Journal of Stored Products Research 73 (2017) 142e150

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Journal of Stored Products Research

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jspr

Susceptibility of Tribolium castaneum and Trogoderma variabile larvae

and adults exposed to methoprene-treated woven packaging material
Deanna S. Scheff a, b, Bhadriraju Subramanyam a, *, Frank H. Arthur b
a
Department of Grain Science and Industry, Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS 66506, USA
b
USDA, Agricultural Research Service, Center for Grain and Animal Health Research, Manhattan, KS 66502, USA

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Methoprene is an insect growth regulator (IGR) registered in the United States for direct application to
Received 30 March 2017 stored raw grains, as an aerosol or residual contact insecticide, and for use as a coating for protection of
Received in revised form packaged products. A series of tests was conducted to determine the adverse effects of short term
2 August 2017
exposure, sub-lethal exposure, and continual exposure of the red flour beetle, Tribolium castaneum
Accepted 15 August 2017
Available online 30 August 2017
(Herbst) and warehouse beetle, Trogoderma variabile Ballion, on methoprene-treated woven packaging
material at 27 and 32
C and 60% r.h. In the first test, larvae of both species were added to individual
arenas and exposed for different time intervals, removed and resulting adult emergence was assessed. In
Keywords:
Methoprene
the second test, eggs of both species were exposed on the packaging surfaces to determine percent egg
Tribolium castaneum hatchability. In the third test, adults of T. castaneum and T. variabile were added to arenas and held for 7
Trogoderma variabile and 3 d, respectively, to determine number of eggs laid per female and subsequent egg hatchability. The
Woven packaging eggs were held in arenas to determine the effect of continual exposure on egg-to-adult emergence.
Egg hatchability Results showed normal adult emergence decreased with increasing exposure time and temperature.
Adult emergence Exposure to methoprene-treated packaging did not adversely affect fecundity of T. variabile adults, but
did affect fecundity of T. castaneum. Continual exposure gave 100% suppression of T. castaneum adult
emergence and a reduction of T. variabile emergence. This study indicated that methoprene-treated
packaging could be a valuable addition to an existing integrated pest management program to in-
crease protection of packaged products.
© 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction 2003). A survey of eight retail pet stores in Kansas found

Stored-product insects are serious pests in raw and processed
grains, pet foods, and birdseed (Arbogast et al., 2000). Food and
feed manufacturing companies take all possible measures to pro-
duce an insect free product, but they have little to no control of
their product once it leaves their manufacturing facility (Platt et al.,
1998). Retail stores present a serious threat for infestation of
packaged products by stored-product insects (Roesli et al., 2003).
Potential sources of infestation include incoming commodities that
are already infested, insects entering through open doors or win-
dows, and insect populations already present within the store
(Arbogast et al., 2000; Subramanyam et al., 2001). The red flour
beetle, Tribolium castaneum (Herbst), is a stored-product insect
commonly found in retail stores (Arbogast et al., 2000; Roesli et al.,
* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: sbhadrir@k-state.edu (B. Subramanyam).
T. castaneum and the warehouse beetle, Trogoderma variabile Bal-
lion, to be present in seven out of eight stores surveyed (Roesli et al.,
2003). T. castaneum and T. variabile have been identified as two
species of primary economic importance that infest food products
(Boyer et al., 2012). In retail stores, stored-product insects can be
found above or underneath shelves, behind kick-plates, near the
pet food department, and in accumulations of spilled food
(Arbogast et al., 2000 Roesli et al., 2003).
Packaged food products are also susceptible to infestation by
insects during transportation and storage in retail stores (Highland,
1991). Food packaging is designed to protect food products from
the point of manufacture to consumption (Campbell et al., 2004).
Insects infest packaged products by penetration or invasion. Pack-
age penetrators such as the larvae of T. variabile can chew through
packaging material and infest food products (Highland, 1991).
Package invaders such as T. castaneum larvae enter packages
through natural defects, holes, or seam failures (Highland, 1991).
The larval stage of stored-product insects cause the most damage,

