Supplementary notes

Ch 22 Respiration
22.1 Significance of respiration
A What is respiration?
 Through respiration, chemical energy stored in food is released to support the activities of
organisms. Overall equation of respiration:

enzymes
glucose + oxygen carbon dioxide + water

 Burning glucose in air is represented by the same equation but without enzymes.
Burning Respiration

glucose + oxygen glucose + oxygen

energy
energy level
energy level

transferred to
energy lost ATP in some
as heat of the steps;
energy is also
lost as heat

carbon dioxide + water carbon dioxide + water

time time

Site of Outside cells, anywhere with Inside all living cells

occurrence presence of fuel, O2 and high temp

Catalysed by Absence of enzymes Catalysed by specific enzyme in reactions

enzymes?

Release of Uncontrolled release in a single Controlled release in a stepwise manner,

energy reaction, fast involving many reactions, energy is
released gradually

Formation of All energy is released as heat and 55% of energy is lost as heat;
ATP light 45% is stored in form of ATP

Similarities - Both are oxidative processes

- Oxygen is required for burning and aerobic respiration
- Carbon dioxide and water are usually produced
Note: Respiration
 = releases energy from food through controlled oxidative breakdown in living cells
 = reaction involving the loss of electrons [oxidation]

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Supplementary notes

Roles of ATP in cellular metabolism

 ATP (adenosine triphosphate): small organic molecule made up of the nitrogenous base
adenine, a ribose and three phosphate groups (P). It acts as energy carrier of the cells.
 During respiration, some of the energy released is used to form ATP by combining a
phosphate (P) with ADP [phosphorylation].
 ATP: readily broken down into ADP and phosphate with the release of a small amount of
energy, enough to drive some reactions in cells.
 The ADP and phosphate released: reused to form more ATP during respiration

(higher energy state)

ATP

energy from when

breakdown of used to form break down energy supplied
glucose in phosphorylation hydrolysis to the cells
respiration
for
ADP + P
(lower energy state)

 Formation and breakdown of ATP

 Cells require energy from ATP for three main types of activities:
Functions Examples
Movement Muscle contraction, movement of cilia in ciliated epithelium, movement of
chromosomes in cell division
Synthesis Synthesis of large and complex biomolecules like proteins and DNA
Transport Pumping molecules or ions across cell membranes by active transport during
mineral absorption by plant roots and absorption of digested food across
the wall of the alimentary canal in animals
Others: Neurotransmission, activation of chemicals (phosphorylation of glucose in
glycolysis), producing light in fireflies for attracting mates or preys,
generating electricity in electric eels for hunting and self-defense

 Features of ATP as energy carrier:

 used in the cell of formation cannot be transferred to / produced for other cells
 The large amount of energy released from the oxidative breakdown of one glucose
molecule can be used to form many ATP molecules in the cell. (each ATP is packaged
with smaller amount of energy)

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Supplementary notes

B Relationship between respiration and photosynthesis and their roles

in the ecosystem

oxygen
glucose

energy

photosynthesis
Through respiration,
respiration organisms break
Photosynthetic organisms down organic food
convert light energy to to release the stored
carbon dioxide
chemical energy stored water energy as ATP and
in organic food. heat.

 Photosynthesis and respiration allow a cycling of materials and flow of energy in an ecosystem

1 Cycling of molecules (CO2, H2O, O2, C6H12O6)

 During photosynthesis, carbon dioxide and water from the surroundings are converted to
organic compounds (eg. glucose). (CO2 and H2O are released in many ways, eg. respiration)
 During respiration, the organic compounds (e.g. glucose) formed in photosynthesis are
broken down to carbon dioxide and water, which are substrates for photosynthesis.

2 Flow of energy
 During photosynthesis, light energy is changed to chemical energy stored in organic food.
The energy is transferred to consumers through feeding along food chains.
 Through respiration, organisms break down organic food and release the energy as
ATP and heat. (X recycling, heat will be lost to the surrounding)
 In both photosynthesis and respiration, ATP acts as the energy carrier.

in photosynthesis

ATP ATP

light energy energy stored energy that

captured by in organic drives cellular
chlorophyll compounds metabolism

ADP + P ADP + P

in respiration
 Relationship between photosynthesis and respiration

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Supplementary notes

-The sites of respiration were studied using

22.2 Site of respiration isolated organelles and fragments of organelles

 First stage of respiration: cytoplasm (contains enzymes that catalyse the reaction)
 The remaining steps: the mitochondria

