, importantly, ensure learners can make
connections with other things they already know.
8. Concept check again before leaving the session, i.e. check understanding via random questions around the
class.

Learners need to take the material into their short-term memory. This is required for learners to remember
it until later in the lesson when you will get them to do further practice. So, the more impact the original
presentation has, the better it will be.
Again, we repeat: beware of using too much metalanguage unless you are confident they can handle
this. You’d need to be sure of this before introducing any metalanguage, particularly with young
learners. In any case, don’t over-burden them with this.
Build a fun atmosphere along the way with mime, gestures, funny pictures, cartoons, etc.

5.9.3. Inductive And Deductive Presentations

A vital element you need to grasp is the difference between inductive and deductive approaches to
grammar teaching and learning.
A deductive thinker draws out specific facts from a general principle that you have presented. For
example, using a deductive approach, you will stand at the front of the class and explain how to form a
verb tense and what it means.
Your learners will then try out this new knowledge on a set of sample sentences in an exercise.
On the other hand, an inductive thinker develops a rule or general principle for himself by looking at a
set of examples illustrating that rule or principle.
For example, he notices from the words and pictures that he has been given that the letter a goes before
some of them and the letters an goes before others. He then identifies which are which and develops the
rule for himself: an goes before words beginning with the letters a, e, i, o and u, and a goes before all other
letters.
He may not know that a, e, i, o, and u are called ‘vowels’, which may not be important at his stage of
learning. And, he may not know there are some exceptions, e.g. an hour but that can be covered later. He
has formed a pretty solid principle on his own.
Within an inductive approach, you may provide a text, or examples of sentences that illustrate the rule, and
then step back to allow the learners the time and space needed to work out the generalisation. In other
words, you will not explicitly state the rule.
Your role is to facilitate learning. That is why your best route is to provide learners
with inductive learning activities as much as possible.
However, there are moments when you will need to go the deductive way to explain grammar
concepts to the class, particularly with a complex concept such as modals.
Remember this: It’s better to treat grammar as a skill much like speaking, listening, reading and writing,
and integrate it into speaking, listening, reading and writing teaching, rather than teaching grammar as an
area of knowledge.

Conveying The Meaning Inductively And Deductively

The advantage of an inductive presentation is that learners are not overwhelmed with grammar
metalanguage.
The other significant advantage is that by discovering language on their own, learners gain learner
autonomy. Autonomy gives learners the feeling that they are responsible for their learning. And learner
autonomy is a crucial factor in a learner’s overall motivation.
It’s OK if learners don’t grasp the language at first. After all, it is the process of asking several learners the
same question and eliciting answers that would get learners to eventually perceive the pattern being used
and thus discover the language form and meaning on their own.
Should there still be any questions, you could then fill in the gaps with more examples or, when necessary,
a grammar explanation.
In reality, when presenting grammar, you will need to be able to do so both deductively and inductively.
You will also have to do so in a clear and concise manner and, of course, this will necessitate your needing
to be familiar with the terminology and concepts. It will also require you to be adept at presenting
structures in different ways.
The reality is that learners won’t always be able to infer all the rules, particularly when it comes to
achieving accuracy of form.
Striking a balance between using an inductive and deductive approach, even within the same presentation,
can be very effective.

5.9.4. Different Modes Of Presenting Grammar

To Learners
There is no doubt that a strong knowledge and understanding of fundamental grammatical rules is essential
for the mastery of a language. However, it’s the way that you teach these rules that paves the road to
success by better embedding the learning.
Here are some practical ideas you can implement:

1. Present Material Visually

One effective way to show how a given structure is formed, what it means, and how it is used is to present
the material visually, using board drawings, illustrations, pictures, objects or props.
You could show them pictures and ask: What differences do you notice in the pictures? To practise, for
example, must/must have (as in He must have fallen.) and could/could have (as in He could have been hit
by a falling branch.).
2. Use Timelines
Another powerful visual is the timeline, which you can draw on the board. Timelines are simple diagrams
that can help learners see relationships between verb forms and their time reference. They are a visual
representation of the passage of time. Learners can see how the verb ‘works’.
We have made this simple timeline to explain the simple past tense.
Yesterday, I walked to school.