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jspr.2017.08.002
0022-474X/© 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
 D.S. Scheff et al. / Journal of Stored Products Research 73 (2017) 142e150
because they can invade smaller holes than adults and possess
powerful mouthparts which are capable of chewing through
various packaging materials (Wohlgemuth, 1979).
Methoprene, an insect growth regulator (IGR), mimics insect
juvenile hormone in insects which regulates the developmental
process from the egg to the adult stage (Oberlander et al., 1997;
Henrick, 2007). In 2003, the United States Environmental Protec-
tion Agency granted methoprene exemption from food tolerance
levels (Henrick, 2007). Methoprene is very effective in controlling a
variety of lepidopterous and coleopterous pests (Henrick, 2007).
Recently, methoprene has been incorporated into the adhesive
matrix of packaging materials used to store food products and is
registered and marketed by ProvisonGard™ (Greensboro, North
Carolina, USA; http://www.pvgard.com) (Arthur, 2016; Scheff et al.,
2016).
There is little published data assessing efficacy of methoprene-
treated packaging on T. castaneum and T. variabile. The fecundity,
egg hatchability, and egg-to-adult emergence of these two species
were evaluated on untreated and methoprene-treated poly-
ethylene-to-polyethylene (PE-PE) and polyethylene terephthalate-
to-polyethylene (PET-PE) packaging at 27 and 32
C and 60% r.h.
(Scheff et al., 2016). Adverse effects, especially egg hatchability and
egg-to-adult emergence, upon exposure to inside and outside
surfaces of methoprene-treated packaging were more pronounced
in T. castaneum compared with T. variabile. In the present investi-
gation, adverse effects of methoprene-treated woven packaging
were evaluated against these two insect species. Specific research
objectives were to determine adverse effects on larvae of T casta-
neum and T. variabile exposed to untreated and methoprene-
treated woven packaging material for short time intervals, deter-
mine effects on adult fecundity and subsequent egg hatchability,
and determine effects of continuous exposure of eggs laid by adults
on packaging material on adult emergence of the two species.
2. Materials and methods
2.1. Insects
Cultures of T. castaneum and T. variabile used in this study were
obtained from the United States Department of Agriculture's Center
for Grain and Animal Health Research (USDA-CGAHR) in Manhat-
tan, Kansas. T. castaneum cultures were reared on 95% unbleached
whole-wheat flour (Hudson Cream Flour, Stafford Country Flour
Mills Co., Hudson, Kansas, USA) with 5% by wt. of brewer's yeast
(MP Biomedicals LLC, Solon, Ohio, USA) and maintained at 27
C
and 60% r.h. in constant darkness. T. variabile cultures were reared
on 50% Purina One lamb and rice formula (Nestle  Purina PetCare
Company, St. Louis, Missouri, USA), 50% Pharmanex vanilla shake
mix, and the top of the culture was sprinkled with 100% whole
grain rolled oats (Kroger Co., Cincinnati, Ohio, USA). The contents of
the vanilla shake mix are considered proprietary information and
due to confidentiality agreements, cannot be disclosed. Cultures
were maintained at 30
C and 60% r.h., and 16:8 L:D photoperiod.
Eggs of both species were obtained by using approximately
100 g of flour sifted through a 150 mm opening sieve (Newark Wire
Cloth Company, Clifton, New Jersey., USA), placed into a 0.18-L jelly
jar (Ball, Muncie, Indiana, USA), and 60 unsexed T. castaneum or
T. variabile adults of mixed ages were introduced. The jars were
incubated at 30
C and 65% r.h., and 16:8 L:D photoperiod to allow
for mating and oviposition. After 3 d, the adults were removed from
jars using an 850 mm opening sieve on the top to retain the adults.
The flour passed through the bottom 250 mm opening sieve and
was collected in a pan. Eggs were retained on top of the 250 mm
sieve. Eggs were collected and counted using an aspirator.
In tests with adults, unsexed adults of mixed ages were used.
143
Adults were directly aspirated from culture jars. After exposure to
treatment arenas the adults were removed, frozen, and separated
as male and female. Adult T. castaneum were held for 7 d on arenas,
and T. variabile adults were held for 3 d. These exposure periods
were determined based on preliminary experiments examining
progeny production suitable for experimentation without over-
crowding the arenas. Male T. variabile were distinguished by the
6e7 segmented antennal club, whereas females only have 4
segmented antennal club (Bousquet, 1990). Male T. castaneum
possess a setiferous patch on the posterior side of the fore femur,
while the female lacks the patch (Bousquet, 1990).
2.2. Methoprene-impregnated packaging material
Methoprene-treated and untreated woven packaging materials
were obtained from a commercial manufacturer (ProvisonGard™,
Greensboro, North Carolina, http://www.pvgard.com). The specific
extrusion process is proprietary information, but the process of
impregnating the methoprene is as follows: the outer layer of the
packaging consisted of biaxially oriented polypropylene that was
18 mm thick (18 g/m2 weight), and the inner woven layer consisted
of a 60 g/m2 of fabric weight. The middle adhesive resin layer of
20 g/m2 weight contained the active methoprene layer which was
mixed into the polymer pellet matrix and extruded. This layer is
8 mm thick and is loaded with a methoprene application rate of 0.1%
or 1000 ppm per area.
2.3. Effect of short term larval exposure on adult emergence
Eighty individual treatment arenas were constructed by cutting
150  25 mm (137 cm2) circular discs from packaging material that
either contained methoprene (40 discs) or did not contain
methoprene (40 discs). Out of the 40 discs containing methoprene,
20 discs with the inside surface and 20 discs with the outside
surface were placed individually into separate 150  25 mm Petri
dishes. The dish edges were secured down by using adhesive
caulking (DAP Products Inc., Baltimore, Maryland, USA) and the
inner sides were coated with polytetrafluoroethylene (Fluon®)
(Sigma-Aldrich Co., St. Louis, Missouri, USA) to prevent insects from
crawling on the sides or under the material. The inside and outside
surfaces of the untreated packaging were placed in Petri dishes, in
the same manner. Treatment combinations included, untreated or
methoprene-treated material, two surfaces (inside vs. outside), two
temperatures 27 and 32
C at 60% r.h, and two insect species,
T. castaneum and T. variabile. Each treatment combination was
replicated five times.
Testing methodology was modified from that described by
Arthur and Fontenot (2012). Fifty 4-week-old larvae of each species
were exposed on each of the 40 methoprene-treated and untreated
(control) arenas. Each arena was supplemented with 1500 mg of
flour with yeast (T. castaneum) or vanilla shake mix (T. variabile).
Treatment and control arenas were placed in an environmental
chamber at 27 and 32
C, both at 60% r.h. Larvae were exposed to
methoprene-treated or untreated arenas and inside or outside
surfaces for 8, 24, 48, 72, and 96 h. At each exposure time, 10 larvae
were selected at random and removed from the arena and trans-
ferred to new untreated Petri dishes, 100  15 mm for T. castaneum
or 100  20 mm for T. variabile, along with 500 mg of the respective
untreated insect diet and held in the environmental chambers at
the two temperatures for 3e4 weeks until the adults emerged. Diet
was added as needed to sustain growth. The number of normal
adults that emerged, and did not have any visible morphological
deformities, were recorded and expressed as a percentage of the
original number exposed. Any beetles that remained in the larval or
pupal stages or adults with morphological deformities were also
144 D.S. Scheff et al. / Journal of Stored Products Research 73 (2017) 142e150
recorded. Morphologically deformed adults included those with
missing or deformed body parts, unsclerotized patches on the
exoskeleton, or wing deformities.
2.4. Effect of methoprene on egg hatchability of T. castaneum and T.
variabile
Forty eight individual arenas were prepared as described pre-
viously, except disc sizes were 9 cm in diameter (62 cm2) and fitted
into 100  15 mm (T. castaneum) or 100  20 mm (T. variabile) Petri
dishes. Twenty four arenas did not contain methoprene (control)
and 24 were methoprene-treated. Both the inside (12 arenas per
treatment) and outside surfaces (12 arenas per treatment) of each
material were evaluated. Disc edges were secured with adhesive
caulking and the inner sides were coated with Fluon®. Each treat-
ment combination was replicated six times.
To determine the effect of methoprene-treated packaging on
T. castaneum and T. variabile egg hatchability, twenty five 3e4 day
old eggs were added to testing arenas and held at 27 or 32
C and
60% r.h. The number of larvae that hatched for each species and
treatment combination after 7 d was recorded and the percent egg
hatchability was determined from the number of eggs that hatched
out of the total exposed.
2.5. Effect of methoprene on adult fecundity and subsequent egg
hatchability
Forty eight individual treatment arenas were constructed as
described in 2.4. Approximately 500 mg of flour pre-sifted through
a 150 mm opening sieve (Newark Wire Cloth Company) was added
to each treatment arena. Ten unsexed adults of mixed ages of
T. castaneum or T. variabile were added to arenas and held at 27 or
32
C and 60% r.h. for 7 or 3 days, respectively. Following exposure
to each treatment combination, adults were removed, frozen, and
separated into male and females using characteristics described by
Bousquet (1990). The contents of each arena were sifted using a
250 mm opening sieve to remove flour but retain the eggs. The
number of eggs laid per female was counted, and the unhatched
eggs were transferred to new untreated Petri dishes to determine
percent hatchability after 7 d for each species and treatment
combination. Percent egg hatchability was based number of eggs
that hatched out of the total that were laid. Each treatment com-
bination was replicated six times.
2.6. Effect of methoprene on egg-to-adult emergence of T.
castaneum and T. variabile
Individual treatment arenas were constructed as previously
described in 2.4. A total of 24 discs of untreated and 24 of
methoprene-treated materials were cut manually. For each species,
the untreated and methoprene-treated discs, inside and outside
surfaces, and two temperatures were replicated six times.
Approximately 500 mg of insect diet was placed in each arena, flour
for T. castaneum and vanilla shake mix for T. variabile. Ten unsexed
adults of mixed ages of a species were placed in individual arenas
and incubated in a growth chamber at 27 and 32
C and 60% r.h.
Adult T. castaneum were held in the chambers for 7 d and adult
T. variabile for 3 d to facilitate egg laying. After 7 or 3 d, adults were
gently removed from arenas using forceps, and placed in a freezer
and then separated into males and females using characteristics
described by Bousquet (1990). The arenas with eggs were placed
back into the environmental growth chambers and examined every
2e4 d and food (500 mg) was added as needed. The eggs were
reared to adulthood, and arenas were held at the two temperatures
until F1 larvae were present in the control arenas. The total time for
this to occur spanned approximately 8e11 weeks. Adults were
assessed as either morphologically normal or deformed. Deformed
adults primarily included pupal-adult intermediates and adults
with twisted wings. The deformed category also included super-
numerary larvae that failed to pupate after 11 weeks. Each treat-
ment combination was replicated six times. This experiment was
designed to examine the effect of methoprene-treated packaging
on the full life cycle for each species, and was a culmination of
information from experiments 2.4 and 2.5. Packaged food products
often sit in warehouses, distribution centers, shipping containers,
or retail spaces for weeks to months before they are moved. Adult
beetles will lay eggs in food patches and hatched larvae will feed on
these food patches. Therefore, it is likely that larvae could spend
weeks on a single package or a pallet of packaged products if a food
source is available, as is the case in this experiment.
2.7. Data analysis
Data were analyzed by species. Data on the percentage of
normal adults that emerged from 4-week-old larvae at the five
exposure intervals were transformed to angular values for statis-
tical analysis (Zar, 1984). Since 10 larvae were sampled at each of
the five exposure intervals, data on percentage of normal adults
that emerged by exposure interval among treatment combinations
were subjected to one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA). If the
ANOVA was significant (P < 0.05), differences among treatment
combinations were determined by Ryan-Einot-Gabriel-Welsch
(REGWQ) multiple range test (SAS Institute Inc., 2008). Data on
percent egg hatchability by species were transformed to angular
values and differences (P < 0.05) in hatchability among treatment
combinations were determined by one-way ANOVA and REGWQ
multiple range test. In tests where adults were exposed for 7 or 3 d
to determine number of eggs laid and percent egg hatchability,
differences in number of males and females of a species among
replicates in each treatment were determined by a paired t-test to
test for deviation from a 1:1 sex ratio. Data on the mean number of
females among treatment combinations and number of eggs laid
per female were transformed to log10 (x) scale and data on percent
egg hatchability were transformed to angular values. These data
were subjected to one-way ANOVA and REGWQ multiple range test
to find differences among the treatment combinations. In egg-to-
adult emergence tests, the number of males and females of a spe-
cies among replications in each of the treatments were determined
by paired t-tests. Data on the number of normal and deformed
adults that emerged from eggs were transformed to log10 (x þ 1),
and subjected to one-way ANOVA and REGWQ multiple range test
to detect difference among treatment combinations.
3. Results
3.1. Effect of exposure interval and temperature on adult emergence
The mean percent normal adult emergence of T. castaneum
varied over time (Table 1). Significant differences in normal adult
emergence were noted only at 96 h among treatment combinations
(F ¼ 4.76; df ¼ 7, 32; P ¼ 0.0009). The lowest percent normal adult
emergence occurred on the methoprene-treated inside surface at
96 h exposure and 32
C. Only 24.0% emerged as normal adults, and
the emergence on this treatment was significantly different from
emergence on all untreated surfaces irrespective of the tempera-
ture. Across all methoprene-treated surfaces at 96 h of exposure,
adult emergence ranged from 24.0 to 42.0% and the percent
reduction in emergence compared to emergence on untreated
 D.S. Scheff et al. / Journal of Stored Products Research 73 (2017) 142e150 145