Structure of the mitochondrion

outer membrane mitochondrial matrix

(contains enzymes)

inner membrane (packed

with enzymes)

 Structure of a mitochondrion
crista / cristae
(folding)  electron microscope
*Mitochondria appear in different shapes and size, eg. spherical, elongated, spiral or even branched
*Positions of sections obtained for microscopic study also determine mitochondria’s appearance
 Adaptive features of the mitochondrion for respiration:
Structure Adaptive feature for respiration

Double  Outer membrane: controls the movement of substances into and out of
membrane the mitochondrion
 Inner membrane: highly folded to form cristae, increase the surface
area for the attachment of more enzymes and electron carriers for
oxidative phosphorylation

Mitochondrial  Fills the space enclosed by the inner membrane

matrix  Contains enzymes involved in the reactions of respiration (Krebs cycle)
 Provides a fluid medium for reactions to take place

 Mitochondria are abundant in active cells (carry out many functions/ high metabolism), eg.
Cell types Examples
Human cells Liver cells, muscle cells, synaptic knobs of neurons, epithelial cells of intestinal
villi, brown fat cells (break down fat to generate heat)
Plant cells Root hair cells

Extended learning:
- Mitochondria have their own DNA which is different from the DNA in the nucleus in cells.
- They divide on their own, share some similarities in size and biochemistry with bacteria.

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Supplementary notes

- Endosymbiosis: Some scientists suggest that mitochondria were

evolved from ancient bacteria that were engulfed by a cell. The
bacteria then became organelles that were responsible for releasing
energy. Similar theory was also proposed for chloroplasts.

Endosymbiosis: https://evolution.berkeley.edu/it-
22.3 Aerobic respiration takes-teamwork-how-endosymbiosis-changed-
life-on-earth/evidence-for-endosymbiosis/

 Respiration that requires oxygen is called aerobic respiration.

 It occurs in three main stages: glycolysis, Krebs cycle and oxidative phosphorylation.
Event Glycolysis Krebs cycle Oxidative phosphorylation
Location Cytoplasm Mitochondrial matrix Inner membrane of mitochondrion
Description Breaking down of Pyruvate converted to Oxidation of NADH and FADH to
glucose to two acetyl-CoA and enter form ATP, the hydrogen ions and
pyruvate (3-C Krebs cycle, Cycle of electrons are accepted by oxygen
compounds) reactions to form water
Products ATP + NADH ATP + CO2 + NADH ATP + H2O
+FADH

A Glycolysis
 Occurs in the cytoplasm, catalysed by enzymes in the cytoplasm.
 It does not require oxygen. The process involves two steps:

2 ATP 2 ADP + 2 P 4 ADP + 4 P 4 ATP

glucose 2 triose phosphate 2 pyruvate

(6-C) (3-C) (3-C)
2 NAD 2 NADH

 Breakdown of  Oxidation of
glucose to triose triose phosphate
phosphate to pyruvate

 Breakdown of glucose to triose phosphate

 Glucose is first activated by phosphorylation (using two molecules of ATP to initiate the
reactions). The activated glucose is broken down into two molecules of triose phosphate.

 Oxidation of triose phosphate to pyruvate

 Each of the two triose phosphate molecules loses hydrogen, i.e. become oxidized, to form a
3-C compound called pyruvate.
 The hydrogen is accepted by a carrier molecule called NAD (nicotinamide adenine

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Supplementary notes

dinucleotide). NAD is reduced to form NADH.

 Two molecules of ATP are formed when one molecule of triose phosphate is oxidized to
pyruvate. In other words, the oxidation of the two triose phosphate molecules to pyruvate
gives two molecules of NADH and four molecules of ATP.
 Extended learning: NAD is a carrier molecule (or coenzyme) in many metabolic processes.
Many coenzymes are vitamins or derivatives of vitamins. A carrier molecule or coenzyme is an
organic non-protein molecule that is required by enzymes to catalyse a reaction.

