Engg Thermodynamics Review PDF

Fundamentals of Thermal
Engineering
Dr. M. S. Soni
BITS Pilani Asst. Professor, Mechanical Engineering,
Pilani Campus 3rd Sept., 2013
BITS Pilani
Pilani Campus
Fundamentals of Thermal
Engineering
1
Topics for Discussion
• Basics of thermodynamics
• Air standard cycles
• IC engines and their testing
• Air compressors
• Refrigeration and air conditioning
• Nozzles and jet propulsion
• External combustion engines
mssoni@bits-pilani.ac.in 3
BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus
Basics of Thermodynamics
Working Medium :
A matter which performs a continuous process of
receiving or rejecting work or heat
Phase of a matter :
Three types of homogeneous physical phases –
Solid, Liquid and Gas
2
Basic Concepts
System : A restricted region of space under study is
called system.
Surrounding: Anything and everything beyond the
system is called surrounding.
The system and surrounding are separated by

boundary.
The boundary may be dynamic.
System
Control Mass Control Volume
3
Basic Concepts
State of a System: Described by a set of observable,
macroscopic properties like pressure, temp,
density etc.
Property: Used to describe state of the system.
– Intensive: Independent of mass eg. Pressure,

temperature, Specific Volume, Specific Heat
etc.
– Extensive: Dependant upon mass or extent of
the system like volume, mass
Basic Concepts
Process: A change in state of the system is called
process.
The process which does not leave any mark on the

surrounding that it has ever taken place is called
reversible process.
All the processes in nature are irreversible.
The process which appears to be reversible and

takes place slowly is called quasi static process.
4
Thermodynamic Laws
• Law of Conservation of Mass :
Mass can neither be created nor be destroyed
• Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics:
When two bodies are in thermal equilibrium with
third body, they in turn have thermal equilibrium
with each other.
• Zeroth law is a basis for temp measurement
First Law of Thermodynamics

Law of conservation of energy ( for control mass)
dU = δQ - δW
∆U = 1Q2 - 1W2
Limitations
– Does not provide info if the complete
conversion has taken place or not.
– Does not specify the direction of heat flow
5
Definition of Work
• It is a force “F” acting through a displacement “L”
in the direction of the force.
• Work done by a system is positive .
• Work done on a system is negative.
• Shaft work is the work done on the rotating shaft
of a machine.
W=F.L
1 J = 1 N-m
Work done at moving boundary

Cylinder
Piston Piston
Motion Dir. (Area of C/S = A)
1 dl 2
δW = P*dV
Legend
Initial piston position
mssoni@bits-pilani.ac.in
Final piston position 12
6
Definition of Work
• Work is done by a system if the sole effect on

the surroundings (everything external to the
system) could be the raising of a weight.
• Notice that the raising of a weight is in effect a
force acting through a distance.
• Notice also that our deﬁnition does not state that
a weight was actually raised or that a force
actually acted through a given distance, but only
that the sole effect external to the system could
be the raising of a weight.
Comparison of Heat and Work
Heat transfer is disorganized form of energy that

crosses the system boundary because of a
temperature difference between the system and its
surroundings.
This energy transfer results from molecular
activity that is not directly useful to raise a weight.
Work, however is viewed as an organized form of
energy transfer to raise a weight.
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7
• Heat and work both are boundary phenomenon.

• System never posses heat or work, but either or
both crosses the system boundary when a system
undergoes a change of state.
• Both heat and work are path functions and are
inexact differentials.
8
+Q represents heat transferred to the system and thus
energy added to the system

And
+W represents work done by the system and thus
energy leaving the system
9
An example showing the difference between heat and work
Enthalpy
Represents total heat contents of the Body.
h = u + P*v ---- For Unit mass
h = hf + x * hfg ---For Saturation state.
10
Pure Substance
Pure Substance
11
Pure Substance
Pure Substance
12
Pure Substance
Heat Engine
A heat engine is a device that operates
in a cycle & takes heat from a high
temperature body/source and rejects
heat to a low temperature body/sink,
and in between it converts net heat into
work.
13
Schematic of a
steam power
plant.
HEAT ENGINE
Applying First Law:
QH  QL  W
Net heat interaction = Net work

interaction
14
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Pilani Campus
HEAT PUMP and