Table 1
Percentage (%) of normal adult emergence of T. castaneum over short time periods.

Surface Temp. (
C) Treatment Mean (±SE)a

Exposure time (h)

8b 24c 48d 72e 96

Outside 27 Control 68.0 ± 3.7 66.0 ± 6.8 58.0 ± 9.7 78.0 ± 7.3 78.0 ± 7.3a
Methoprene 80.0 ± 7.1 76.0 ± 8.1 78.0 ± 7.3 70.0 ± 13.5 34.0 ± 5.1ab
32 Control 68.0 ± 8.6 66.0 ± 8.1 64.0 ± 7.5 82.0 ± 7.3 78.0 ± 10.2a
Methoprene 60.0 ± 4.5 82.0 ± 8.6 74.0 ± 18.9 68.0 ± 17.1 38.0 ± 15.0ab
Inside 27 Control 72.0 ± 8.6 88.0 ± 5.8 70.0 ± 4.5 78.0 ± 3.7 82.0 ± 6.6a
Methoprene 80.0 ± 3.2 68.0 ± 3.7 54.0 ± 12.1 92.0 ± 4.8 42.0 ± 9.2ab
32 Control 76.0 ± 10.3 76.0 ± 6.8 82.0 ± 5.8 78.0 ± 9.7 76.0 ± 11.2a
Methoprene 72.0 ± 5.8 62.0 ± 8.6 74.0 ± 9.3 38.0 ± 16.9 24.0 ± 15.0b
a
Mean for each exposure time followed by different letters are significantly different (P < 0.05; by Ryan-Einot-Gabriel-Welsch (REGWQ) multiple range test).
b
There were no significant differences among the treatment combinations (F ¼ 0.94; df ¼ 7, 32; P ¼ 0.4894; by one-way ANOVA).
c
There were no significant differences among the treatment combinations (F ¼ 1.65; df ¼ 7, 32; P ¼ 0.1566; by one-way ANOVA).
d
There were no significant differences among the treatment combinations (F ¼ 0.82; df ¼ 7, 32; P ¼ 0.5806; by one-way ANOVA).
e
There were no significant differences among the treatment combinations (F ¼ 2.25; df ¼ 7, 30; P ¼ 0.0578; by one-way ANOVA).