2 ADP + 2 P 2 ATP
Summary of glycolysis
glucose 2 pyruvate
(6-C) (3-C)
2 NAD 2 NADH

For each glucose molecule (6-C) undergoing glycolysis, [cytoplasm]

 2 pyruvate molecules (3-C) are formedfurther oxidized to release energy
 Net amount of 2 ATP are formed (input:2, output:4)
 2 NADH are formed (hydrogen donor for final stage of respiration to release more energy)

B Bridging between glycolysis and Krebs cycle (Link reaction)

 The pyruvate formed in glycolysis  enters the mitochondrion (Krebs cycle)
 It undergoes a conversion process catalysed by enzymes in the mitochondrial matrix:
NAD NADH

pyruvate acetyl-CoA
(3-C) (2-C)

CO2 coenzyme A

 A carbon atom is removed from pyruvate and released as carbon dioxide.

[decarboxylation]
 The hydrogen from the remaining 2-C compound is accepted by NAD to form NADH.
 The 2-C compound then combines with a carrier molecule, coenzyme A, to form
acetyl coenzyme A (acetyl-CoA). It carries the acetyl group to 4-C compound in Krebs
cycle (only acetyl group will be oxidized, but not the coenzyme A).

Summary of conversion of pyruvate and acetyl-CoA

For each pyruvate, (for 2 pyruvates) [mitochondrial matrix]
 one CO2 and NADH molecule are released (2 CO2, 2NADH)
 converts to acetyl-CoA and enters Krebs cycle (2 acetyl-CoA)

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 Supplementary notes

C Krebs cycle
 Krebs cycle occurs in the mitochondrial matrix (with specific enzymes). Two main stages:

* Extended: acetyl-CoA (2-C) (converted from one of the

6-C compound is citric acid two molecules of pyruvate
(tricarboxylic acid). Krebs cycle is formed in glycolysis)
also called citric acid cycle or
tricarboxylic acid cycle (TCA) cycle.
coenzyme A

 Combination of
acetyl-CoA with
4-C compound

4-C compound Krebs cycle 6-C compound

 Regeneration of
4-C compound
FADH
FAD
2 CO2

*The steps of conversion 3 NAD

of 6-C compound 4-C ATP ADP + P 3 NADH
compound are not tested
 An overview of the Krebs cycle

 Combination of acetyl-CoA with 4-C compound

 Acetyl-CoA (2-C) combines with a 4-C compound already present in the mitochondrial
matrix to form 6-C compound. (The acetyl group is donated to the 4-C compound)
 Coenzyme A is released / regenerated. It can carry other acetyl group formed form pyruvate
in glycolysis into the Krebs cycle continually.
CoA

acetyl-CoA (2-C) + 4-C compound 6-C compound

 Regeneration of 4-C compound

 The 6-C compound is oxidized step by step to regenerate the 4-C compound. (A series of
reactions: decarboxylation and dehydration) Each of the reactions is catalysed by a different
enzyme.

2 CO2 3 NAD 3 NADH

6-C compound 4-C compound

ADP + P ATP FAD FADH

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Supplementary notes

The 6-C compound

 loses two carbon atoms released as carbon dioxide
 loses hydrogen atoms accepted by two kinds of carrier molecules:
 3 molecules of NAD are reduced to NADH store the chemical
energy of glucose
 1 molecule of FAD (flavin adenine dinucleotide) is reduced to FADH
 The energy released from the conversion is used to make 1 molecule of ATP

 ATP is readily usable by cells, energy stored in NADH and FADH will be released in final
stage of aerobic respiration (oxidative phosphorylation).

Summary of Link reaction and Krebs cycle [mitochondrial matrix]

 2 pyruvate molecules (3-C) in glycolysis convert to 2 acetyl-CoA enter Krebs cycle,
releasing 1 CO2, 1 NADH for each pyruvate (total: 2 CO2, 2 NADH)
In Krebs cycle,
 acetyl-CoA combines with 4-C compound to form 6-C compound, acetyl-CoA is released
For each 6-C compound being oxidized to regenerate 4-C compound, (for 2 6-C compound)
 3 NADH, 1 FADH, 1 ATP are formed (total: 6 NADH, 2 FADH, 2 ATP)
 2 CO2 released (4 CO2)
OR each pyruvate produces 3 CO2, 4 NADH, 1 FADH, 1 ATP in link reaction and Krebs cycle (X 2)

Extended learning: Krebs cycle

-6-C compound (citric acid) is first converted to a 5-C
compound (α-ketoglutarate) with the release of 1 CO2
and formation of 1 NADH