REFRIGERATOR
REFRIGERATOR
15
REFRIGERATOR
REFRIGERATOR
Fig. 7.6: A simple refrigeration cycle

16
The objective
of a
Refrigerator
is to remove
QL from the
cooled space.
The objective of
a Refrigerator
is to remove QL
from the cooled
space.
Air Conditioner
as Refrigerator
17
The objective of
a Refrigerator
is to remove QL
from the cooled
space.
Air Conditioner
as Refrigerator
The objective
of a Heat
Pump is to
supply QH
into the
warmer space.
18
The objective of a
Heat Pump is to
supply QH into the
warmer space.
Air Conditioner as
Heat Pump
HEAT PUMP / REFRIGERATOR
Q desired
COP =
W cycle
b=
QL
COPrefrigeration = ,
Wcycle
b COPheat
QH
pump =
Wcycle
19
Second Law of Thermodynamics
There are two statements of the law
- Kelvin Planck Statement
No engine produces work by exchanging heat
with only one reservoir.
- Clausius Statement
Heat transfer from a low temp. source to high
temp. sink needs external work.
They are equivalent.
KELVIN – PLANCK STATEMENT
It is impossible to construct a device

that operates in a cycle and produces
no effect other than the raising of a
weight and the exchange of heat with a
single reservoir.
20
Impossible
21
CLAUSIUS STATEMENT
It is impossible to construct a device
that operates in a cycle and produces
no effect other than the transfer of heat
from a cooler body to a hotter body.
CLAUSIUS STATEMENT
22
CLAUSIUS STATEMENT
OBSERVATIONS
• Both are negative statement
• Basis of these statements are
experimental evidence. No
experiments have ever been
conducted that contradicts the
second law
• Two statements are equivalent
23
EQUIVALENCY OF TWO STATEMENTS
Both statements are equivalent

logically, which means if Kelvin Planck
statement is true then Clausius
statement is also true, and if Kelvin
Planck statement is false then Clausius
statement is also false.
PERPETUAL MOTION MACHINE OF

FIRST KIND (PMMFK)
24
PERPETUAL MOTION OF MACHINE OF
SECOND KIND (PMMSK)
A PMMSK would extract heat from a
source and then convert this heat
completely into work.
This is impossible according to the

Kelvin Planck Statement
PERPETUAL MOTION OF MACHINE OF

THIRD KIND (PMMTK)
A PMMTK would have no

friction, and thus would run
indefinitely but produce no
work.
25
Entropy
• Index of unavailability of energy of a system.
• Entropy is indicator of disorder in the system.
• Entropy of the Universe is always increasing.
dS = δQ/T for a reversible process,
• where T is in absolute K.
Non Flow Processes
Constant volume - Isochoric Process

Constant pressure- Isobaric Process
Constant temp - Isothermal Process
Constant entropy- Isentropic Process
Polytropic Process
26
Constant Volume (Isochoric) Process
The volume does not change and hence no flow
work.
P/T = constant
Q= m Cv dT
Constant Pressure (Isobaric) Process
• The pressure does not change

• V/T= constant
• W= P (V2-V1) =m R (T2-T1)
• Q= m Cp dT
27
Constant Temp (Isothermal) Process
Temp does not change

T1=T2
PV= constant
W= P1V1log e (V2/V1)
Q= ΔU + W = W
(for Ideal gas)
Reversible Adiabatic (Isentropic) Process
Q =0
P1V1 γ = P2V2 γ
W= (P2V2- P1V1)/ γ -1
28
Polytropic Process
PV n= constant
• P1V1n = P2V2n
• W=( P2V2- P1V1) /n-1
Flow Processes
• The processes occurring in open system which
permit the transfer of mass, to and from the
system
• Constant Volume Process
W = V(P1-P2)
• Constant Pressure Process
W=0
• Constant Temperature Process
W = P1V1loge(V2/V1)
29
Flow Processes
• Adiabatic Process
W = γ (P1V1 – P2V2)/(γ-1)
• Polytropic Process
W = n(P1V1 – P2V2)/(n-1)
• Throttling Process
W=0
THE CARNOT CYCLE
Named after a French Engineer,