surfaces ranged from 48.8 to 68.4%. Treatment comparisons across
each of the exposure times between 8 and 48 h were not significant
(F, range among exposure times ¼ 0.82e1.65; df ¼ 7, 32; P,
range ¼ 0.1566e0.5806). Lack of differences were also found
among treatment combinations at the 72 h exposure time
(F ¼ 2.25; df ¼ 7, 30; P ¼ 0.0578). Our results show longer exposure
times are needed to significantly reduce the number of normal
adults that emerged from 4-week old T. castaneum larvae exposed
on methoprene-treated packaging material.
The lowest mean percent normal adult emergence for
T. variabile was 50% on the methoprene-treated outside surface at
32
C at 48 and 72 h exposure periods (Table 2). Among all treat-
ment combinations T. variabile normal adult emergence was
significantly affected after 48 and 72 h of exposure to methoprene-
treated packaging material (F, range among treatment
combinations ¼ 3.82e4.52; df ¼ 7, 30; P, range ¼ 0.0015e0.0044).
After 48 h of exposure the percentage of normal adult emergence
on the outside and inside surfaces of the methoprene-treated sur-
faces at 32
C (50 and 52%, respectively), was significantly lower
than the outside surface of both the untreated and methoprene-
treated packaging at 27
C (84 and 92%, respectively). At 72 h, the
outside methoprene-treated surface at 32
C had 50% normal adult
emergence, which was significantly different from the untreated
packaging at 27
C with 90% emergence. T. variabile larvae exposed
for 8 h produced a significant effect on the number of normal adults
that emerged (F ¼ 2.45; df ¼ 7, 29; P ¼ 0.0419). In order to find
which treatment combinations were significantly different, linear
contrasts were used to compare pairwise combinations. Significant
pairwise differences on the number of normal adult emergence of
T. variable are shown in Table 3. The number of normal adults that
emerged on untreated outside surface at 27
C was not significantly
different from the untreated inside surface or any treated surface at
27
C (F, range among pairwise comparisons ¼ 0.03e0.91; df ¼ 1,
29; P, range ¼ 0.3470e0.8560). The number of normal adults that
emerged on the inside untreated surface at 27
C was not signifi-
cantly different from both methoprene-treated surfaces at 27 or
32
C (F, range among pairwise comparisons ¼ 0.40e3.99; df ¼ 1,
29; P, range ¼ 0.0552e0.5329). There were no significant differ-
ences in normal adult emergence on the methoprene-treated sur-
face at 27
C and any treatment and surface combination at 32
C or
the outside methoprene-treated surface at 32
C (F, range among
pairwise comparisons ¼ 0.51e1.97; df ¼ 1, 29; P,
range ¼ 0.1709e0.4802). The untreated inside and outside surfaces
at 32
C were not significantly different than the inside and outside
surfaces of the methoprene-treated packaging at 32
C on the
normal adult emergence of T. variabile (F, range among pairwise
comparisons ¼ 0.00e0.47; df ¼ 1, 29; P, range ¼ 0.4988e0.9786).
Additionally, the methoprene-treated inside and outside surfaces at
32
C were not significantly different from each other (F ¼ 0.35;
df ¼ 1, 29; P ¼ 0.5567).
The number of normal T. variabile adults that emerged after the
four-week-old larvae were exposed for 24 h was significantly

Table 2
Percentage (%) of normal adult emergence of T. variabile over short time periods.

Surface Temp. (
C) Treatment Mean (±SE)a

Exposure time (h)

8b 24c 48 72 96d

Outside 27 Control 84.0 ± 5.1 88.0 ± 5.8 84.0 ± 9.3a 90.0 ± 5.5a 86.0 ± 5.1
Methoprene 78.0 ± 2.0 86.0 ± 2.4 92.0 ± 3.7a 77.5 ± 10.3ab 84.0 ± 9.3
32 Control 60.0 ± 10.8 60.0 ± 0.0 70.0 ± 12.2ab 58.0 ± 14.6ab 70.0 ± 6.3
Methoprene 70.0 ± 3.2 70.0 ± 8.4 50.0 ± 8.4b 50.0 ± 4.5b 68.0 ± 8.6
Inside 27 Control 82.0 ± 5.8 84.0 ± 5.1 86.0 ± 4.0ab 88.0 ± 3.7ab 86.0 ± 7.5
Methoprene 88.0 ± 4.9 86.0 ± 5.1 84.0 ± 5.1ab 87.5 ± 4.8ab 80.0 ± 5.5
32 Control 60.0 ± 14.7 66.0 ± 12.1 75.0 ± 2.9ab 66.0 ± 5.1ab 78.0 ± 3.7
Methoprene 62.5 ± 4.8 76.0 ± 5.1 52.0 ± 8.0b 64.0 ± 6.8ab 62.0 ± 9.2
a
Mean for each exposure time followed by different letters are significantly different (P < 0.05; by REGWQ multiple range test).
b
There were significant differences among the treatment combinations (F ¼ 2.45; df ¼ 7, 29; P ¼ 0.0419; by one-way ANOVA), but the REGWQ multiple range test failed to
show significant differences among treatment combinations. Significant differences were separated using linear contrast (see Table 3).
c
There were significant differences among the treatments (F ¼ 2.67; df ¼ 7, 32; P ¼ 0.0270; by one-way ANOVA), but the REGWQ multiple range test failed to show
significant differences among treatment combinations. Significant differences were separated using linear contrast (see Table 4).
d
There were no significant differences among the treatment combinations (F ¼ 1.90; df ¼ 7, 32; P ¼ 0.1026; by one-way ANOVA).
146 D.S. Scheff et al. / Journal of Stored Products Research 73 (2017) 142e150

Table 3
Linear contrasts showing significant pairwise comparisons of the number of normal T. variabile adults after 8 h exposures of four-week-old larvae.

