Materials Science and Engineering " Metals": Rizal Technological University Brgy. Maybunga, Pasig City

Rizal Technological University
Brgy. Maybunga, Pasig City
MATERIALS SCIENCE and

ENGINEERING
“ METALS”
TOPIC
A. Mechanical Properties of Metals
I. Introduction
II. Concepts of Stress And Strain
Elastic Deformation
III. Stress–Strain Behavior
IV. Anelasticity
V. Elastic Properties of Materials
Plastic Deformation
VI. Tensile Properties
VII. True Stress-Strain
VIII. Elastic Recovery After Plastic Deformation
IX. Compressive, Shear, and Torsional Depormations
X. Hardness
Property Variability and Design/Safety Factors
XI. Variability of Material Properties
XII. Design/Safety Factors
B. Metal Alloys
A. MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF METALS
I. INTRODUCTION
Solid materials have been conveniently grouped into three basic categories: metals,
ceramics, and polymers. This scheme is based primarily on chemical makeup and
atomic structure, and most materials fall into one distinct grouping or another.
Metals
Materials in this group are composed of one or more metallic elements, and often also
nonmetallic elements in relatively small amounts. Atoms in metals and their alloys are
arranged in a very orderly manner, and in comparison to the ceramics and polymers,
are relatively dense. With regard to mechanical characteristics, these materials are
relatively stiff and strong, yet are ductile and are resistant to fracture, which accounts for
their widespread use in structural applications.
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF METALS

Many materials, when in service, are subjected to forces or load. In such situations it is
necessary to know the characteristics of the material and to design the member from
which it is made such that any resulting deformation will not be excessive and fracture
will not occur. The mechanical behavior of a material reflects the relationship between
its response or deformation to an applied load or force.
Key mechanical properties are:
 Stiffness
 Strength
 Ductility
 Toughness
Factors to be considered in designing labaratory experiment for mechanical properties
of materials include:
 Nature of applied load
 Duration of the applied load
 Environmental conditions
It is possible for the load to be:
 Tensile
 Compressive
 Shear
 Magnitude may be constant with time, or may fluctuate continuously
 Application time may be only a fraction of a second, or it may extend over a
period of many years.
 Service Temperature
Mechanical properties are of concern to a variety of parties that have differing interests.
Consistency is accomplished by using standardized testing techniques. Establishment
and publication of these standards are often coordinated by professional societies. In
the United States, the most active organization is the American Society for Testing and
Materials (ASTM).
II. CONCEPTS OF STRESS AND STRAIN

If a load is static or changes relatively slowly with time and is applied uniformly over a
cross section or surface of a member, the mechanical behavior may be ascertained by
a simple stress-strain test.
There are three principal ways in which a load may be applied:
 Tension
 Compression
 Shear
Tension Tests
Tensile Testing, also known as tension testing, is a destructive engineering and
materials science test whereby controlled tension is applied to a sample either as a load
for proof testing or until it fully fails.
It is used to find out how strong a material is and also how much it can be stretched
before it breaks. This test method is used to determine yield strength, ultimate tensile
strength, ductility, strain hardening characteristics, Young's modulus and Poisson's
ratio.
It is used to find out how strong a material is and also how much it can be stretched
before it breaks. This test method is used to determine yield strength, ultimate tensile
strength, ductility, strain hardening characteristics, Young’s modulus and Poisson’s
ratio.
A standard tensile specimen was used so that, during testing, deformation is confined to
the narrow center region, and also to reduce the likelihood of fracture at the ends of the
specimen.
Standard diameter is approximately 12.88mm(0.5inch), whereas the reduced section

1
length should be atleast four times this diameter: 60mm (2 ∈. ¿ is common. Gauge
4
length is used in ductility computation. The standard value is 50mm(2.0in). The
specimen is mounted by its into the holding grips of the testing apparatus.
The tensile testing machine is designed to elongate the specimen at a constant rate and
to continuously and simultaneously measure the instantaneous applied load and the
resulting elongations. A stress-strain test typically takes several minutes to perform and
is destructive; that is, the test specimen is permanently deformed and usually fractured.
The output of such a tensile test is recorded as load or force versus the elongation.
Load and elongation are normalized to the respective paramaters of engineering stress
and engineering strain.
Engineering stress σ
is defined by the relationship
σ = sigma/stress
F = instantaneous load applied perpendicular to the specimen cross section, in
units of newton (N) or pound force (lbf,)
ELASTIC DEFORMATION
III. STRESS-STRAIN BEHAVIOR
 The degree to which a structure deforms or strains depends on the magnitude of

an imposed stress.
 Hooke`s Law-For most metals that are stressed in tension and at relatively low
levels, stress and strain are proportional to each other through the relationship s
= EP (6.5)
Hooke` s Law
 On an atomic scale, macroscopic elastic strain is manifested as small changes in

the interatomic spacing and the stretching of interatomic bonds. As a
consequence, the magnitude of the modulus of elasticity is a measure of the
resistance to separation of adjacent atoms, that is, the interatomic bonding
forces. Furthermore, this modulus is proportional to the slope of the interatomic
force–separation curve (Figure 2.10a) at the equilibrium spacing.
IV. ANELASTICITY
 To this point, it has been assumed that elastic deformation is time independent—
that is, that an applied stress produces an instantaneous elastic strain that
remains constant over the period of time the stress is maintained. It has also
been assumed that upon release of the load, the strain is totally recovered—that
is, that the strain immediately returns to zero.
V. ELASTIC PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS
 When a tensile stress is imposed on a metal specimen, an elastic elongation and