There is no definitive format for making a timeline. Just make sure you explain it first of all. You can use
an X or any symbol to mark the event.
Here’s another one to demonstrate the simple future progressive (continuous) tense:
Next year he will be climbing Kilimanjaro.

Here we have used a squiggly line to demonstrate the event continuing.

The following exercise will give you enormous opportunities for embedding timelines – and it will make
grammar learning intriguing and fun. The critical point is that the grammar part is integrated into the vital
skills of speaking, reading, writing, listening as much as possible.
Exercise –Timelines
As they get used to these timelines, you could introduce the idea of My Timeline, where learners draw up a
timeline of notable events in their lives from the past till now.
Older learners will quickly come up with a range of notable events. Young learners could ask their
parents/caregivers for essential dates in the learners’ short lives– when the learner was born, when the
learner first walked and talked, when the learner first went to school, etc.
And you could add in when the learner did something silly (this last one will create lots of fun later when
they read out what they’ve completed).
Then you can change the format – learner A interviews learner B and draws up a timeline for learner B.
Then they switch roles, and after this, they read out the other learner’s timeline to the class.
You can also give them a list of important historical events that have happened in their country and future
events the country hopes to accomplish by some date in the future and get them to plot them on the
timeline.
These dates could be mixed up on the list. Keep away from serious ‘political’ events such as attempted
coups. Alternatively, you could centre it on a world event such as space exploration or the Olympic Games
or the critical successes in the development of medicine.
You could also give the learners a short written text and ask them to read it for comprehension, and then
they prepare a timeline based on the main facts in that text.
As they progress with the verb timelines, their My Timeline can be expanded to marking future events on
their personal timeline, for example: when will they be going to the ‘big’ school, when they hope to
accomplish something; when they think they will start working, etc.
Remember! Ensure the grammar part – relationships between verb forms and their time reference – is
integrated into, and reinforced by, the critical skills of speaking, listening, reading and writing.

3. Present Material Through Situations

Let’s imagine you are presenting the concept of going to. Draw a face on the board with a name under it.
Name her Maria. Put a thought bubble above her. Introduce Maria. Say: This is Maria and she’s thinking
about something nice. I wonder what it is.
Draw an aeroplane. Say: Ah, she’s thinking of her holiday next week. Next week. (Using gestures of
forward movement.) She’s going to fly on an aeroplane. She’s going to fly. Repeat this class: She’s going
to fly. Class repeats.
Ask: I wonder where she is going.
Draw or show a big picture of the Great Wall in China – elicit until you get the response. Yes, she’s going
to visit the Great Wall. Repeat this class: She’s going to visit the Great Wall. Class repeats. She’s so lucky.
Ask: I wonder what she will do there.
Next, draw a camera on the board. She’s going to take pictures. She’s going to take pictures. What is she
going to do? Class repeats.
Say: I wish I were her. What other things is she going to do? Elicit answers to this.
When the correct response comes up, e.g. She’s going to walk along the Great Wall, drill this (with the
whole class and some individuals). Write this response on the board.
Follow the same format now with some additional going to questions, then write the correct response on
the board. Then check with concept questions (checking understanding) at random. Say: So, tell me: What
is Maria going to do next week. Where is she going to visit?
You can then recap on the structure, avoiding metalanguage, and move them on to practising it with
different activities, e.g. a gap-fill exercise and then move them on to produce the correct structure, say, by
conversing in pairs and a writing activity.
By giving several different examples through a situation, or specific context, you help the class to build up
a clear idea of what the structure means and how it is used. After giving a few examples, you can simply
present the situation and try to get the learners to provide the example.
This will verify how well the learners have understood the concept, and this also helps to get the class
more involved.
 4. Present Material Through Demonstration
Another way of showing meaning is to present the learning material via physical demonstration.
Let’s use the language item above – going to. You could also demonstrate the concept of going to. You
could tell them that you’re:

 going to open the door

 going to give a prize in a few minutes to whoever is best behaved
 going to open the window because it’s too hot
 going to close the window because it’s too cold and so on.