Treatments compareda Mean Square F-valuea P-value

Untreated outside surface at 27
C vs Untreated outside surface at 32
C 0.205 5.11 0.0315

Untreated outside surface at 27
C vs Untreated inside surface at 32
C 0.200 4.98 0.0335
Untreated outside surface at 27
C vs Methoprene-treated inside surface at 32
C 0.189 4.71 0.0383
Untreated inside surface at 27
C vs Untreated outside surface at 32
C 0.174 4.36 0.0457
Untreated inside surface at 27
C vs Untreated inside surface at 32
C 0.170 4.24 0.0486
Methoprene-treated inside surface at 27
C vs Untreated outside surface at 32
C 0.289 7.20 0.0119
Methoprene-treated inside surface at 27
C vs Untreated inside surface at 32
C 0.283 7.05 0.0127
Methoprene-treated inside surface at 27
C vs Methoprene-treated outside surface at 32
C 0.180 4.49 0.0428
Methoprene-treated inside surface at 27
C vs Methoprene-treated inside surface at 32
C 0.270 6.72 0.0148
Error 0.040
a
The degrees of freedom (df) for each pairwise comparison is 1, 29.

Table 4
Linear contrasts showing significant pairwise comparisons of the number of normal T. variabile adults after 24 h exposures of four-week-old larvae.

Treatments compareda Mean Square F-valuea P-value

Untreated outside surface at 27 C vs Untreated outside surface at 32 C 0.424 10.46 0.0030
Untreated outside surface at 27
C vs Untreated inside surface at 32
C 0.285 7.02 0.0129
Untreated outside surface at 27
C vs Methoprene-treated outside surface at 32
C 0.215 5.30 0.0287
Untreated inside surface at 27
C vs Untreated outside surface at 32
C 0.254 6.28 0.0181
Methoprene-treated outside surface at 27
C vs Untreated outside surface at 32
C 0.237 5.78 0.0228
Methoprene-treated inside surface at 27
C vs Untreated outside surface at 32
C 0.302 7.44 0.010
Methoprene-treated inside surface at 27
C vs Untreated inside surface at 32
C 0.186 4.60 0.0405
Error 0.041
a
The degrees of freedom (df) for each pairwise comparison is 1, 32.

different among treatment combinations (F ¼ 2.67; df ¼ 7, 32; 3.2. Effect of methoprene on egg hatchability of T. castaneum and T.
P ¼ 0.0270). Linear contrasts were used to compare pairwise variabile
treatment combinations to determine significant differences
(Table 4). The untreated inside and outside surface at 27
C were The mean ±SE percentage egg hatchability of T. castaneum eggs
not significantly different for normal adult emergence compared added to arenas ranged from 86.2 ± 3.2 to 96.7± 1.1% (Table 5).
to both methoprene-treated surfaces at 27
C (F, range among There was a significant difference based on a global ANOVA
pairwise comparisons ¼ 0.01e0.69; df 1, 32; P, (F ¼ 2.92; df ¼ 7, 40; P ¼ 0.0145) and linear contrasts were used to
range ¼ 0.4135e0.9207). The untreated surfaces at 27 and 32
C compare all treatment combinations. Significant pairwise com-
were not significantly different from each other (F, range among parisons are shown in Table 6. Both untreated surfaces at 27 or
pairwise comparisons ¼ 0.34e0.53; df ¼ 1, 32; P, 32
C were not significantly different from each other, and had no
range ¼ 0.4717e0.5633). Normal adult emergence was not significant effect on egg hatchability of T. castaneum eggs (F, range
significantly different between the outside untreated surface at 27 among pairwise comparisons ¼ 0.27e0.74; df ¼ 1, 40; P,
or 32
C compared to the inside methoprene-treated surface at range ¼ 0.3960e0.6093). There were no significant differences
32
C (F, range among pairwise comparisons ¼ 2.04e3.25; df ¼ 1, between the outside methoprene-treated surface and any surface
32; P, range ¼ 0.0807e0.1625). There were no significant differ- at 32
C or the inside methoprene-treated surface at 27
C (F, range
ences between the outside or inside surfaces of the methoprene- among pairwise comparisons ¼ 0.00e4.06; df ¼ 1, 40; P,
treated packaging at 27
C (F ¼ 0.10; df ¼ 1, 32, P ¼ 0.7486). Both
treatment surfaces and the inside untreated surface at 32
C were
not significantly different from the outside untreated surface at Table 5
27
C (F, range among pairwise comparisons ¼ 1.16e3.69; df ¼ 1, Percent hatchability (%) of T. castaneum and T. variabile eggs exposed to treatment
combinations.
32; P, range ¼ 0.0636e0.2902). Normal adult emergence after 24 h
was not significantly different between the outside methoprene- Surface Temperature (
C) Treatment Mean (±SE)a
treated surface at 27 or 32
C compared to both methoprene- T. castaneumb T. variabile
treated surfaces at 32
C (F, range among pairwise Outside 27 Control 89.1 ± 1.2 90.9 ± 2.6a
comparisons ¼ 0.95e3.23; df ¼ 1, 32; P, range ¼ 0.0818e0.3367). Methoprene 96.7 ± 1.1 87.8 ± 2.0ab
The outside methoprene-treated surface at 32
C was not signifi- 32 Control 95.5 ± 2.4 67.9 ± 3.9dc
cantly different compared to the inside methoprene-treated sur- Methoprene 95.0 ± 1.4 82.5 ± 3.0abc
Inside 27 Control 86.2 ± 3.2 87.0 ± 2.9ab
face at 32
C (F ¼ 0.25; df ¼ 1, 32; P ¼ 0.6215). There was no
Methoprene 89.4 ± 3.0 81.7 ± 2.0abc
difference between the untreated or methoprene-treated surface 32 Control 94.4 ± 1.8 59.3 ± 4.5d
at 32
C (F ¼ 0.87; df ¼ 1, 32, P ¼ 0.3587). Additionally, the number Methoprene 96.5 ± 1.3 74.0 ± 5.8bcd
of normal adults that emerged after 24 h exposure of four-week- a
Means for each species and variable studied followed by different letters are
old larvae was not significantly different between the inside un- significantly different (P < 0.05; by REGWQ multiple range test).
b
treated surface compared to both methoprene-treated surfaces at There were significant differences among the treatment combinations (F ¼ 2.92;
32
C (F, range in values ¼ 0.12e0.72; df ¼ 1, 32; P, df ¼ 7, 40; P ¼ 0.0145; by one-way ANOVA), but the REGWQ multiple range test
failed to show significant differences among treatment combinations. Significant
range ¼ 0.4040e0.7307).
differences were separated using linear contrast (see Table 6).
 D.S. Scheff et al. / Journal of Stored Products Research 73 (2017) 142e150 147

Table 6
Linear contrast showing significant pairwise comparisons of percent hatchability of T. castaneum eggs exposed to treatment combinations.