accompanying strain Pz result in the direction of the applied stress (arbitrarily
taken to be the z direction).
VI. TENSILE PROPERTIES
 Tensile properties indicate how the material will react to forces being applied in
tension.
Properties:
o Yielding and Yield Strength

o Tensile Strength
o Ductility
o Resilience
o Toughness
Yielding Point
o A structure or component that has plastically deformed, or experienced a

permanent change in shape, may not be capable of functioning as plastic
deformation intended.
Yield Strength
o The stress corresponding to the yield point at which the material begins to

deform plastically.
 Usually used 0.2% strain offset.
 Represented by σy
 Tensile strength
o The tensile strength is the
stress at the maximum on
the engineering stress–
strain curve.
 Ductility
o The ductility of a material is a measure of the extent to which a material

will deform before fracture.
o Ductility may be expressed quantitatively as either percent elongation or
percent reduction in area.
 The percent elongation %EL is the
percentage of plastic strain at fracture;
 The percent reduction in area %RA is
defined as,
 Resilience
o Is the ability and the capacity of a material to absorb energy when it is
deformed elastically and then, upon unloading, to recover this amount of
energy.
 Toughness
o Is the ability of a material to absorb energy and plastically deform without
fracturing.
VII. TRUE STRESS AND STRAIN

True stress and true strain are used for accurate definition of plastic behavior of
ductile materials by considering the actual (instantaneous) dimensions. True strain is
change in length with respect to the instant length. During stress testing of a material
sample, the stress–strain curve is a graphical representation of the relationship
between stress, obtained from measuring the load applied on the sample, and strain,
derived from measuring the deformation of the sample. The nature of the curve
varies from material to material.
From 6.11, the decline in the stress necessary to continue deformation past the
maximum, point M, seems to indicate that the metal is becoming weaker.this is not at all
the case; as a matter of fact, it is increasing in strength. However, the cross-sectional
area is decreasing repidly within the neck region, where deformation is occuring. A
material is considered to have completely failed once it reaches the ultimate stress. The
point of fracture, or the actual tearing of the material, does not occur until point F. The
point F is also called ultimate point or fracture point.
Sometimes, it is more meaningful to use a true stress-true strain scheme. True stress
is defined as the load F divided by the instantaneous cross-sectional area over which
deformation is occuring.
Furthermore, it is occasionally more convenient to represent starin as true strain,

defined by
If no volume change occurs during deformation- that is, if
True and engineering stress and strain are related according to

Conversion of engineering
Stress to true stress (6.18a)
Conversion of enginnerings
Strain to true strain (6.18b)
Equation 6.18a and 6.18b are valid only to the omset of necking; beyond this point true
stress and strain should be from actual load, cross-sectional area, and gauge length
measurements.
A schematic comparison of engineering and true stress-strain behaviors is made in

Figure 6.16. It is worth nothing that the true stress necessary to sustain increasing strain
continues to rise past the tensile point M’. As a consequence, the correct stress (axial)
within the neck is slightly lower than the stress computed from the applied load and
neck cross-sectional area. This leads to the “corrected”| curve in Figure 6.16.
For some metals and alloys the region of the true-strain curve from the onset of plastic
deformation to the point at which necking begions may be approxmated by
In this expression, K and n are constant; these values will vary from alloy to alloy and
will also depend on the condition of the material. The parameter n is often termed the
strain-hardening exponent and has a value less than unity. Values of n and K for
several alloys are conatined in Table 6.4.
VIII. ELASTIC RECOVERY AFTER PLASTIC DEFORMATION
 Metals can recover their original shape after being stretched to a certain limit,
determined by the metal's yield strength. Beyond that, the metal experiences
plastic deformation and cannot return to its original shape.
Example of elastic recovery after plastic deformation:
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COMPRESSIVE, SHEAR, AND TORSIONAL DEFORMATIONS
 Compressive
o strength or compression strength is the capacity of a material or structure
to withstand loads tending to reduce size, as opposed to which withstands
loads tending to elongate. In other words, compressive strength resists
being pushed together, whereas tensile strength resists tension (being
pulled apart).
 Shear
o Shear stress, often denoted by τ, is the component of stress coplanar with
a material cross section. It arises from the shear force, the component of
force vector parallel to the material cross section.
 Torsional deformations
o Torque is a moment that twists a structure. Unlike axial loads which
produce a uniform, or average, stress over the cross section of the object,
a torque creates a distribution of stress over the cross section.
Example of compressive,shear and torsional deformations