Using the same format above for situations, it will be another successful way for you to get them to grasp
the concept.

5.9.5 Drilling
We’ve mentioned drilling before. Let’s explore this further.
Drilling means repetition. It involves your learners, either individually or as a group, repeating whatever
you say. Drilling is a way for your learners to practise new language, both lexis and grammatical
structures, in a controlled setting.
As you will tell them what to repeat, learners can focus fully on pronunciation and usage. It can be as
simple as repeating a word or repeating entire sentences.
Drilling is best used after new language has been introduced and explained.
People have different ideas about the value of writing the target language on the board before drilling. On
the one hand, it’s a way to familiarise the learners with the written form, but on the other hand, it could
hinder their ability to remember the structure and may draw some of their attention away from meaning
and pronunciation.
In drilling exercises, rhythm, intonation and stress are very important. You can illustrate this through
gestures or by over-emphasising certain features.
Here are the most common types of drills:
‘Q and A’ drills utilise fairly basic conversation elements to mimic improvised language production.
Typically, you will ask a question, and the class responds – the trick is that the target language has already
been specified. The learners can continue the drill by asking a question to the next person in line.
Substitution drills allow parts of the sentence to be changed and adapted. This provides a more practical
and absorbing way of using drilled language.
1. Simple Substitution Drill: The learners substitute one short item after another in the framework of a
single unvarying sentence. You could provide the next item, but it’s best to get the learners involved. They
can shout out the next item for the drill. For example:
Where can I buy a magazine?
Where can I buy a ticket?
Where can I buy a bottle of water?
2. The Substitution Table: Another widely used drill is the substitution table. The substitution table is a
summary of a number of possible substitution drills derived from a single sentence.
Where can I buy a bottle of water?
Where might he find a light bulb?
 Where will she get a ticket?
Where do they sell drinks?
You can do vigorous drills in front of your class with a table like this, concentrating on having the learners
repeat the sentences of the drill and getting the learners to give you complete sentences in response to cues
that you provide.
The Transformation Drill: This drill requires the learners to produce sentences in response to cues, but
this time the cues are whole sentences. The simplest drills of this type are the familiar Change this
sentence to the negative or Change these sentences to the past tense.
Drilling Pros

 It gives learners initial confidence.

 Choral drills allow learners to ‘have a go’ at new language without feeling self-conscious.
 Repetition can aid memory.
 Drilling serves to highlight the key language items in a lesson.

Drilling Cons

 It can become mindless parroting.

 If overdone, it can have a childish effect which may not be appropriate for older learners.
 Repetition is no guarantee that new language items are stored in long-term memory.
 Drilling has limitations when used in the later stages of a CLT lesson since it downplays contextualised use
of the structure.

You should keep in mind that not all new language items may need to be, or can be, drilled.

5.9.6. Grammar Activities

You must introduce as many communicative and interactive activities as possible when doing
grammar practice. By communicative and interactive, we mean activities that tend to be more
engaging due to the format of the activity and which promote more open-ended, uncontrolled
responses.
Communicative and interactive activities consist of reaching an outcome that depends on the learners
listening to one another and processing what they hear.
In such cases, learners will need to negotiate and repair communication breakdowns and adapt their
contributions accordingly.
In other words, there is some unpredictability in exercises that are more communicative and interactive.
Here are some activities which we’ve used to liven up our grammar sessions. They can be adapted
for different levels. They have served us well, and they will serve you well too.
Grammar mimes
Divide your learners into groups or pairs.
Give each group or pair a sentence that includes grammar already practised and underline the words that
should be guessed precisely.
One of the learners in the group/pair A must mime the sentence, and a learner in group/pair B must guess
what it is, in correct grammatical form. Then roles are reversed.
Examples will depend on recent grammar learning, such as the past tense or comparatives/superlatives:

 I swam yesterday
 I lost my watch last week.
 An aeroplane is bigger than a pencil.
 Mice have smaller teeth than crocodiles.

