FRACTURE MECHANICS DE ZG514

Lecture 3
BITS Pilani Dr. Sharad Shrivastava
Mechanical Engineering Department
Pilani Campus
 Review of Mechanics of Solids

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Tensile test

 One of the simplest tests for determining mechanical properties of a material is the tensile

test. In this test, a load is applied along the longitudinal axis of a circular test specimen.

The applied load and the resulting elongation of the member are measured.

The tensile test is an extremely important experimental technique,

used to determine Young’s Modulus, and other material properties.
Required
tensile force is
measured,
Sample along with the
changing
dimensions of
A sample is stretched the sample.
Extensiometer
at a constant rate.

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Stress-Strain Test

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 A0

P P

L0
u

Engineering stress and engineering strain are calculated as:

Internal Normal Force P Change in Length 

  (Pa)  
Original C.S. Area A0 Original Length L0
(Dimensionless)
These are the measures most commonly used in practice. However,
the true stress and true strain are found by considering the current
sample cross-sectional area and length.
P u
 
A L

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BITS Pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3 of UGC Act, 1956
BITS Pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3 of UGC Act, 1956
BITS Pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3 of UGC Act, 1956
Stress-Strain Diagram: Ductile Materials

Materials that are capable of

undergoing large strains (at normal
temperature) before failure. An
advantage of ductile materials is that
visible distortions may occur if the
loads before too large. Ductile
materials are also capable of
absorbing large amounts of energy
prior to failure. Ductile materials
include mild steel, aluminum and
Recoverable deformation some of its alloys, copper,
magnesium, nickel, brass, bronze
Permanent deformation and many others.
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 Mechanical properties of materials
Proportional Limit - Stress above which stress is not longer
proportional to strain.
Elastic Limit - The maximum stress that can be applied
without resulting in permanent deformation when
unloaded.
Yield Point - Stress at which there are large increases in
strain with little or no increase in stress.
Yield Strength - The maximum stress that can be applied
without exceeding a specified value of permanent strain
(typically .2% = .002 in/in).

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Fatigue - A member may fail due to fatigue at stress levels
significantly below the ultimate strength if subjected to
many loading cycles.
Creep – Property by which a material undergoes
deformations at constant stress over time.
– Time dependent part of deformations
– A body undergoes elastic deformation
immediately on the application of load. This
deformation increases over period of time due
to creep.

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BITS Pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3 of UGC Act, 1956
 Stress-Strain Diagram: Brittle Materials

Materials that exhibit very little inelastic deformation. In other

words, materials that fail in tension at relatively low values of
strain are considered brittle. Brittle materials include concrete,
stone, cast iron, glass and plaster.
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Failure modes

Brittle materials fail due to tensile (normal) stresses and rupture occurs
along a surface perpendicular to the load.
Ductile materials usually fail on planes that correspond to the maximum
shear stresses (45°). A cup and cone failure is typical for ductile materials
with the sides of cup and cone inclined at approximately 45° to the specimen
axis.

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 Young observed that the - slope was a constant for a
particular material, independent of the sample geometry.



He defined an important STRESS STRAIN
material parameter, now known
as the modulus of elasticity,
or Young’s modulus.

For uniaxial loading:

   E
E
 Unit:
or E
 Pa
Elastic Behaviour 
Mild
Aluminium ConcreteWood Nylon Rubber
Stee
Young’s Mod, E l
210 70 18.5 12.5 2.8 0.004
GPa
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Idealization of the stress-strain curve
Depending on the problem at hand, there is a need for a variety of stress-strain

relations.

It is impossible to describe the entire stress strain curve with a simple mathematical

expression

In any given problem, the behaviour of the material is

represented by an idealized stress-strain curve which
emphasizes those aspects of the behaviour which are most
important in that particular porblem

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Idealized
models of
behaviour

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Material Properties (Cont.) (Simon Poisson, 1825)

Poisson made important observations and

theories about lateral deflections of materials.

When a bar is placed in tension, lateral

contractions accompany the extension.