 Schematic tensile stress–strain diagram showing the phenomena of
elastic strain recovery and strain hardening. The initial yield strength is
designated as is the yield strength after releasing the load at point D, and
then upon reloading
X. HARDNESS
Hardness is one of the important mechanical property. It is used to know the

materials resistance to localized plastic deformation.
There is a Qualitative and Quantitative to measure the hardness of material.
 Qualitative - used Mohs Scale, which ranged from 1 on the soft end for talc and
then 10 for diamond.
 Quantitative - measured depth or size of the indentation which becomes the
Hardness number; The softer the material, the larger and deeper the
indentation, and the lower the hardness index number.
There are reasons why the hardness test is frequently performed.
1.) They are simple and Inexpensive - testing apparatus is inexpensive.
2.) Test is NonDestructive - a small indentation is the thing that they need.
3.) Other mechanical properties often may be estimated from hardness data.
 Rockwell Hardness Tests
The Rockwell Tests is one of the most common method used to measure hardness
because they are so simple to perform and require no special skills. With this system, a
hardness number is determined by the difference in depth of penetration resulting from
the application of an initial minor load followed by a larger major load. Utilization of a
minor load enhances test accuracy.
I. Rockwell and Superficial Rockwell
For Rockwell, the minor load is 10 kg. Whereas major loads are 60, 100, and 150 kg.
For superficial tests, 3 kg is the minor load; 15, 30, and 45 kg are the possible major
load values. These scales are identified by a 15, 30, or 45 (according to load), followed
by N, T, W, X, or Y, depending on indenter. Superficial tests are frequently performed
on thin specimens.When specifying Rockwell and superficial hardnesses, both
hardness number and scale symbol must be indicated. The scale is designated by the
symbol HR.
In Brinell tests, as in Rockwell measurements, a hard, spherical indenter is forced

into the surface of the metal to be tested. The diameter of the hardened steel (or
tungsten carbide) indenter is 10.00 mm (0.394 in.). Standard loads range between
500 and 3000 kg in 500-kg increments; during a test, the load is maintained constant
for a specified time (between 10 and 30 s). Harder materials require greater applied
loads. The Brinell hardness number, HB, is a function of both the magnitude of the
load and the diameter of the resulting indentation (see Table 6.5).16 This diameter is
measured with a special low-power microscope, utilizing a scale that is etched on
the eyepiece. The measured diameter is then converted to the appropriate HB
number using a chart; only one scale is employed with this technique.
Semiautomatic techniques for measuring Brinell hardness are available. These

employ optical scanning systems consisting of a digital camera mounted on a
flexible probe, which allows positioning of the camera over the indentation. Data
from the camera are transferred to a computer that analyzes the indentation,
determines its size, and then calculates the Brinell hardness number. For this
technique, surface finish requirements are normally more stringent than for manual
measurements.
 Knoop and Vickers Microindentation Hardness Tests
Two other hardness-testing techniques are Knoop (pronounced and Vickers

(sometimes also called diamond pyramid). For each test a very small diamond
indenter having pyramidal geometry is forced into the surface of the specimen.
Applied loads are much smaller than for Rockwell and Brinell, ranging between 1
and 1000 g. The resulting impression is observed under a microscope and
measured; this measurement is then converted into a hardness number.
 Hardness conversion
Hardness conversion data have been determined experimentally and found to be

dependent on material type and characteristics. The most reliable conversion data
exist for steels, some of which are presented in Figure 6.18 for Knoop, Brinell, and
two Rockwell scales; the Mohs scale is also included. Detailed conversion tables for
various other metals and alloys.
 Correlation between Hardness and Tensile Strength
Both tensile strength and hardness are indicators of a metal’s resistance to plastic
deformation. Consequently, they are roughly proportional, as shown in Figure 6.19,
for tensile strength as a function of the HB for cast iron, steel, and brass. The same
proportionality relationship does not hold for all metals, as Figure 6.19 indicates. As
a rule of thumb for most steels, the HB and the tensile strength are related according
to
XI. Variability Of Material Properties

 measured materials properties usually will not be absolutely exact quantities.
 There are actors that may lead to uncertainty in measured data such as Test
method, Variations in specimen fabrication procedure, Operator bias (human
error), and Apparatus calibration.
 Inhomogenieties may exist in the same lot of material and compositional
differences may exist from lot to lot.
 Some variations may lead to different stress-strain curves and hence variation in
modulus of elasticity, yield, strength, tensile strength, values.
 Some scatter and variability must be dealt with from a design prospective that will
need some statistical and probability treatment.
 In such situation it is very desirable to specify a typical value such as average
data:
: N is the number of measurements or observations while xi is
the value of discrete measurement.
 In addition we can quantify the degree of dispersion or scatter of measured data.
: A large value of standard deviation corresponds to a high

degree of scatter.
XII. Design Safety Factors

 Ordinarily load calculation are approximates. There are uncertainties in loads and
associated with stresses that are to be used for in service applications.
 Virtually all engineering materials exhibit variability in their measured mechanical
properties.
 One way (for static situations and when ductile materials are used) is to use:
Where
d = design stress
c = calculated (theoretical) stress on the basis
of the estimated maximum load
N = design factor > 1
 Alternatively a safe stress or working stress is used instead of design stress.

