MA3704

AIRCRAFT ELECTRICAL DEVICES

LECTURES NO 7 AND 8

Dr. Wang Yifan

Nanyang Assistant Professor
Office : N3.2-01-19
Tel : 67905515
Email : yifan.wang@ntu.edu.sg

1
 f 120/
p

Speed Control of Induction motors

• Two approaches

a) Vary the slip of the motor by

- vary the rotor resistance change R
- vary the terminal voltage of the motor change V-in

b) Vary the synchronous speed by

- changing the number of poles p
- changing the electrical frequency f_s

2
Vary the slip of the motor

§ Vary the rotor resistance

- In wound-rotor types, the shape of the torque-speed characteristics
can be changed by inserting external resistances in the rotor circuit. But
this method is inefficient as the extra rotor resistances seriously reduces
the efficiency of the machine.

§ Vary the terminal voltage of the motor

- The torque is proportional to the square of the applied voltage; hence
the speed can be controlled.

3
Vary the synchronous speed by

§ changing the number of poles

- changing the number of poles requires multiple sets of stator
windings, which increases the complexity and overall cost of the
machines.

§ changing the electrical frequency (commonly used)

- when running at speeds below the sync speed, the stator voltage
should be decreased linearly with decreasing stator frequency. This is
known as derating. Else, the steel in the motor core will saturate and
excessive magnetization currents will flow. This is explained as follows:

4
 If losses on the primary coil are ignored

2pi / root 2

V is intentionally lowered to follow f_s, preventing excessively strong magnetising current.

It is thus customary to decrease the applied stator voltage in direct

proportion to the decrease in frequency below rated frequency to
avoid excessive magnetization currents.

5
Determination of Induction Motors Equivalent Circuit Parameters

To determine R1 , R2 , X1 , X2 , XM and Prot of a real motor:

(i) DC Test
(ii) Locked-rotor or Blocked-rotor Test
(iii) No load Test

DC Test – To perform the test, the current in the stator windings is adjusted to
the rated value, and the voltage between the terminals is measured.

6
DC Test for Stator Resistance

DC resistance test circuit

Because the current is dc, there is no induced voltage in the rotor circuit
and no resulting current flow. Also, the reactances are zero at dc.
7
Locked-rotor or Blocked-rotor Test
• The rotor is locked or blocked. An AC
voltage is applied to the stator, and the
current flow is adjusted to be
approximately full-load value.

• This test corresponds to the short-circuit

test on a transformer.

• The current, voltage and power flowing

into the motor are measured. Locked-rotor test circuit

8
 Motor equivalent circuit under locked-rotor test

Since rotor is not moving, s=1. Since R2 and X2 are small, almost all the
input current will flow through them, instead of through the much
larger magnetizing reactance XM.

Under these conditions, the circuit looks like a series combination of

R1, X1 , R2 and X2.
9
10
No load Test

• To determine the magnetizing reactance and the rotational losses.

No–load test circuit

11
12
13
14
15
Motor per phase equivalent circuit 16
17
18
Starting of Induction Motors

• In many cases, ind. motors can be started by connecting them to power supply
directly. But the resulting starting current may cause dip in power supply
voltage and hence undesirable effects such as dimming of lamps, etc.

• If necessary, the starting current of an ind. motor may be reduced by a starting

circuit.

• Another way to reduce starting current is to insert extra inductors or resistors

into the power line during starting. This approach is rare today.

• Some may reduce the motor’s terminal voltage during starting by using
autotransformers to step it down and once full speed is reached, full line
voltage is applied back.
19
Summary

• The induction motor is the most popular type of ac motor. It does not have a
separate field circuit and basically it is a rotating transformer.

• Two types of induction motors : the squirrel cage rotors and the wound rotors.

• An induction motor operates near synchronous speed but it can never operate
exactly at sync speed.

• The slip or speed at which the maximum torque occurs can be controlled by
varying the rotor resistance.

20
• The value of the max torque is independent of the varying rotor resistance.

• Speed control of induction motors can be accomplished by changing the

number of poles, the applied electrical frequency, the applied terminal
voltage, or the rotor resistance in the case of wound-rotor type.

• Starting circuits may be used to reduce the starting current to a safe level.

