BITS-Pilani

1st Semester 2022-23

MATH F213
BITS Pilani (Discrete Mathematics)
Pilani|Dubai|Goa|Hyderabad
 BITS Pilani
Pilani | Dubai | Goa | Hyderabad

Section 1.6: Logical Inferences

 Learning Objectives

• How logic is used to make valid arguments

• To study the foundations of proofs of
Mathematical theorems

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Find P and Q. Check if P logically implies Q.

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Inference

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Inference

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Check if the following inference is valid.

BITS Pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3 of UGC Act, 1956

Sound and unsound arguments

Check if the following

inference is sound.

BITS Pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3 of UGC Act, 1956

 Exercise 1

Remark : This shows that if we have a valid inference, by

increasing the set of premises and keeping the same conclusion,
we still get a valid inference.
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 Exercise 2:

Solution is left as an exercise.

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 Rules of inference

Though validity of an inference can be proved by directly using

truth table or abbreviated truth table, certain well known
tautologies can be used as intermediate steps to show the validity
of an inference. They are called the Fundamental Rules of
Inference.

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Fundamental rules of
inference cont..

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Transitive rule

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Fundamental rules cont..

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More rules of inferences

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More …

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Fallacies

The faulty inferences are also called fallacies.

The inference

is a fallacy means the implication

is not a tautology (it can be a contradiction or a contingency).
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 Common fallacies

An inference can be proved faulty by truth table or an abbreviated

truth table. But one can use some common fallacies.

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Common Fallacies

3. Both 1. and 2. are special cases of more general type of fallacy

called non-sequitur. It means ‘does not follow’ . On writing it
symbolically, in this form it is not a tautology.

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 How to check validity of an
inference?

• Write all the premises and conclusion symbolically.

• The inference can be shown to be valid by showing that
conclusion logically follows from premises step by step where
each step is a rule of inference. (Alternately we can use truth
tables (full or abbreviated) to show corresponding implication is
a tautology).
• To show the inference is faulty, we can find a set of truth values
of the propositional variables which makes every premise true
but conclusion false. (Alternately, we can identify with a
common fallacy)

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Fundamental Rules

Fundamental Fallacies

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 Ex. III p 55
Determine if the inference is valid or faulty. If valid, produce some
evidence which will confirm the validity. If faulty, find a combination
of truth values that will confirm a fallacy, or indicate a fallacy.

1. If today is David’s birthday, then today is January 24.

Today is January 24. Step 2 : This is
Hence today is David’s birthday. a fallacy of
affirming
consequent

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If Lowell is studying for the ministry, then he is required to take
Theology and Greek.
Lowell is not required to take Greek.
Hence Lowell is not studying for the ministry.

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 (Simplification)

(Law of contrapositive)

Thus the
inference
(Transitive rule)
is valid

(Fundamental Rule 1)

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Valid inferences in
Mathematics

• In Mathematics, valid inferences are used in proofs of

theorems.
• The structure of Mathematics is based on certain axioms
and statements which are conclusions of valid inferences
with these axioms as premises.
• While stating theorems we won’t mention these axioms as
premises, but these axioms and their already known
conclusions will tacitly be used.
• Only new premises will be stated, but in the proofs each
step will be justified using these stated premises and/or the
propositions (i.e. standard results) which are already known
to be logical implications of the axioms.

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