Where:
W = working stress
Y = yield stress
N = factory of safety (normally between 1.2
and 4)
B. METAL ALLOYS
THERMAL PROCESSING OF METALS
Annealing Process
 Annealing refers to a heat treatment in which a material is exposed to an
elevated temperature for an extended time period and then slowly cooled.
Annealing is carried out to:

1) Relieve stresses
2) Increase softness, ductility and toughness
3) Produce a specific microstructure
Any annealing process consist of three stages:
1) Heating to the desired temperature
2) Holding or soaking at that temperature and,
3) Cooling, usually at room temperature
 Process Annealing
Is a heat treatment that is used to negate the effects of cold work-that is, to
soften and increase the ductility of a previously strain-hardened metal.
 Stress Relief
Internal residual stresses may develop in metal pieces in response to the
following:
1) Plastic deformation processes such as machining and grinding
2) Nonuniform cooling of a piece that was processed or fabricated at an
elevated temperature such as weld or a casting
3) A phase transformation that is induced upon cooling wherein parent and
product phases have different densities.
They may be eliminated by a stress relief annealing heat treatment in which the
piece is heated to the recommended temperature, held there long enough to
attain a uniform temperature, and finally cooled to room temperature in air.
Annealing Of Ferrous Alloys

The horizontal line at the eutectoid
temperature, conventionally labeled A1,
is termed the lower critical
temperature, below which, under
equilibrium conditions, all austenite will
have transformed into ferrite and
cementite phases. The phase boundaries
denoted as A3 and Acm represent the
upper critical temperature lines for
hypoeutectoid and hypereutectoid steels, respectively. For temperatures and

compositions above these boundaries, only the austenite phase will prevail.
Normalizing
Steels that have been plastically deformed by, for example, a rolling operation,
consist of grains and pearlite, which are irregularly shaped and relatively large,
but vary substantially in size. An annealing heat treatment called normalizing is
used to refine the grains (i.e., to decrease the average grain size) and produce a
more uniform and desirable size distribution; fine-grained pearlitic steels are
tougher than coarse-grained ones. Normalizing is accomplished by heating at
least 55°C (100°F) above the upper critical temperature—that is, above A3 for
compositions less than the eutectoid (0.76 wt% C), and above Acm for
compositions greater than the eutectoid as normalizing.
After sufficient time has been allowed for the alloy to completely transform to
austenite—a procedure termed austenitizing—the treatment is terminated by
cooling in air.A normalizing cooling curve is superimposed on the continuous
cooling transformation diagram austenitizing
Spheroidizing
The spheroidizing heat treatment, during which there is a coalescence of the Fe3C
to form the spheroid particles, can take place by several methods, as follows:
 Heating the alloy at a temperature just below the eutectoid in the α + Fe3C
region of the phase diagram. If the precursor microstructure contains pearlite,
spheroidizing time will ordinarily range between 15 and 25 h.
 Heating to a temperature just above the eutectoid temperature, and then
either cooling very slowly in the furnace, or holding at a temperature just
below the eutectoid temperature.
 Heating and cooling alternately within about of ±50°C
Heat Treatment of Steels

Conventional heat treatment procedures for producing martensitic steels
ordinarily involve continuous and rapid cooling of an austenitized specimen in
some type of quenching medium, such as water, oil, or air.
The successful heat treating of steels to produce a predominantly martensitic
microstructure throughout the cross section depends mainly on three factors:
1) The composition of the alloy
2) The type and character of the quenching medium, and
3) The size and shape of the specimen
Hardenability
The influence of alloy composition on the ability of a steel alloy to transform to
martensite for a particular quenching treatment is related to a parameter called
Hardenability.
Hardenability is a term that is used to describe the ability of an alloy to be
hardened by the formation of martensite as a result of a given heat treatment.
The Jominy End-Quench Test

One standard procedure that is widely utilized to determine hardenability is the
Jominy end-quench test. With this procedure, except for alloy composition, all
factors that may influence the depth to which a piece hardens (i.e., specimen
size and shape, and quenching treatment) are maintained constant.
Hardenality Curves
The quenched end is cooled most rapidly and exhibits the maximum hardness;
100% martensite is the product at this position for most steels. Cooling rate
decreases with distance from the quenched end, and the hardness also
decreases, as indicated in the figure. With diminishing cooling rate, more time is
allowed for carbon diffusion and the formation of a greater proportion of the softer
pearlite, which may be mixed with martensite and bainite. Thus, a steel that is
highly hardenable will retain large hardness values for relatively long distances; a
steel with low hardenability will not. Also, each steel alloy has its own unique
hardenability curve.
Sometimes, it
is convenient to relate hardness to a cooling rate rather than to the location from
the quenched end of a standard Jominy specimen. Cooling rate [taken at 700°C
(1300°F)] is ordinarily shown on the upper horizontal axis of a hardenability
diagram; this scale is included with the hardenability plots presented. This
correlation between position and cooling rate is the same for plain carbon steels
and many alloy steels because the rate of heat transfer is nearly independent of
composition. On occasion, cooling rate or position from the quenched end is
1
specified in terms of Jominy distance, one Jominy distance unit being 1.6 mm(
16
in.)
Influence of Quenching Medium, Specimen Size, and Geometry