-5-C compound is then converted to a 4-C compound

(oxaloacetate) through a number of steps with the
release of 1 CO2, 2 NADH, 1 FADH2

-Total for each pyruvate in Krebs cycle:

2 CO2, 3 NADH, 1 FADH2, 1 ATP

D Oxidative phosphorylation
 The final stage of aerobic respiration occurs on the inner membrane of the mitochondria
 Oxidation of NADH and FADH to form ATP by phosphorylation

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Supplementary notes

 NADH

NAD
ATP
+ 2 e– electron
H+

release ATP through

a series of redox
reactions Extended:
 The oxidation of FADH to FADH
undergoes similar processes, except that
the electrons from FADH enter the
electron transport chain in a later step.

2 e–
2 H+ O2


 Oxidation of NADH and formation of water H2O

 NADH and FADH lose hydrogen and are oxidized to regenerate NAD and FAD
respectively. (They can accept hydrogen in glycolysis and Krebs cycle again.)

 Hydrogen atoms split into hydrogen ions and electrons. The electrons pass along the
electron transport chain, releasing energy to form ATP. (oxidative phosphorylation, the ETC
consists of electron carriers embedded in the inner membrane of mitochondria)

 The hydrogen ions and electrons are eventually transferred to / accepted by oxygen (final
electron acceptor) to form water.

 Oxidation of each NADH can form 3 ATP molecules, while oxidation of each FADH can
form 2 ATP (all energy stored in them is finally transferred to ATP during oxidative
phosphorylation)

Summary of Oxidative phosphorylation (per glucose molecule)

 Total 10 NADH and 2 FADH are produced in glycolysis and Krebs cycle, forming 34 ATP
Glycolysis Conversion to Krebs cycle Oxidative phosphorylation
acetyl-CoA
2 NADH 2 NADH 6 NADH, 2 FADH 10 NADH x3, 2 FADH x2 =34 ATP
2 ATP 2 CO2 2 ATP, 4 CO2 From previous steps: 4 ATP
Production of 6 CO2 Total: 38 ATP generated
 The hydrogen ions and electrons released from NADH or FADH are accepted by oxygen
to form water.

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Supplementary notes

E Overview of aerobic respiration

cytoplasm
Glycolysis
glucose
2 ATP 2 NADH

2 pyruvate

mitochondrial matrix 2 NADH

2 CO2
2 acetyl-CoA

6 NADH
Krebs cycle
2 ATP

4 CO2
2 FADH

34 ATP Oxidative phosphorylation H2O

inner membrane O2
of mitochondria

 Summary of aerobic respiration

 Chemical equation of aerobic respiration:

C6H12O6 + 6O2 6CO2 + 6H2O

6 oxygen molecules are required to break down 1 glucose molecule completely.

6 carbon dioxide and 6 water molecules are produced in the process.
 Oxygen is only used in oxidative phosphorylation. It acts as the final electron acceptor and
results in the formation of water. [O atom in water comes from O2 (air) but not glucose]

 If there is no oxygen,
 electrons released from NADH and FADH cannot go through the electron transport chain
 Oxidative phosphorylation stops. NAD and FAD cannot be regenerated.
 As a result, the Krebs cycle can no longer operate and only glycolysis can continue.
 The number of ATP formed will be greatly reduced.

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Supplementary notes

Summary of aerobic respiration

Extended learning
Discovery of the Krebs cycle
- Discovered by Hans Krebs and his team in 1937. Hans Krebs and Fritz Lipmann shared the
Noble Prize in 1953 for the discovery.
- They added the enzyme inhibitors to small pieces of living tissues and compared the rate of
respiration in their study.
- When an inhibitor was added, a certain substance (X) would accumulate in the tissue, while
the amount of another substance (Y) dropped. Using this approach, they proposed X was
converted to Y during respiration and showed how individual reactions are linked up
with each other to form a cyclic process.