21
 Course Requirements on Induction Motors
1. Required to understand concepts, draw circuits, and calculate parameters.
• Calculation of sync speed, slip speed, slip, rotor speed, and rotor electrical frequency.
• Final equivalent circuit of an induction motor.
• Losses and power-flow diagram in induction motors, including input power, air-gap power,
developed/converted power, stator copper loss, rotor copper loss, rotational loss, output
power, and motor efficiency.
• Torque in induction motors, including developed/converted torque, and shaft/load/output
torque.
• Using Thevenin Theorem to calculate Maximum(Pullout) torque and slip at max. torque.
2. Only understand concept, not required to calculate
• Induction motor generating and plugging/braking regions.
• Speed control of induction motors.
• Determination of induction motor equivalent circuit parameters using DC, blocked-motor, and
no-load tests.
22
23
DC MACHINES

24
Introduction To DC Machinery Fundamentals

• DC machines are generators that convert mechanical energy to DC electric energy,

or motors that convert DC electric energy to mechanical energy.

• DC motors are used in a wide variety of industrial drives such as robots, machine
tools, paper and steel mills.

• DC generators are quite rare in modern power systems. They are being replaced by
solid-state devices that convert available AC power to DC power for DC drive
systems and other DC applications.

• Most DC machines are like AC machines in that they have AC voltages and currents
within them. A mechanism (commutators) exists that converts the internal AC
voltages to DC voltages at the terminals.
25
• Main parts of a DC machine are
q Stator – stationary part, consisting of the frame and pole pieces.
q Rotor – rotating part

Four-pole stator of a DC motor

Rotor of a DC motor

26
• Two principal windings on a DC machine:

o Armature windings - located on the

rotor, where voltages are induced.
Hence, a DC machine’s rotor itself is
sometimes called an armature.

o Field windings - located on the stator,

excited by DC currents to produce main
magnetic flux in the machine.

A simplified diagram of a DC machine

27
 How does a DC motor work?

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LAtPHANEfQo
28
Fleming’s Left Hand Rule (Motor)

• Whenever a current carrying conductor comes under a magnetic field, there

is a force (Lorentz force) acting on the conductor. The forced induced on the
conductor is

Force on a current-carrying
wire in a magnetic field
29
Fleming’s Left Hand Rule (Motor)

• Hold out your left hand with

forefinger, second finger and
thumb at right angle to one
another.

• If the forefinger represents the

direction of the field and the
second finger that of the
current, then the thumb gives
the direction of the force.

30
Fleming’s Right Hand Rule (Generator)

31
Fleming’s Right Hand Rule (Generator)

• Hold out the right hand

with the forefinger, second
finger and thumb at right
angle to each other.

• If forefinger represents
the direction of the line of
field, the thumb points in
the direction of motion or
applied force, then the
second finger points in the
direction of the induced
current.
32
 Principle of Operation of DC Machine
Simplest possible rotating DC machine : A simple rotating
loop between curved pole faces

33
The simplest possible rotating DC machine consists of a single loop of wire
which lies in a slot carved in a ferromagnetic core and rotating about a fixed
axis. The magnetic field is supplied by the magnetic north and south poles as
shown.

Assumptions:
• Constant-width air gap between rotor and stator.

• Air gap flux density is radial.

• The flux density is constant everywhere under the poles faces and rapidly
falls to zero beyond the edges of the poles.

34
The Voltage Induced in a Rotating Loop (Generator)

View of field lines Top view

35
• As the rotor is rotated, a voltage will be induced in the wire loop.

• To determine the total voltage induced on the loop, examine each segment
of the loop separately and sum all the resulting voltages. The velocity of
the wire is tangential to the path of rotation.

36
37
 The total voltage waveform
of the loop

When the loop rotates through 180 deg, segment ab is under the north pole
face instead of the south pole face. At that time, the direction of the voltage
on the segment reverses, but its magnitude remains constant. The resulting
total output voltage is as shown.
38
Alternative Way to Express Total Induced Voltage

To clearly relate the behavior of the single loop to the behavior of the larger
real DC machines, the tangential velocity v of the loop can be expressed as,

39
40
Getting DC Voltage Out of the Rotating Loop : Commutation

• Two semicircular conducting segments are added to the end of the

loop, and two fixed contacts are set up such that at the instant when
the voltage in the loop is zero, the contacts short-circuit the two
segments. Hence, every time the voltage of the loop switches
directions, the contacts also switch connections, and the output of the
contacts is always built up in the same way (DC).

• This connection-switching process is known as commutation.

41
The rotating semicircular segments
are called commutator segments,
and the fixed contacts are called
brushes.
The brushes are pressed against Principle of commutation
the commutator by springs.
42
• A commutator in its simplest form is composed of a slip ring that is cut
in half, with each segment insulated from one another as well as from
the shaft. One segment is connected to each end of the loop.