Treatments compareda Mean Square F-valuea P-value

Untreated outside surface at 27
C vs Methoprene-treated outside surface at 27
C 0.100 6.26 0.0182

Untreated outside surface at 27
C vs Untreated outside surface at 32
C 0.101 6.31 0.0178
Untreated outside surface at 27
C vs Methoprene-treated inside surface at 32
C 0.097 6.04 0.0202
Untreated inside surface at 27
C vs Methoprene-treated outside surface at 27
C 0.146 9.10 0.0053
Untreated inside surface at 27
C vs Untreated outside surface at 32
C 0.147 9.16 0.0051
Untreated inside surface at 27
C vs Untreated inside surface at 32
C 0.045 4.71 0.0383
Untreated inside surface at 27
C vs Untreated inside surface at 32
C 0.084 5.23 0.0297
Untreated inside surface at 27
C vs. Methoprene-treated inside surface at 32
C 0.142 8.84 0.0059
Methoprene-treated inside surface at 27
C vs. Untreated outside surface at 32
C 0.070 4.11 0.0519**
Error 0.016

**Significant at P < 0.06.

a
The degrees of freedom (df) for each pairwise comparison is 1, 40.

range ¼ 0.0506e0.9652). The percent egg hatchability on the un-
treated outside surface at 27
C was not significantly different from
the methoprene-treated inside surface at 27
C (F ¼ 0.24; df ¼ 1, 40;
P ¼ 0.6297), the outside methoprene-treated surface at 32
C
(F ¼ 3.14; df ¼ 1, 40; P ¼ 0.0841) or the untreated inside surface at
32
C (F ¼ 2.74; df ¼ 1, 40; P ¼ 0.1059). There was no significant
difference between inside untreated and methoprene-treated sur-
faces at 27
C (F ¼ 1.00; df ¼ 1, 40; P ¼ 0.3229). Percent egg
hatchability was not different between the outside methoprene-
treated surface at 27
C compared to both methoprene-treated
surfaces and the untreated inside surface at 32
C (F, range
among pairwise comparisons ¼ 1.37e3.89; df ¼ 1, 40; P,
range ¼ 0.0556e0.2496). Both the untreated surfaces at 32
C were
not significantly different for percent egg hatchability compared to
both methoprene-treated surfaces at 32
C (F, range among pair-
wise comparisons ¼ 0.00e0.65; df ¼ 1, 40; P,
range ¼ 0.4266e0.9566). Additionally, the percent egg hatchability
was not significantly different between in the inside and outside
methoprene-treated surfaces at 32
C (F ¼ 0.47; df ¼ 1, 40;
P ¼ 0.4966).
The mean ±SE percentage of hatchability of T. variable eggs
added to treatment arenas ranged from 59.3 ± 4.5 to 87.8 ± 2.0%
(Table 5). There was a significant difference between the treat-
ments (F ¼ 8.77, df ¼ 7, 40; P < 0.001). The outside surface of the
control packaging at 27
C had the highest percentage of egg
hatchability, and the inside surface of the control package at 32
C
had the lowest percent hatchability. At 27
C, both the outside and
inside methoprene-treated surfaces showed a lower percent
hatchability compared to the untreated surface. However, at 32
C
the untreated surfaces had a lower percent hatchability compared
to the methoprene-treated surfaces.
3.3. Effect of methoprene on fecundity and egg hatchability of T.
castaneum and T. variabile
The mean ±SE number of female T. castaneum adults ranged
from 4.2 ± 0.7 to 6.2 ± 0.6 (Table 7). A paired t-test between females
and male T. castaneum for each treatment showed no significant
differences (t, range among treatments ¼ 1.27 to 1.91; df ¼ 5; P,
range ¼ 0.1099e1.000). The mean ± SE number of T. variabile fe-
males per arena ranges from 3.8 ± 0.7 to 5.0 ± 0.6. A paired t-test
between females and males, showed no significant differences for
each of the treatments (t, range among treatments ¼ 1.81 to 0.42;
df ¼ 5; P, range ¼ 0.1303e1.0000).
The mean number of eggs laid per female was significant for
T. castaneum (F ¼ 2.56; df ¼ 7, 40; P ¼ 0.0281). The outside surface
of methoprene-treated packaging held at 32
C had significantly
the most eggs laid per T. castaneum female (mean ± SE) 17.1 ± 3.1,
while the methoprene-treated inside surfaces at 27
C had signif-
icantly the fewer eggs laid 7.4 ± 2.0 (Table 7). All other treatments
did not differ significantly from these. There were significant dif-
ferences among the mean percent hatchability of T. castaneum eggs
(F ¼ 2.35; df ¼ 7, 40; P ¼ 0.0415). The inside surface of the
methoprene-treated material 27
C had the highest percent egg
hatchability, 81.4 ± 5.4%. The outside surface of the methoprene-
treated material at 32
C had the lowest percent egg hatchability
36.3± 3.7%. The other treatments did not differ significantly from
these two treatments.
The methoprene-treated material did not have a significant ef-
fect on the number of eggs laid per female or the subsequent egg
hatchability of T. variabile (Table 7) (F, range among treatments
combinations for eggs laid and egg hatchability ¼ 1.18e1.37; df ¼ 7,
40; P, range ¼ 0.2440e0.3397). The mean (±SE) number of eggs laid

Table 7
Effects of exposure of T. castaneum and T. variabile adults to methoprene-treated package surfaces on number of eggs laid by females and percent egg hatchability.

Surface Temp. (
C) Treatment Mean (±SE)a

T. castaneum T. variabile

Number of femalesb Number of eggs/female % Egg hatchability Number of femalesb Number of eggs/femalec % Egg hatchabilityd