Effect of cyanide on respiration

- Inhibiting enzymes in electron transport chain in oxidative phosphorylation [binding to
the ferric ion in cytochrome oxidase a3 within the mitochondria]
- It prevents oxygen from acting as the final electron acceptor (preventing the reduction of
oxygen to water)no ATP produced
- Early symptoms of cyanide poisoning: headache, dizziness, shortness of breath and
vomiting. Later, low blood pressure, loss of consciousness and death may occur

Bibilography of the discovery of Krebs cycle:

https://www.chemistryworld.com/news/a-lucky- https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Effect-of-
man/3000213.article cyanide-on-cellular-respiration-Cyanide-reversibly-
- 11 - binds-to-the-ferric-ion-in_fig1_258148692
Supplementary notes

F Comparison of aerobic respiration and photosynthesis

Aerobic respiration Photosynthesis

Site of  All living cells (cytoplasm and  Chloroplast-containing cells

occurrence
mitochondria)

Type of  Catabolism; breaks down  Anabolism; builds up organic

metabolism
organic food by oxidation to food by reduction to store
release energy energy

Energy  Chemical energy is converted  Light energy is converted to

transformation
to ATP and heat chemical energy

 Both involve an activation step

and products formed
Activation process

 Activation of glucose by  Activation of chlorophyll by

phosphorylation using ATP light absorption
 The activated glucose is broken  Electrons are excited to a high
down in glycolysis for forming energy level
ATP and NADH
Reactions involved in energy transformation

Krebs cycle Calvin cycle

 Carbon dioxide is removed  Carbon dioxide is fixed into the
Cyclic process and
products formed

from pyruvate cycle by a 5-C compound

 NADH, FADH and ATP are  NADPH and ATP are used to
formed form triose phosphate
 4-C compound is regenerated  ATP is also used to regenerate
the 5-C compound

 Both involve electron transport

 Energy released in the transport of electrons is used to form ATP
Electron transport and
formation of ATP

 Electrons in NADH and FADH  Electrons from chlorophyll are

are finally accepted by oxygen
 ATP is formed by oxidative
phosphorylation, glycolysis
and Krebs cycle by
phosphorylation
finally accepted by NADP to
form NADPH
 ATP is formed by
phosphorylation in
photochemical reaction

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Supplementary notes

22.4 Investigation of aerobic respiration in organisms

 To demonstrate organisms carrying out respiration, we can study 1) oxygen consumption
by organisms, or 2) detect the production of carbon dioxide and 3) heat by organisms

1) Investigation of oxygen consumption in a grasshopper

 Potassium hydroxide solution: absorb the originally present carbon dioxide in the flask
and carbon dioxide produced by an organism in a closed system
 Organisms consume oxygen in aerobic respiration reduction in air pressure inside
the flask < atmospheric pressure  water level rises in delivery tube

2) Investigation of carbon dioxide production in germinating seeds

 The respiration rate increases rapidly during seed germination to break down the food
stored in seeds.
 Hydrogencarbonate indicator: detect carbon dioxide produced / concentration
CO2 level compared to Lower Similar Higher
atmospheric level ~ 0.04 %
Colour Purple Red Yellow
 Test tube A: yellow (germinating seeds give out CO2), Test tube B: red (control)
 boiling seeds (control): and no respiration
 sterilized: prevent microorganisms present on the surface from affecting the result.

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Supplementary notes

3) Investigation of carbon dioxide production in living mouse

Change the experiment to

grasshoppers? germinating
seeds?

 Airtight bell jar. Turn on the suction pump for 30 minutes.

 Potassium hydroxide solution in flask A (clear): absorb all CO2 in incoming air
 Lime water in flask B (clear): confirm the air entering the bell jar contains no CO2
 Lime water in flask C (milky): CO2 is present in the air leaving the bell jar, it is
produced by the living mouse

4) Investigation of heat production in germinating seeds

 Break down food storage by respiration during seed germination release heat
 Vacuum flasks: trap any heat produced by seeds. Inverting the flasks to 1) minimize
heat loss as warm air rises (less dense). 2) Allow CO2 escape as CO2 is denser than air,
building up of CO2 inhibits respiration
 Record the initial and the changes in temperature
 Flask A (increases in temp), Flask B (no change) : germinating seeds release heat

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Supplementary notes

5) Investigation of heat production in living mouse

 Differential air thermometer: U-shaped capillary tube connected to a closed test tube
at each end. Temperature increases in test tubes the air expandsmovement of liquid
 Cotton wool: insulator to prevent heat loss
 Open the clips connected to both tubesWait until the liquid levels in both arms of the
capillary tube become the same, record  Close the clipsWait and record the level
 Coloured liquid level in arm B falls  and that in arm A rises. This shows that
the mouse releases heat which warms up the air in tube B. The air expands and pushes
the liquid level in arm B downwards.

