PE ZC213 / TA ZC233

Engineering Measurements L-3

BITS Pilani Swapna Kulkarni

WILP Division, BITS-Pilani, Pilani
Pilani |Dubai |Goa |Hyderabad

1
Second order Systems

Second-order systems described are those that have mass

inertia or electric inductance.
Spring mass system:
Assume that the damping force
is proportional to velocity so that the
differential equation governing the
system is obtained from Newton’s
second law of motion as

BITS Pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3 of UGC Act, 1956

Suppose

• When the frequency of the oscillation is increased, the

scale body will react more violently until, at a certain
frequency called the natural frequency, the amplitude of
the displacement of the spring will take on its maximum
value and could be greater than the amplitude of the
impressed oscillation x1(t).
• The smaller the value of the damping constant, the
larger the maximum amplitude of the natural frequency.
• If the impressed frequency is increased further, the
amplitude of the displacement of the spring body will
decrease rather rapidly.
3

BITS Pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3 of UGC Act, 1956

 4

BITS Pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3 of UGC Act, 1956

 Introduction
What is Error and Uncertainty?
– Error
– Uncertainty is the component of a reported value that
characterizes the range of values within which the true
value is asserted to lie
– uncertainty can be defined as the possible value the error
may have.

BITS Pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3 of UGC Act, 1956

Types of errors

 Gross Errors
 Systematic Errors
 Instrumental
 Environmental
 Observational
 Random Errors

BITS Pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3 of UGC Act, 1956

Types of errors (Contd..)

 Gross Errors
These are completely due to human negligence i.e. due to
loose connections, reading the values, taking the values, and
doing calculations.
Gross errors are not common for all observers.
The reading can be taken correctly from the meter when the
observer is perpendicular to the meter and the eye contact
should be above the pointer.
 Systematic errors
This errors are in a systematic way and are constant with
respect to conditions.
Systematic errors are common for all observers. These can be
eliminated.
BITS Pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3 of UGC Act, 1956
Types of errors (Contd..)

 Random Errors
These are due to unidentified causes. The random errors are
more but effect is very small. So these can be considered only
when high accuracy is required.
 How to reduce Random errors?
 To reduce random errors mathematical technique is used .i.e.
multi sample data. In this same input is measured repeatedly
by many observers with many meters under different
conditions.

BITS Pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3 of UGC Act, 1956

Example 1

If R1=100 Ώ ±2
R2=50 Ώ ±1
Then R1+R2=?, R1-R2=?
Solution
R1+R2=100+50±(2+1)
= 150 Ώ ±3
R1-R2=100-50±(2+1)
= 50 Ώ ±3

BITS Pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3 of UGC Act, 1956

Example 2

If R1=100 Ώ ±2%
R2=50 Ώ ±1%
Then R1*R2=?, R1/R2=?
Solution
R1*R2=100*50±(2+1)
= 5000 Ώ ±3 %
R1/R2=100/50±(2+1)
= 2 Ώ ±3%

BITS Pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3 of UGC Act, 1956

Example 3

If R1=100 Ώ ±2%
R2=50 Ώ ±1%
Then R1+R2=?, R1-R2=?
Solution
R1+R2=100+50±(2+1)
= 150 Ώ ±3%
R1-R2=100-50±(2+1)
= 50 Ώ ±3%  wrong
First convert the percentages into absolute numbers and then
proceed.

BITS Pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3 of UGC Act, 1956

Example 3 (contd..)

If R1=100 Ώ ±2%
=100 Ώ ±1
R2=50 Ώ ±1%
=50 Ώ ±0.5
Then R1+R2=100+50±(1+0.5)
= 150 ±(1.5)
Similarly R1-R2=100-50±(1+0.5)
= 50 ±(1.5)
Conclusion :-1. To add the individual errors in addition and
subtraction they must be expressed in magnitude.
2.To add the individual errors in multiplication and division they
must be expressed in percentage.
BITS Pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3 of UGC Act, 1956
Statistical Analysis of Experimental Data

 When a set of readings of an instrument is taken, the

individual readings will vary somewhat from each other, and
the experimenter may be concerned with the mean of all the
readings. If each reading is denoted by xi and there are n
readings, the arithmetic mean is given by

 The deviation di for each reading is defined by

 What is the average of deviations of all the readings?

BITS Pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3 of UGC Act, 1956

Contd..

 The standard deviation or root-mean-square deviation is

defined by
For n<=20

For n>20

 Variance :- Square of Standard Deviation.

BITS Pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3 of UGC Act, 1956

Example

 Let the five readings be – {52,46,48,54,50}. Find Mean,

Standard Deviation, Variance.
Solution
No of readings = 5
Mean or Average = (x1+x2+x3+x4+x5)/5
= (46+48+50+52+54)/5
= 50
Deviation
d1= 46-50 = -4, d2=48-50 = -2, d3 = 50-50 =0
d4= 52-50 =2, d5= 54-50 =4

BITS Pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3 of UGC Act, 1956

Example (contd..)

 Standard Deviation =

((4) 2  (2) 2  (0) 2  (2) 2  (4) 2 )


5
(16  4  0  4  16)

5
40

5
 2.82

var iance  2  2.82 2

 8.00

BITS Pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3 of UGC Act, 1956

Example

A large standard deviation indicates that the data values are far from the mean
and a small standard deviation indicates that they are clustered closely around
the mean
BITS Pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3 of UGC Act, 1956