Outside 27 Control 5.2 ± 0.3 10.5 ± 1.5ab 69.0 ± 8.3ab 4.7 ± 0.6 51.9 ± 6.3 88.9 ± 3.7
Methoprene 5.2 ± 0.8 8.9 ± 1.4ab 63.2 ± 7.7ab 4.7 ± 0.5 47.0 ± 7.0 86.2 ± 3.8
32 Control 4.7 ± 0.3 13.5 ± 2.3ab 56.5 ± 2.9ab 5.0 ± 0.6 67.0 ± 11.5 95.0 ± 1.1
Methoprene 4.2 ± 0.7 17.1 ± 3.1a 36.3 ± 3.7b 3.8 ± 0.7 42.8 ± 7.0 87.0 ± 7.1
Inside 27 Control 6.2 ± 0.6 7.6 ± 1.8ab 63.3 ± 6.5ab 4.8 ± 0.4 67.9 ± 12.2 80.3 ± 7.5
Methoprene 5.0 ± 0.8 7.4 ± 2.0b 81.4 ± 5.4a 4.5 ± 0.3 44.7 ± 11.7 90.4 ± 3.9
32 Control 5.5 ± 0.3 11.4 ± 2.4ab 61.0 ± 13.7ab 4.3 ± 0.5 66.6 ± 9.7 95.8 ± 2.1
Methoprene 4.2 ± 0.7 11.2 ± 1.8ab 56.7 ± 4.0ab 4.5 ± 0.5 46.1 ± 8.7 92.0 ± 0.8
a
Mean for each species and variable followed by different letters are significantly different (P < 0.05; by RGEWQ multiple range test).
b
There were no significant differences among the treatment combinations (F, range among treatment combinations and species ¼ 0.66e1.16; df ¼ 7, 40; P,
range ¼ 0.3493e0.7046).
c
There were no significant differences among the treatment combinations (F ¼ 1.18; df ¼ 7, 40; P ¼ 0.3397).
d
There were no significant differences among the treatment combinations (F ¼ 1.37; df ¼ 7, 40; P ¼ 0.2440).
148 D.S. Scheff et al. / Journal of Stored Products Research 73 (2017) 142e150

Table 8
Effect of continuous exposure to methoprene-treated surfaces on T. castaneum and T. variabile egg-to-adult development.

Surface Temp. (
C) Treatment Mean (±SE)a

T. castaneum T. variabile

Normal Deformed Normal Deformed

Outside 27 Control 16.5 ± 2.2a 0.8 ± 0.3b 164.7 ± 14.6a 12.8 ± 4.9bc
Methoprene 0.0 ± 0.0b 11.0 ± 2.0a 106.5 ± 28.6a 31.0 ± 4.4b
32 Control 12.3 ± 4.0a 1.2 ± 0.4b 149.2 ± 15.6a 4.0 ± 1.1cd
Methoprene 0.0 ± 0.0b 14.8 ± 1.5a 5.3 ± 2.9b 122.3 ± 22.8a
Inside 27 Control 20.3 ± 4.2a 0.5 ± 0.3b 131.2 ± 10.0a 1.8 ± 0.7c
Methoprene 0.0 ± 0.0b 15.3 ± 2.9a 77.5 ± 28.5a 7.7 ± 3.0cd
32 Control 12.7 ± 2.2a 0.2 ± 0.2b 175.0 ± 21.0a 9.0 ± 2.7d
Methoprene 0.0 ± 0.0b 12.5 ± 3.2a 115.7 ± 14.7a 14.0 ± 3.7bc
a
Means among treatment combinations for each species and variable studied followed by different letters are significantly different (P < 0.05; by RGEWQ multiple range
test).