6) Investigation of rate of respiration in living mouse by measuring the rate of carbon

dioxide production

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Supplementary notes

 Sodium hydroxide solution absorb CO2  in mass

 Evaporation of water form potassium hydroxide by suction pump in mass
 Experimental: Measure the mass of flask C before turning on the suction pump
(M1a)Measure the mass again with the suction pump on for 30 minutes (M1b)
 Control: prepare set-up with same amount of solution and drying agent, but without
the living mouse in bell jar (Initial mass: M2a)Mass after suction pump on (M2b)
 Rate of respiration (g CO2 h-1) = [(M1b- M1a) – (M2b- M2a)] / time

7) Investigation of rate of respiration in germinating seeds by measuring the rate of

oxygen consumption

 Similar to experiment (5), make sure the liquid level in both arms of capillary tube is
the same. Connect the syringe to tube B and close the clip connected to tube A.
 After one-minute, move the plunger until the levels of coloured liquid in each arm
are the sameRecord the readings on syringe (volume of oxygen consumed by seeds)
 Liquid level in arm B rises, arm A falls, as respiring seeds take in O2 and release
CO2 which is absorbed by soda lime Reduction in pressure in tube B
 Rate of respiration (volume of O2 consumed per minute or hour)
 Water bath: prevent temperature changes of the surroundings from affecting the results

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Supplementary notes

Effect of temperature on respiration

- Investigated by changing the temperature in water bath
in experiment (7)  repeated readings at different
temperatures
- Low temperature: rate of respiration  as enzymes
involved in aerobic respiration become more active
- Temperature above 40 °C: rate of respiration  as
enzymes involved in the reactions are denatured

22.5 Anaerobic respiration

 Anaerobic respiration does not require oxygen. [all steps occur in the cytoplasm only, the
mitochondria are not involved]
 It starts with glycolysis in which glucose is oxidized to pyruvate. [total: 2NADH and 2 ATP]
 Without oxygen, pyruvate cannot proceed to the Krebs cycle and oxidative
phosphorylation. Instead, it follows different pathways and different products are formed.
 Plants and fungi (eg. yeast): glucose  pyruvate ethanol and carbon dioxide
Human tissues (eg. skeletal muscles): glucose  pyruvate lactic acid

A Formation of ethanol and carbon dioxide in yeast

 Yeast (a unicellular fungus) can respire anaerobically and produce ethanol (an alcohol) and
carbon dioxide when oxygen supply is insufficient. [alcoholic fermentation]
 Other examples: germinating seeds and root cells of some plants can also carry out alcoholic
fermentation when oxygen is in short supply (in water-logged soil)

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Supplementary notes

1 Process of alcoholic fermentation

 The pyruvate formed from glycolysis is reduced to ethanol.
 Carbon dioxide is released and NAD is regenerated to accept hydrogen in glycolysis again.

2 NAD 2 NADH 2 NADH 2 NAD

glucose (6-C) 2 pyruvate (3-C) 2 ethanol (2-C)

2 ADP + 2 P 2 ATP 2 CO2

glycolysis

 Overall equation of alcoholic fermentation:

glucose energy (2 ATP) + ethanol + carbon dioxide (2 CO2)

Extended learning (Conversion of pyruvate  acetaldehyde  ethanol )

2 Comparison of ATP production between aerobic respiration and alcoholic

fermentation
 During alcoholic fermentation, glucose is partially broken down to form ethanol and
carbon dioxide. (large amount of chemical energy is still trapped inside the ethanol)
 One glucose molecule produces only 2 molecules of ATP through glycolysis much less
energy is released from anaerobic respiration than aerobic respiration (38 ATP)

B Formation of lactic acid in skeletal muscles

 Skeletal muscle cells normally obtain energy through aerobic respiration.
 However, they also carry out anaerobic respiration when there is an insufficient supply of
oxygen. This happens during strenuous exercise, eg. high-intensity movement for s short
duration.