The cooling rate of a specimen depends on the rate of heat energy extraction,
which is a function of the characteristics of the quenching medium in contact with
the specimen surface, as well as the specimen size and geometry.
Severity of quench is a term often used to indicate the rate of cooling; the more
rapid the quench, the more severe the quench. Of the three most common
quenching media—water, oil, and air—water produces the most severe quench,
followed by oil, which is more effective than air.2The degree of agitation of each
medium also influences the rate of heat removal.Increasing the velocity of the
quenching medium across the specimen surface enhances the quenching
effectiveness.Oil quenches are suitable for the heat treating of many alloy steels.
In fact, for higher-carbon steels, a water quench is too severe because cracking
and warping may be produced. Air cooling of austenitized plain carbon steels
ordinarily produces an almost totally pearlitic structure.
During the quenching of a steel specimen, heat energy must be transported to
the surface before it can be dissipated into the quenching medium. As a
consequence, the cooling rate within and throughout the interior of a steel
structure varies with position and depends on the geometry and size.
As far as specimen shape is concerned, because the heat energy is dissipated to

the quenching medium at the specimen surface, the rate of cooling for a
particular quenching treatment depends on the ratio of surface area to the mass
of the specimen.
The larger this ratio, the more rapid will be the cooling rate and, consequently,
the deeper the hardening effect. Irregular shapes with edges and corners have
larger surface-to-mass ratios than regular and rounded shapes (e.g., spheres
and cylinders) and are thus more amenable to hardening by quenching.
A
multitude of steels are responsive to a martensitic heat treatment, and one of the
most important criteria in the selection process is hardenability. Harden- ability
curves, when utilized in conjunction with plots such as those in for various
quenching media, may be used to ascertain the suitability of a specific steel alloy
for a particular application. Or, conversely, the appropriateness of a quenching

procedure for an alloy may be determined. For parts that are to be involved in
relatively high stress applications, a minimum of 80% martensite must be
produced throughout the interior as a consequence of the quenching procedure.
Only a 50% minimum is required for moderately stressed parts.
Precipitation Hardening
The strength and hardness of some metal alloys may be enhanced by the
formation of extremely small uniformly dispersed particles of a second phase
within the original phase matrix; this must be accomplished by phase
transformations that are induced by appropriate heat treatments. The process is
called precipitation hardening because the small particles of the new phase are
termed precipitates.Age hardening is also used to designate this procedure
because the strength developswith time, or as the alloy ages. Examples of alloys
that are hardened by precipitation treatments include aluminum–copper, copper–
beryllium, copper–tin, and magnesium–aluminum; some ferrous alloys are also
precipitation hardenable.
HEAT TREATMENTS
Solution Heat Treating
In which all the solute atoms are dissolved to form a single phased solid solution
Precipitation Heat Treating

The supersaturated α solution is ordinarily heated to an intermediate temperature
within the α + β two-phase region at which temperature diffusion rates become
appreciable.
APPLICATION AND PROCESSING OF METALS

Application of Metals
 Two Types of Metals and its subgroups
TYPES OF METALS
Ferrous Alloys
 Iron-based Alloys
 Iron-containing compounds exist in abundant quantities
 Represent the most in family of metallic objects
 Can be produced using relatively economical means.
 Versatile
 One setback is corrosion
 Types:
 Steel
 Made less than 1% wt. carbon and iron.

 High tensile strength and low cost
 Major component used in buildings, infrastructures, tools, ships, trains,
automobiles, machines, appliances, weapons.
 3 categories:
o Low-Carbon Steels
 Contain less than 0.25% carbon.

 Covers great diversity of shapes, from flat sheet to structural beam.
 Soft and weak.
 Outstanding ductility and toughness.
 Machinable, weldable.
 Cheaper to produce.
 Used in automobile body components, structural Shapes, sheets in
pipelines, buildings, bridges, tin cans.
o High Strength, Low Alloy Steel(HSLA)
 Group of low-carbon alloy containing other elements such as

copper, vanadium, nickel and molybdenum.
 Possesses higher strength than plain low-carbon steel.
 Ductile, formable, and machinable.
 Resistant to corrosion
 Used in application where structural strength is critical, such as
bridge, tower, support columns, pressure vessels.
o Medium-Carbon Steels
 Carbon concentrations between 0.25 and 0.60%

 Low hardenabilities
 Stronger than low-carbon steels
 Setback of ductility and toughness
 Used in railway wheels and track gears, crankshafts and other

machine parts and high-strength structural component
o High-Carbon Steel
 Carbon contents between 0.60 and 1.4%.

 Hardest, strongest, and least ductile among carbon steels.
 Excellent wear resistance, hardening, and tempering
 Used as cutting tools and dies for forming and shaping metals.
 Used in knives, razors, hacksaw blades, springs, and high-strength
wires
 Stainless Steels
o Highly resistant to corrosion and any forms of environment.
o Contains 11% chromium.
o Nickel and Molybdenum enhances corrosion resistance
o Divided into three classes:
 Martensitic
 Hard and strong.
 Capable of being heat-treated.
 Prone to corrosion.
 Contains approximately 13% Chromium.
 Used in knives, turbine blades
 Ferritic
 Hardened and strengthened by cold-work.
 Similar properties of mild steel.
 Better corrosion, heat, and crack resistance.
 Used in washing machines, boilers, and indoor architecture.
 Austenitic
 Hardened and strengthened by cold work.
 Widely used stainless steel