per female T. variabile ranged from 42.8 ± 7.0 to 67.9 ± 12.2. Adult
T. variabile exposed on the inside and outside methoprene-treated
surfaces had fewer eggs laid than the untreated surfaces at the
same temperature. The percent egg hatchability for T. variabile
ranged from 80.3 to 95.8%. In all comparison except the inside
surfaces at 27
C, the percent hatchability of T. variabile eggs was
lower on the methoprene-treated surface.
3.4. Effect of continual exposure of methoprene-treated packaging
on egg-to-adult development of T. castaneum and T. variabile
The mean ±SE number of T. castaneum females ranged from
4.7 ± 0.4 to 5.8 ± 0.7. A paired t-test indicated that there was no
significant differences between male and female T. castaneum in
each of the treatments (F, range among treatments ¼ 0.79e1.58;
df ¼ 5; P, range ¼ 0.1747e1.0000). The mean ±SE number of female
T. variabile ranged from 3.8 ± 0.6 to 4.8 ± 0.6. A paired t-test showed
a significant difference between the number of female and males
on the outside surface of the untreated material at 32
C (t ¼ 2.80;
df ¼ 5; P ¼ 0.0379).
The methoprene-treated packaging had a significant effect on
the number of normal T. castaneum adults (F ¼ 95.70; df ¼ 7, 40;
P < 0.0001) and deformed adults (F ¼ 38.70; df ¼ 7, 40; P < 0.0001).
The methoprene-treated material had a 100% reduction of normal
adult emergence among all treatment combinations at both tem-
peratures (Table 8). Additionally, the number of deformities was
significantly higher methoprene-treated surfaces compared to all
untreated surfaces. The mean deformities on untreated surfaces
were less than 1.2 ± 0.4 adults. On methoprene-treated surfaces the
range in deformities was 11.0 ± 2.0 to 15.3 ± 2.9. The deformities of
T. castaneum consisted of supernumerary larvae and pupal-adult
intermediates.
Results of exposing T. variabile to methoprene-treated packaging
showed significant differences in normal adult emergence
(F ¼ 23.34; df ¼ 7, 40; P < 0.0001). The outside surface of the
methoprene-treated material held at 32
C had the fewest normal
adults, and a 96.4% reduction in normal adult emergence compared
to the control surface (Table 8). All other methoprene treatments
were not significantly different from the control, and the percent
reduction ranged from 33.9 to 40.9% compared to the control
treatment. The number of deformities was significant among
treatments (F ¼ 21.44; df ¼ 7, 40; P < 0.001). Since the outside
surface of the methoprene packaging held at 32
C had the fewest
number of normal adults emerge, it therefore had the highest fre-
quency of deformities among all treatments. Compared to the
respective controls, on methoprene-treated surfaces a greater
number of deformities were observed. Both methoprene-treated
surfaces at 27 and 32
C, varied significantly from their respective
untreated surfaces.
4. Discussion
Comparisons of the exposures of T. castaneum and T. variabile on
methoprene-treated packaging showed a significant reduction in
normal adult emergence for T. castaneum after 96 h of exposure and
48 and 72 h exposure for T. variabile, but shorter exposure periods
had no effect on normal adult emergence. The lowest mean adult
emergence for both species occurred at the 32
C. Jenson et al.
(2009) exposed fifth instar Indian meal moth, Plodia inter-
punctella (Hübner), on paper treated with 0.0003 mg active
ingredient (AI) methoprene/cm2 for 0, 0.5, 1, and 2 h at 20, 24, 28,
and 32
C and determined adult emergence from exposed larvae.
Adult emergence was significantly reduced with increasing expo-
sure periods, but temperature did not have a significant effect.
However, similar to this study, Jenson et al. (2009) found that the
greatest mortality occurred at 32
C. Arthur (2001) reported that
more than 144 h were required to produce morphological and
toxicological effects on 4-week old T. castaneum larvae exposed on
concrete surfaces treated with 0.117 mg AI hydroprene per cm2.
Arthur and Fontenot (2012) found no adult emergence of 4-week
old T. castaneum larvae exposed on concrete, tile, and wood
treated with 3.0 mg AI per m2 methoprene. The results of the
current study, and previous experiments, demonstrate that long-
term exposures to IGRs are more effective at preventing adult
emergence of stored-product insect larvae compared to short ex-
posures. Longer exposures are required to produce adverse effects.
Since the methoprene was incorporated into an adhesive matrix
of the woven packaging, there may be an inherent variation of
methoprene distribution throughout the packaging material, which
could account for the variation in normal adult emergence among
replicates. In addition, there could be a defined time window of
sensitivity at which methoprene is most effective during develop-
ment (Wijayaratne et al., 2012). Since the current study used late
instars, there is an inherent variation in the rate of development,
especially at the two experimental temperatures. T. castaneum and
T. variabile develop faster at 32
C compared to 27
C (Howe, 1956;
Burges, 1961). Higher temperatures increases the rate of insect
development and could increase molecular movement of metho-
prene within the packaging matrix. This in turn could possibly in-
crease the absorption and metabolization of the methoprene at
32
C and the reason why higher temperatures appeared more
effective.
There were small differences in percent hatchability of eggs
directly exposed to methoprene-treated packaging. The differences
in percent hatchability could be attributed to handling losses from
aspirating the eggs to place on testing arenas, or lack of viable eggs.
In general, both beetle species laid fewer eggs and the subsequent
percent hatchability was lower in insects exposed to methoprene-
treated packaging compared to the untreated packaging. The
 D.S. Scheff et al. / Journal of Stored Products Research 73 (2017) 142e150
number of eggs laid per female and subsequent hatchability of
T. variabile in this study was similar to the results of Scheff et al.
(2016) when T. variabile eggs were exposed to methoprene-
treated PET-PE and PE-PE packaging. Wijayaratne et al. (2012)
demonstrated virgin adult T. castaneum exposed to 1.67, 16.65,
and 66.60 ppm methoprene-treated wheat for 7 d, followed by
paired mating combinations at a constant methoprene concentra-
tions, had no significant effect on the number of progeny produced
except for exposed males at 16.65 ppm mated with unexposed
females. Both Wijayaratne et al. (2012) and the current study
demonstrate a lack of a strong significant effect on adult fecundity
when exposed to methoprene, indicating that the most susceptible
life stage is the larval stage.
No normal adults of T. castaneum emerged from eggs laid on the
methoprene-treated woven packaging material. This result is
comparable to that of Scheff et al. (2016), where no normal adult
T. castaneum emerged from eggs laid on PE-PE packaging material
or the inside surface of the PET-PE packaging material. Scheff et al.
(2016) also showed T. variabile was less susceptible to methoprene-
treated polymer packaging material compared to T. castaneum.
Similarly, Arthur and Fontenot (2012) found that when 3.0 mg (AI)
per m2 methoprene was applied to concrete dishes, the number of
deformed confused flour beetle, Tribolium confusum (Jacquelin du
Val), adults resulting from eggs laid on exposed dishes was signif-
icantly higher on treatment dishes compared to the control.
Moreover, the results were repeated after 2, 4, and 8 weeks after the
initial treatment of the concrete dishes, which showed the residual
efficacy of methoprene surface treatments. Arthur (2016) tested a
similar 0.1% AI methoprene-treated laminated feed bags on adult
emergence of 4-week old T. castaneum larvae over a period of 12
months. After 12 months, the percent of adults that emerged was
<2% on the outside surface of the methoprene-treated packaging
material. However, the inside surface had a 70% adult emergence
after 12 months (Arthur, 2016). This indicated that the outside
laminate surface was more effective in preventing emergence of
adults from exposed larvae.
Current methods employed by food manufacturers and ware-
house facilities to control stored-product insects include stock
rotation, fumigation, contact insecticides, and aerosol applications.
These pest management techniques used singly may not be enough
to prevent infestations or control populations of stored-product
insects in manufacturing facilities, warehouses, distribution cen-
ters, or retail environments. However, a multi-pronged approach to
pest management which incorporates practices such as sanitation,
trapping, aerosol applications, and IGR-treated packaging may
provide an unsuitable environment for stored-product insect
populations. The methoprene-treated packaging used in this study
could be used in conjunction with existing pest management pro-
grams to prevent stored-product insect infestations in packaged
foods as part of an integrated pest management program. Continual
exposure of T. castaneum through an entire life cycle resulted in
zero normal adult beetles. On the contrary, only the outside surface
of the methoprene-treated packaging at 32
C produced a signifi-
cant reduction in normal adult emergence of T. variabile. This in-
dicates a variety of susceptibilities between insect species exists
and requires further investigation. The results of this study indicate
that this new packaging technology appears to be most affective
during long storage periods, which would occur during storage in
warehouses, distribution centers, and retail stores where packaged
products could be stored for weeks to months before they are
moved, shipped, or bought. The methoprene-treated packaging
would be a valuable asset to protect such packaged products over
time. Methoprene-treated packaging has shown promise to be a
method for protecting food products, and further testing is war-
ranted. Testing the methoprene impregnation technology on other
149
packaging materials such as laminated cardboard, metallized films,
or other polymer blends would be of value to food and feed man-
ufacturers due to the vast variety of packaging materials available in
the marketplace. Increasing the concentration of the active
methoprene incorporated within the current packaging matrix,
could provide greater control of young larvae over short time pe-
riods, for example <4 days. Additionally, investigating the effect of
methoprene-treated packaging on the penetration or invasion
ability of stored-product insects would further define the effec-
tiveness of this packaging technology at preventing infestations of
packaged food products.
Acknowledgements
We thank ProvisonGard™, Wayzata, Minnesota, USA, for
providing the packaging materials used in this research study, and
for their financial support. We thank the United States Department
of Agriculture's National Needs Fellowship Program under agree-
ment number 2012-38420-30205 for providing financial support.
Mention of trade names or commercial products in this publication
is solely for the purpose of providing specific information and does
not imply recommendation or endorsement by the Unites States
Department of Agriculture and Kansas State University. The United
States Department of Agriculture and Kansas State University are
equal opportunity providers and employers. This paper is contri-
bution number 17e291-J of the Kansas State University Agricultural
Experiment Station.
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