Get them moving

They are going to practise the simple past of regular or irregular verbs. Form a circle. Say a verb out loud
and throw a ball to a learner who has to say its past form.
She responds and throws the ball back to you, and you choose another learner. Whenever a learner makes a
mistake, he has to leave the circle. The last learner left standing gets a reward sticker or other prize. This
activity can be adapted to any grammar point.
Celebrity profiles
Contrasting the simple past and present perfect tenses by using biographies.
Find out which celebrities or sports stars your learners admire. Then find a short biography or write one
yourself summarising a celebrity’s main achievements. Read the biography with your learners and make
sure they understand the tense differences.
Point out examples that clearly illustrate this: e.g. He starred in his first hit film in 2008. However, he has
worked in 5 other films throughout his career.
Celebrity photos
Cut out relevant celebrity photos from entertainment or sport magazines. Use these photos to teach
comparatives and superlatives: Katie Holmes is taller than Tom Cruise; or, in the European football arena,
Neymar is good, Ronaldo is better, but Messi is the best.
Articles
This activity works great with beginners, including young learners. Cut up a list of several words that
either take a or an and mix them up.
Then divide learners into pairs of groups and get them to put the words into two bundles, depending on the
article. Once you have checked their bundles, ask them if they can figure out the rule by themselves.
For very young learners, you could use pictures instead of words.
Nonsense sentences
This works great with beginners and elementary learners. Use nonsense sentences when teaching grammar,
to make it fun, e.g. The cat smiled at the giraffe in the dentist’s waiting room; Green lions love sparkling
bottled water. Also, jumble up the words to see if they can put the sentences together correctly.
Words and more words
This activity practises word order and the placing of grammar items correctly in the sentence.
Write a short phrase on the board. For example: The giraffe … The learners’ task is to expand the phrase
by adding not more than one word at any one time.
Encourage them to give you suggestions, and they can write them into the sentence. For example: The
giraffe drank; The giraffe drank water; The thirsty giraffe drank water; The thirsty giraffe drank bottled
water … and so on.
If the suggestion put forward is incorrect, see if another learner can spot what’s wrong; if not, gesture that
there may be a mistake. If they cannot correct it, do it yourself as a last resort.
Speak as little as possible to encourage the learners to speak, make suggestions and point out any errors.
Let the sentence build as long as possible. Note they are involved in listening, speaking, and writing.
Fewer and fewer words
 An alternative to the activity above is to give your learners a very long sentence and ask them to make it
smaller in any way that they can, one word at a time, while still retaining a grammatically correct sentence.
Changing the words
Give the learners a short sentence. Their written task is to change one word at a time in that sentence while
still retaining a grammatically correct sentence. For example: I like playing in summer; I like playing in
Seville; We like playing in Seville …
Construct a sentence
Construct a sentence and put each word is on a separate card. Give your groups the cards in jumbled order
and ask them to try to write a sentence using all the words.
They might construct the one you made, but they could construct other sentences. Any grammatically
correct sentence is fine.
Or you could ask them to make as many different sentences as they can with the words that they have.
Words can be used and reused.
This is excellent word order and writing practice.
Remember that written exercises like this one are another effective way to get learners to practise
grammar.
Dialogues
Let’s imagine that you have presented the simple past. They have practised it and are now left in pairs to
produce the concept orally. You give clear instructions and then give out a handout and guide them
through it.
On the handout, there are 7 regular verbs, e.g. answer, argue, close, collect, comb,
dream, and watch. Learner A asks learner B: What did you do last night? Learner B answers I watched
television. B asks A the same question, and A responds using a different verb in the past tense, e.g. I
combed my hair.
Other pairs are doing the same, responding with verbs on the list.
Move around, monitoring and helping, as necessary.
Once you are satisfied that a pair have grasped it, you can let them loose to ask the same question, but the
response from the partner now includes a new verb in the simple past tense which is not on the list.
They are now taking risks with the new structure, which is what you are aiming for. Again, you are
walking around, monitoring, and helping, as necessary.
Prove it, please
Give your learner groups one or more statements to prove or disprove. The statements can tie in with the
topic or the grammar point of the class. Examples: Nobody in this class likes winter. Everyone here loves
Taylor Swift.
Your learners talk to as many other learners in the class as possible to prove/disprove the statements. Then
they give feedback to the class: This statement is not true. There are at least 3 people in this class who
don’t love Taylor Swift.
People who …
This is an activity where the aim is to complete grammatically correct sentences and prompt debate.
Hand out the following sheet and tell the learners they must complete the sentences with a bit of realism-
not just adding on a grammatically correct ending:
People who …