 Excellent corrosion and heat resistance
 Good mechanical properties over a wide range of
temperatures.
 Used in housewares, industrial piping and vessels,
construction, and architectural facades.
 Cast Iron
o Contains above 2.14% carbon, but most are contains between 3.0 and
4.5% carbon.
o Relatively low melting temperatures at approx. between 1150 and 1300°C
(2100 and 2350°F).
o Very brittle
o Convenient technique by casting.
o Carbon forms as graphite.
o Promotion of graphite is by >1% silicon.
o Brittle
o Excellent machinability
o Resistance to deformation, resistance, and oxidation.
o Engineering material in a wide range of applications
o Cast Iron Groups:
 Gray Iron
 Carbon & Silicon content varies between 2.5 and 4.0% and
1.0 % 3.0%.
 Graphite exist as flakes.
 Fractural form due to graphite
 Most common cast iron.
 Higher strength and ductility.
 Excellent in damping vibration.
 High wear resistance

 Cheap Material.
 Used for housing where stiffness is important than its tensile
strength.
 Used in internal combustion engine cylinder blocks, pump
housing, valve bodies, electrical boxes, decorative casting,
 Its high thermal conductivity and specific heat capacity can
be used in cast iron cookware disc brake rotor.
 Nodular Iron (Ductile Iron)
 Formed by adding small amount of magnesium &/or cerium
on gray iron.
 Nodule/ sphere-like particle graphite
 Stronger and more ductile than gray iron
 Mechanical properties approaching to steel
 Used in valves, pump bodies, crankshafts, gears, automotive
components.
 White Iron
 Formed in low-silicon cast iron (containing <1%) and rapid
cooling rates.
 Carbon exist as cementite instead of graphite.
 Extremely hard but very brittle.
 Relatively high strength and ductility
 Used in application that requires hard and wear-resistant
surfaces, without a degree of ductility such as rollers.
 Used in shell liners, slurry pumps, ball mills, lifter bars,
extrusion nozzles, cement mixers, pipe fittings, flanges,
crushers, pump impellers.
 Malleable Iron
 Uses white iron as intermediary.
 Carbon formed into spherical or nodular shapes.

 Exhibits good ductility, better fracture toughness properties.
 Used in electrical fittings and equipment, hand tools, pipe
fittings, washers, brackets, farm equipment, mining
hardware, and machine parts.
 Compacted Graphite Iron – CGI
 Carbon exists as graphite, promoted by silicon (content
ranges between 1.7 % 3.0%)
 More complex than other cast iron types.
 Contains magnesium, cerium, and other additives.
 Graphite-particle shape mechanical properties
 High thermal conductivity
 Better thermal shock resistance
 Lower oxidation @ elevated temperatures
 Used in brake disc for high-speed rail trains, diesel engine
blocks, turbo housing, exhaust manifolds, gearbox housing,
flywheels.
Non-Ferrous Alloys
 Non-Iron based metals
 More costly than ferrous metals
 Excellent properties such as lower weight, higher conductivity, non-magnetic
property, resistance to corrosion.
 Can be either classified as Cast or Wrought
o Wrought is made through heat and worked through tools for shaping.
o Cast is made from melting, molding, and cooling metals.
 Groups
o Copper and its alloys
 Possesses a desirable combination of physical properties.

 Highly resistant to corrosion in diverse environments.

 Most common type are brasses.
 Brass Alloy
 Greater copper content.
 Most ductile of any copper alloy.
 Excellent thermal conductivity
 Common brasses are yellow, naval, and cartridge brass,
muntz metal and gilding metal
 Used in custom jewelry, cartridges, casings, automotive
radiator, musical instrument, electronic packaging, coins
 Bronze
 Made of copper, tin, aluminum, silicon, and nickel.
 Stronger than brass
 High corrosion resistance.
 Used in construction of sculptures, musical instruments,
medals.
 Used in industrial application such as bearings and
bushings.
 Used in landing gears in aircrafts.
o Aluminum and its alloys
 Relatively low density, high electrical and thermal conductivity, and

resistance in corrosion in common environments.
 Easily formed by high ductility.
 Increased tensile strength done by heat treatment, without affecting
ductility.
 Setback in low melting temperature (660°C, 1220°F). Cannot be
used in high-strength applications.
 Classified as wrought and cast alloys
 Each of the alloys can be further classified as
 Non-Heat-treatable alloys
 Heat-treatable alloys
 Used in aircrafts, beverage cans, bus bodies, automotive parts,
electrical conductors, household consumer items, marine
application, fittings in railway coaches and buses, windows, doors,
roofs, sporting equipment
 New generation of Aluminum-Lithium alloys are develop for
applications.
 Relatively low densities, high specific moduli, excellent fatigue, low
temperature toughness
 Costly to manufacture due to special processing techniques.
 Used in aircraft and aerospace industries.
o Magnesium and its alloys
 Excellent density (1.7 gm/cm3)

 Relatively soft, low elasticity.
 Low melting temperature.
 Most fabrication is through casting.
 Prone to corrosion in marine environments.
 Good corrosion and oxidation resistance at normal atmosphere.
 Classified as either cast or wrought.
 Replaced engineering plastics because its recyclable, and cheaper
to produce.
 Used in variety of applications in hand-held devices such as
chainsaws, power tools, hedge clippers
 Used in automobiles such as steering wheels, columns, set frames,
transmission cases.
 Used in AV computer communications such as laptops, computers,
camcorders, TVs, and telephones
o Titanium and its Alloys
 Contains mixtures of titanium and other chemical elements

 Low density (4.5 g/cm3)