Initial
Shape
Final
Shape P

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Poisson’s Ratio
• For a slender bar subjected to axial
loading:  x
x  y z  0
E

• The elongation in the x-direction is

accompanied by a contraction in the other
directions. Assuming that the material is
isotropic (no directional dependence),
y  z  0

• Poisson’s ratio is defined as

lateral strain y 
   z
axial strain x x

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Generalized Hooke’s Law

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MODES OF FRACTURE FAILURE

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 HOW POTENT IS THE CRACK
The analysis of growing crack are done through different
approaches:
1. parameter energy release rate (G)- energy based and
mainly applicable for brittle materials
2. stress intensity factor (K)- stress based. Also applied
for brittle or less ductile materials
3. J-integarl – dela with ductile materials. It can be brittle
materials also.
4. Crack tip opening displacement (CTOD): Developed
for ductile materials.

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Damage tolerance design

Problems of fracture mechanics are solved by using twodifferent approaches:

Approach-I: component geometry( length, location & orientation of crack) is given

along withboundary condiions.

To find: the upper limit of applied load that avoids catastrophic failure

Approach-II (Damage tolerance): Maximum load on the component is known

To find: the longest length of a crack that remains dormant.

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 Chapter 2
Energy Release Rate

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 Energy Method

• Advantage of this method is that there is no need to account for large

stresses in the vicinity of the crack tip

• Approach similar to solve the problems sliding down the frictionless slope (
only interest is to find the velocity of the body)

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GRIFFITH’S DILEMMA


Inglis (1913) analyzed for the flat plate with an

elliptical hole with major axis 2a and minor axis

2b, subjected to far end stress The stress at
the tip of the major axis (point A) is given by A A
A    1  
2a r

 b 2b

2a

The ratio A is defined as the stress


concentration factor, k t
When a = b, it is a circular hole, then k t  3.
When b is very very small, Inglis define radius
of curvature as b2
r
a

And the tip stress as

 a 
A    1  a   
  r  


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 Griffith Realization

• According to inglis a material that contains a sharp crack should fail upon
the application of infinitesimal load.

• Also a small crack of small length may grow and break the component in
to 2 pieces.

• However this is contrary to our observations.

• Griffith thus concluded that some other mechanisms must be existing

which helped materials to sustain solid forms.

• He realised that a crack in a body would not grow unless energy was
released to overcome the energy needs of forming two new surfaces, one
below and one above the crack plane

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 SURFACE ENERGY

•Surfaces have energy associated with them because work is needed to

form them.
•Surface energy is the work per unit area done by the force that creates
the new surface.
Material Surface Energy J.m-2
Mica (in Air) 0.38
Mica (in vacuum) 5.0
CaF2 0.45 Surface energy of
NaCl 0.50
material depends on
Pb 0.76
MgO 1.15
the material
Si 1.24 properties (J/m2
Glass 4.4
Al2O3 (Sapphire) 6->32
Al2O3 (Polycrystalline) 20->40
Limestone 24.
SiC 32.
C (Diamond) 5.24
C (Graphite) 68.
Granite 200.
Fe (Cast Iron) 1520.
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 In brittle materials such as silica and glass advancing
crack requires small energies of the order of surface
energies and therefore once a crack advances it runs
through the body easily, causing catastrophic failures.

According to Griffith some additional mechanisms operate

on most materials which do not allow cracks to grow at
low energies.

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 GRIFFITH ANALYSIS

HOW LONG IS THE CRITICAL LENGTH:

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HOW TO PREDICT IT?
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 Important Points when the crack advances

•THE PLATE BECOMES LESS STIFF AS THE CRACK ADVANCES.

• FOR THE CASE OF PLATES WITH ENDS HELD RIGIDLY, THE

STRESS WITHIN THE PLATE DECREASES AND THE STRAIN
ENERGY STORED IN THE PLATE IS REDUCED.

• THE ENERGY THUS RELEASED IS AVAILABLE FOR CRACK TO

GROW.

•Simple experiment by a bicycle tube

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 •As the crack advances, most of the nergy release comes from those parts of
the plates which are adjacent to the crack surfaces, as they are traction free.
• The major area of plate where its strain energy is released may be taken as
triangle on each side of the crack plane.

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9/18/2019
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 • ER increases parabolic ally with increasing crack length ‘a’
• Es increases linearly with increasing crack length ‘a’

For the crack to become critical

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 To find critical crack length ac

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 Thank you

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