 park their cars on the sidewalk/pavement …

 throw litter on the ground …
 talk during a movie at the cinema …
 drink and drive …
 snore …

Remember this: The examples above are fine. But take great care when you choose other ‘People
who’ examples. For example, in some cultures, spitting is acceptable behaviour. You could cause a
bit of a stramash if you don’t take cultural considerations into account.
Grammar auction
Construct a worksheet with 20 or so sentences using grammar points you have recently taught. Half of the
sentences should include a grammatical mistake.
Divide the learners into groups. Give each group a set amount of fake money. Keep a pile of money for
yourself.
Read out a sentence. Auction it off. The learners should aim to buy correct sentences. The groups bid, and
you sell to the highest bidder. You then say whether the sentence is correct or not.
If it’s correct, the team wins the amount which they bid for it.
If it is incorrect, the team loses the amount which they bid and pass it to you. Any group may bid again,
stating the correct form. Again, if they get it right, pay them. If they get it wrong, they need to pay you
their bid amount.
If the sentence is correct and no group bids for it, all groups must pay a fine.
For each incorrect sentence which any group identifies, ask them to explain why it is incorrect. If no group
identifies an incorrect sentence, then explain why it is incorrect. To ensure they remain interested while
you are explaining, suggest there may be other sentences like this that may come up later.
After you have read out all the sentences, the team with the most money wins.
Hold your breath
Prepare some cut-up sentences from the grammar area you’ve been working on and stick them on the
board with Blu-Tack – one mixed-up list on the left and one mixed-up list on the right.
Mix the sentence words at random so that the lists have the same sentences, but a different word order.
Put the learners into teams, standing behind a line or marker in front of the board. The first learner in each
team runs to the board and arranges the words in sentence 1 into a correct sentence; however, they are not
allowed to breathe in. To prevent this, the learners must repeat a word over and over, e.g. teacher, ice
cream, elephant, China etc.
If they stop saying the word, they must return to their teams. As soon as the first learner finishes, the
second person in the team runs to the board to do sentence 2 and so on.
The winner is the first team to arrange all their sentences correctly. You’ll need to tell them when any
completed sentence is incorrect, and hopefully, someone in their group will be able to suggest how it
should be. It’s noisy but great fun.
Well done! Halfway through the course! What you have learned here will help you better
understand the key elements of grammar. Hopefully, we will have demonstrated that it’s not too
difficult.
And there’s lots more good stuff to come!
Time for a little break. Then, come back and have a go at Quiz 5. It’s not too stretching. Good luck!
After that, we’ll move on to Module 6, where we will explore the 4 key skills: Listening, Speaking,
Reading, and Writing, in this order. And we’ll add in a bit about Lesson Planning again. There’s
quite a bit to cover. In time to come, you’ll be very happy that you studied all the material.