 High melting point (1668°C, 3035°F)
 Extremely strong, high tensile strength (1400MPa), highly ductile,
and forgeable and machinable with ease.
 Lightweight, excellent corrosion resistance, and ability to withstand
extreme temperatures.
 Classified into 4 categories:
 Alpha alloy contains aluminum and tin. Not heat-treatable.
 Beta alloy contains sufficient beta-stabilizing elements such
as vanadium and molybdenum. Highly forgeable and
exhibits high fracture toughness.
 Alpha+Beta alloy are alloyed with stabilizing elements for
constituent phases. They are quite formable.
 Near-Alpha alloy composed of both alpha and small
proportion of beta phase.
 The major limitation is the chemical reactivity with other materials at
elevated temperatures.
 Quite expensive.
 High corrosion resistance in normal temperature.
 Virtually immune to air, marine, and industrial environments.
 Used in aircraft, spacecraft, naval vessels, missiles, surgical
implants, petroleum and chemical industries.
o Refractory Metals
 Niobium, molybdenum, tungsten, tantalum

 Extremely high melting temperatures
 Extremely strong due to melting temperature; high strength and
hardnesses at ambient and elevated temperatures.
 Applications are varied:
 Tantalum and Molybdenum are used as alloying element in
stainless steels to improve corrosive resistance.
 Molybdenum alloys are utilized in extrusion dies and

structural parts.
 Tungsten alloy are used in incandescent light filaments, x-
ray tubes, welding electrodes.
 Tantalum is used in harsh acidic environments, and
capacitors.
o Superalloy / High-Performance alloy
 Ability to operate at high fraction of its melting point.

 Excellent mechanical strength, resistance to thermal creep
deformation, good surface stability, resistant to corrosion and
oxidation.
 Used in aircraft turbines, nuclear reactors, petrochemical
equipment, heat exchange tubes.
o Noble Metals
 Group of eight elements with physical characteristics.

 Quite expensive, and superior.
 Soft, ductile, oxidation resistant.
 Silver, gold, platinum, palladium, rhodium, ruthenium, iridium
osmium.
 Silver, gold, platinum are used in jewelry.
 Silver and gold is used as dental restoration materials, integrated
circuit electrical contacts.
 Platinum is used for chemical laboratory as catalyst, and
thermocouples.
o Miscellaneous Nonferrous Alloys
 Nickel and its alloys:

 Highly resistant to corrosion in environments.
 High strength and extremely corrosive resistant
 Used as coating to metals prone to corrosion.
 Principal alloying element in stainless steels and superalloys
 Used in pump, valves, other components in contact with

acid, and petroleum solutions.
 Unalloyed zinc:
 Relatively soft material, low melting temp.
 Reactive in number of common environments and
susceptible to corrosion.
 Used as coating in galvanized steels.
 Used in padlocks, plumbing fixtures, automotive parts, and
office equipments.
 Zirconium:
 Relatively abundant in earth’s crust.
 Ductile
 Corrosion resistant.
 Used as cladding for uranium in water-cooled reactors, heat
exchange, reactor vessels, piping systems, nuclear
industries, incendiary ordnance and sealing devices for
vacuum tubes.
PROCESSING OF METALS
Fabrication Techniques
Processing of Metals
 Different techniques
 Preceded by:
o Refining
o Alloying
o Heat-treatment
 Processed according to its several factors

 Metals are formed through:
o Forging
o Rolling
o Extrusion
o Drawing
 Most metals are amenable

 Most techniques are possible
 Unique advantages
 Forging
o Deforming a piece of hot metal
o Done by successive blows or squeezing
o Classified in open, closed die.
 Close Die
 Force is exerted by 2 or more die halves
 Metal deforms in between 2 cavities
 Open Die
 2 simple-shaped dies are employed
 Used on large workpiece
o Outstanding mechanical properties
o Applications in applying technique:
 Wrench
 Automotive crankshafts
 Piston rods
 Rolling
o Widely used techniques
o Passing metal piece in between rollers to form its desired shape
o Applicable for I-Beams and railroads
 Extrusion
o Done by compressing metal bar to form its desired shape
o Used for rods, tubing
 Drawing
o Means of tensile force
o Consists of numbers of drawing dies
o Metal piece is being pulled and tapered.
o Used for rod, wire, tubing products.
 Casting
o Done by melting metal, and poured in mold cavity for desired shape.
o Employs when:
 Finished shape is complicated

 Low ductility alloy
 Economical requirements
o Involves casting process in final stepping
o Different casting techniques
 Sand Casting
 Most common method
 Uses sand as material.
 Two piece mold formed by sand packing.
 Incorporated Gating system to minimize defects
 Used for automotive cylinder block, fire hydrants, large pipe
fittings
 Die Casting
 Molten metal forced into mold under pressure
 Two permanent steel die piece is employed
 Forms desired shape when clamped.
 Rapid casting rates are possible
 1 set of die for 1000 castings.
 Only for relatively small pieces
o Investment Casting
 Lost- wax casting

 Pattern made of wax of plastic with low melting point
 Poured with fluid slurry to form a solid mold
 Mold is heated and pattern melts, leaving the mold cavity.
 Employed when high dimensional accuracy, excellent finish is
required
 Used in jewelry, dental crowns, inlays, turbine blades, jet engine
impellers
o Lost-Foam Casting
 Variation of Investment Casting