• The commutator revolves with the loop and the voltage between the
segments is picked up by two stationary brushes.

• The voltage between the brushes never changes polarity.

• The AC voltage in the loop is rectified by the commutator, which acts as

a mechanical rectifier.

43
Producing a DC output with commutator Resulting output voltage after commutation
and brushes 44
The induced Torque in the Rotating Loop (DC Motor)

Suppose a battery is connected to the machine as shown.

• The current that flows in the loop will result in a torque which rotates the
loop.

• As the loop turns, the current in its windings is commutated to produce a

continuous torque output.

• How much torque will be produced in the loop when the switch is closed,
and a current is flowing into it? The approach is to look at one segment of
the loop at a time and them sum the effects of all the individual segments.

45
A simple form of DC motor with commutator
46
47
48
49
Problems With Commutation in Real Machines
Two major effects occur in the real world to disturb the commutation process:
Ø Armature reaction
!"
Ø The 𝐿 !# voltages

Armature Reaction
The current flowing in the armature windings will produce a magnetic field
(armature mmf) of its own, which will distort the original magnetic field from
the machine’s poles. The effect produced by the armature mmf is called
armature reaction.

Problems Caused by Armature Reaction:

(a) Magnetic neutral plane shift
(b) Flux weakening effect

50
(a) Magnetic neutral plane shift

• The magnetic neutral plane is the position where the armature windings
are moving parallel to the magnetic flux lines. They do not cut any lines of
flux and there are no induced voltages.

Initially the pole flux is

uniformly distributed in a
DC generator, and the
magnetic neutral plane is
vertical.

51
Development of Armature Reaction in a DC Generator

Effect of air gap on the pole Magnetic field produced by currents

flux distribution. flowing in armature conductors.

Rotor and pole fluxes Resulting flux under the poles.

adding and subtracting. Neutral plane has shifted. 52
• The process of commutation requires the brushes shorting out the
commutator segments just at the moment when the voltage across the
segments is equal to zero.

• When the neutral plane shifts, the brushes short out commutator segments
with a finite voltage across them. The result is a current flow circulating
between the shorted segments.

• Severe arcing and sparking at the brushes may occur.

53
(b) Flux weakening effect

Most machines operates at flux densities near the

saturation point.

- At locations where rotor and pole mmfs add, only

a small increase in flux occurs.
- At locations where rotor mmf subtracts from the
pole mmf, there is a larger decrease in flux.
As the result, the total average flux under the entire
pole face is decreased.

• In generators, flux weakening reduces the

voltage supplied by the generator for any given
load.
• In motors, when flux is decreased, the speed of
the motor increases. 54
 !"
𝐿 !# Voltages:

• They occurs in commutator segments being shorted out by the brushes,

sometimes called inductive kick.

• When a commutator segment is shorted out, the current flow through

that commutator segment must reverse.

• The rate of change in current with respect to time in the shorted loop can
be very high and a very significant inductive voltage kick will be induced
in the shorted commutator segment.

• This high voltage naturally causes sparking at the brushes of the machine.

55
Solutions to the Problems With Commutation
a) Brush shifting
• Shifting the brushes to the new neutral plane to reduce sparking.
• But if the load fluctuates, the armature mmfs also fluctuates and so the neutral plane shifts
back and forth between no load and load conditions.
• Someone had to adjust the brushes every time the load on the machine changed. This is not
practical.

b) Commutating poles or Interpoles

• These small poles carry windings that are connected in series with the armature and are
located directly over the conductors being commutated.
• The number of turns on the windings is such that the interpoles developed a mmf that is
equal and opposite to the armature mmf.
• As the load current varies, the two mmfs rise and fall together, exactly bucking each other at
all times. The voltage in the coils undergoing commutation can be exactly cancelled, leading
to no sparking at the brushes.
56
A DC machine with interpoles, placed midway between
the main poles.
57
c) Compensating windings

The windings are distributed

in slots carved in the faces of
the poles parallel to the
rotor conductors and
connected in series with
rotor windings.

The pole flux in the machine

58
SUMMARY

• Basic principles of DC machine operations are discussed.

• Operation equations were derived for the induced voltage and torque for
a simple DC machine consisting of a single rotating loop and then
generalizing to real DC machines.

• The concept of commutation to convert AC voltage in rotor conductors to

a DC output was introduced, and its problems and ways to mitigate the
effects were discussed.

59