Nicolas Leonard Sadi Carnot(1796-1832)
Carnot expressed the foundations of the second law of

thermodynamics.
30
NEED OF CARNOT CYCLE
The efficiency of a heat engine is

always less than 100 %.
What is the possible maximum efficiency
of a heat engine?
Which engine gives the maximum
efficiency?
CARNOT HEAT ENGINE GIVES THE
MAXIMUM EFFICIENCY
THE CARNOT CYCLE
31
THE CARNOT CYCLE
It involves with four processes:

•Isothermal Heat Addition ( Expansion)
•Adiabatic Expansion
•Isothermal Heat Rejection (Compression)
•Adiabatic Compression
THE CARNOT CYCLE
•Isothermal Heat Addition ( Expansion)
32
THE CARNOT CYCLE
•Adiabatic Expansion
65
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THE CARNOT CYCLE

Isothermal Heat Rejection (Compression)
33
THE CARNOT CYCLE
•Adiabatic Compression
THE CARNOT CYCLE
34
THE CARNOT CYCLE
Carnot Engine
High temp. Source TH

ηcarnot = 1-
1- ( QL/QH )
QH
W
ηthermal = 1-
1- ( TL/TH )
QL
Low temp. Sink TL
35
Heat
• Energy that is transferred across the boundary
of a system due to the temp. difference between
the two systems & in the direction of higher
temp. system to lower temp. system.
• It’s a path function.
• Unit of heat is Joule.
• Heat transferred to a system is positive .
• Heat transferred from a system is negative.
Conduction
• It is due to the combination of vibrations of
molecules in the lattice and energy
transport by free electrons.
• Fourier’s law
Q = - k* A * (dT/ dx )
36
Convection
• Heat transfer between a solid surface
and a fluid.
• Bulk motion of fluid particles takes
place from higher energy level to
lower energy level.
• Newton’s law
Q = h * A * ΔT
Convection
• When the fluid and a surface with temperature
difference are in contact and no external
pressure is applied to move the fluid over the
surface then heat transfer takes place by
natural convection mechanism
• When a fluid is forced over a surface, existing at
different temperature by external pressure, heat
transfer takes place by forced convection
mechanism
37
Radiation
• From high temperature source to low
temperature source through electromagnetic
waves in space
• Can also take place in vacuum
• Stefan – Boltzmann Law
Eb = σ T4
• A body which absorbs all the incident radiation is
called a black body
38

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Fundamentals of Thermal

The system and surrounding are separated by

Property: Used to describe state of the system.

– Intensive: Independent of mass eg. Pressure,

The process which does not leave any mark on the

All the processes in nature are irreversible.

The process which appears to be reversible and

First Law of Thermodynamics

Work done at moving boundary

• Work is done by a system if the sole effect on

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

Comparison of Heat and Work

Heat transfer is disorganized form of energy that

• Heat and work both are boundary phenomenon.

BITS Pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3 of UGC Act, 1956

Comparison of Heat and Work

BITS Pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3 of UGC Act, 1956

+Q represents heat transferred to the system and thus

energy added to the system

BITS Pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3 of UGC Act, 1956

Comparison of Heat and Work

BITS Pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3 of UGC Act, 1956

An example showing the difference between heat and work

BITS Pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3 of UGC Act, 1956

Net heat interaction = Net work

HEAT PUMP and

Fig. 7.6: A simple refrigeration cycle

HEAT PUMP / REFRIGERATOR

They are equivalent.

KELVIN – PLANCK STATEMENT

It is impossible to construct a device

KELVIN – PLANCK STATEMENT

Both statements are equivalent

PERPETUAL MOTION MACHINE OF

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

This is impossible according to the

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

PERPETUAL MOTION OF MACHINE OF

A PMMTK would have no

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

Non Flow Processes

Constant volume - Isochoric Process

Constant Pressure (Isobaric) Process

• The pressure does not change

Temp does not change

Reversible Adiabatic (Isentropic) Process

THE CARNOT CYCLE

Named after a French Engineer,

Carnot expressed the foundations of the second law of

The efficiency of a heat engine is

THE CARNOT CYCLE

It involves with four processes:

THE CARNOT CYCLE

•Isothermal Heat Addition ( Expansion)

THE CARNOT CYCLE

THE CARNOT CYCLE

High temp. Source TH

Low temp. Sink TL

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