 Foam pattern
 Done by compressing polystyrene beads and bonds by heat to form
desired shapes.
 Pattern shapes are cut and assembled.
 Molten metal burns pattern, retains shape.
 Done when complex geometries and tight tolerances are possible
 Simpler, quicker, cheaper process.
 Used in automotive engine blocks, cylinder heads, crankshafts,
marine engine blocks, electric motor frames.
o Continuous Casting
 Also called strand casting

 Casts refined and molten metal directly into a continuous strands.
 Solidifies metal in water-cooled dies, forming desired shape.
 Metal becomes a semi-finished slabs.
 Final finishing is done by finishing mills.
 Cast metals of uninterrupted lengths.
 Precisely deliberated process
 Miscellaneous Techniques
o Involves compaction of powdered metals.
o Possible to produce virtually nonporous piece having properties are
almost equivalent to the fully dense parent material.
o Suited for low-ductility metals
o Suited for very closed dimensional tolerances.
 Welding
o Two or more metal parts are joined to form a single piece.
o Used when one-part fabrication is expensive or inconvenient.
o Uses filler material to join two base material.

o Pressure can also be used to weld, either alongside the heat or by itself
o Variety of welding methods:
 Arc Welding
 Joints metal by electricity
 Gas Welding
 Uses fuel gas
 Brazing
 Involves the application of heat and filler material.
 Soldering
 Joined together by melting and flowing a filler material.
o Possible alterations during welding:
 If the workpiece was previously cold-worked, the heat-affected area

may experience recrystallization, reducing strength, toughness.
 Residual stress may form and weaken the point upon cooling.
 Steel microstructures are formed different when welded.
 Some stainless steels may be sensitized during welding, may prone
to corrosion
o Laser Welding
o Use of laser beams to melt metal
o Does not require a filler material
o Several advantages:
 Noncontact process
 Highly automated
 Low energy input
 Minimal heat-affected zone
 Precise
 Weld in small sizes
 Large variety of metals and alloys are joined

 Porosity free
o Applicable in automotive and electronic industries where high quality and
rapid welding rates are required.

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Materials Science and Engineering " Metals": Rizal Technological University Brgy. Maybunga, Pasig City

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Rizal Technological University

Brgy. Maybunga, Pasig City

MATERIALS SCIENCE and

A. MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF METALS

MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF METALS

II. CONCEPTS OF STRESS AND STRAIN

Standard diameter is approximately 12.88mm(0.5inch), whereas the reduced section

 The degree to which a structure deforms or strains depends on the magnitude of

 On an atomic scale, macroscopic elastic strain is manifested as small changes in

 When a tensile stress is imposed on a metal specimen, an elastic elongation and

VI. TENSILE PROPERTIES

o Yielding and Yield Strength

o A structure or component that has plastically deformed, or experienced a

o The stress corresponding to the yield point at which the material begins to

o The ductility of a material is a measure of the extent to which a material

VII. TRUE STRESS AND STRAIN

Furthermore, it is occasionally more convenient to represent starin as true strain,

If no volume change occurs during deformation- that is, if

True and engineering stress and strain are related according to

A schematic comparison of engineering and true stress-strain behaviors is made in

VIII. ELASTIC RECOVERY AFTER PLASTIC DEFORMATION

Example of compressive,shear and torsional deformations

Hardness is one of the important mechanical property. It is used to know the

There are reasons why the hardness test is frequently performed.

1.) They are simple and Inexpensive - testing apparatus is inexpensive.

 Rockwell Hardness Tests

I. Rockwell and Superficial Rockwell

In Brinell tests, as in Rockwell measurements, a hard, spherical indenter is forced

Semiautomatic techniques for measuring Brinell hardness are available. These

 Knoop and Vickers Microindentation Hardness Tests

Two other hardness-testing techniques are Knoop (pronounced and Vickers

Hardness conversion data have been determined experimentally and found to be

 Correlation between Hardness and Tensile Strength

XI. Variability Of Material Properties

 In addition we can quantify the degree of dispersion or scatter of measured data.

: A large value of standard deviation corresponds to a high

XII. Design Safety Factors

 Alternatively a safe stress or working stress is used instead of design stress.

Annealing is carried out to:

Annealing Of Ferrous Alloys

hypoeutectoid and hypereutectoid steels, respectively. For temperatures and

Heat Treatment of Steels

The Jominy End-Quench Test

Influence of Quenching Medium, Specimen Size, and Geometry

As far as specimen shape is concerned, because the heat energy is dissipated to

for a particular application. Or, conversely, the appropriateness of a quenching

Precipitation Heat Treating

APPLICATION AND PROCESSING OF METALS

 Made less than 1% wt. carbon and iron.

 Contain less than 0.25% carbon.

 Group of low-carbon alloy containing other elements such as

 Carbon concentrations between 0.25 and 0.60%

 Used in railway wheels and track gears, crankshafts and other

 Carbon contents between 0.60 and 1.4%.

o Contains 11% chromium.

o Nickel and Molybdenum enhances corrosion resistance

o Divided into three classes:

 Widely used stainless steel

o Convenient technique by casting.

o Carbon forms as graphite.

o Promotion of graphite is by >1% silicon.

o Resistance to deformation, resistance, and oxidation.

o Engineering material in a wide range of applications