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Supplementary notes

 Examples of strenuous exercise: sprinting (left) and weightlifting (right)

 When a skeletal muscle cell respires anaerobically, glucose is broken down into
lactic acid with the release of a small amount of energy. [lactic acid fermentation]

1 Process of lactic acid fermentation

 Glucose is first oxidized to pyruvate in glycolysis.
 In the absence of oxygen, pyruvate accepts hydrogen from NADH and is reduced to lactic
acid. The lactic acid is released into the blood.
 In this way, NAD is regenerated and can be used in glycolysis again. (NO CO2 is produced)

2 NAD 2 NADH 2 NADH 2 NAD

glucose (6-C) 2 pyruvate (3-C) 2 lactic acid (3-C)

2 ADP + 2 P 2 ATP Muscle fatique

glycolysis

 Overall equation of lactic acid fermentation:

glucose energy (2 ATP) + lactic acid

2 Significance of lactic acid fermentation in skeletal muscles

 During exercise, skeletal muscles also carry out lactic acid fermentation (relatively simple)
to convert pyruvate to lactic acid, in addition to aerobic respiration.
 This provides additional energy in a very short time, so that muscles can contract more
powerfully and at a higher rate.

3 Removal of the lactic acid produced

 After exercise, we keep breathing fast and deeply for a period of time in order to take in
extra oxygen. This additional amount of oxygen required to remove all the lactic acid is called
the oxygen debt.
 Lactic acid still traps a lot of energy further metabolized to release energy

- 19 -
Supplementary notes

 With more oxygen, more NAD is regenerated in the electron transport chain.
 Then the lactic acid can be oxidized by NAD to pyruvate, which can be converted to acetyl-
CoA for entering the Krebs cycle.

rate of oxygen uptake

oxygen debt

time
rest exercise recovery rest

 Changes in the rate of oxygen uptake during and after exercise

Extended learning – Removal of lactic acid

Extended learning – Glycogenesis and Cori cycle

- 20 -
Supplementary notes

Summary of anaerobic respiration:

 Muscle soreness (muscles become stiff and painful): 1. Accumulation of lactic acid
produced by lactic acid fermentation 2. Microscopic damage in muscle fibres
inflammation and pain
 Some people feel dizzy if they sit down immediately after vigorous exercise The
relaxation of skeletal muscles decrease in blood flow to brain muscle (not because of
oxygen consumption for paying the oxygen debt)

C Industrial applications of anaerobic respiration

1 Application of alcoholic fermentation in yeast
i) Beer and wine brewing
Beer brewing Wine brewing

 Yeast is used to break down the sugar in  Yeast on the skin of grapes breaks down
barley under anaerobic conditions to the sugar in grape juice to produce
produce ethanol. ethanol.

- 21 -
Supplementary notes

ii) Bread-making
 Yeast is used to break down the sugars in the dough. Carbon dioxide formed by alcoholic
fermentation in yeast helps raise the dough. During baking, an increase in temperature causes
the carbon dioxide trapped in the dough to expand. This gives the bread a spongy texture.

dough after
raising

dough before
raising
 Bread dough before and after raising by adding yeast

iii) Production of biofuel

 Alcoholic fermentation can be used to produce biofuel from crops, such as sugar cane and
maize. The ethanol produced is extracted as a fuel to power vehicles. [gasofuel = mixing
ethanol with petrol/gasoline]

2 Application of lactic acid fermentation

Yoghurt- and cheese-making Pickling vegetables

 Lactose in milk is broken down into  Sugars in fresh vegetables are broken
lactic acid by anaerobic bacteria in the down by anaerobic bacteria to produce
absence of oxygen. lactic acid. Lactic acid and other
 The lactic acid helps coagulate the milk products of fermentation give the
proteins, and gives yoghurt and cheese pickled vegetables distinct flavours.
their distinct flavours.  The low pH of lactic acid inhibits the
 Eg. Lactobacillus is one of the common growth of mircoorganisms that cause
anaerobic bacteria used food spoilage.
Other examples of anaerobic respiration: soya sauce, vinegar etc.

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Supplementary notes

21.5 Comparison of aerobic and anaerobic respiration

Aerobic respiration Anaerobic respiration

Similarities  Release energy from the oxidative breakdown of organic substances

 Transfer energy to the energy carrier ATP, and some energy is lost as heat
 Consist of a number of reactions controlled by enzymes

Differences  Occurs in cytoplasm and  Occurs only in cytoplasm

mitochondria

 Oxygen is required  Oxygen is not required

 Organic substances are  Organic substances are partially

completely broken down into broken down to form lactic acid
carbon dioxide and water or ethanol and carbon dioxide

 A larger amount of energy is  A much smaller amount of energy

released is released
(38 ATP per glucose) (2 ATP per glucose)

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Supplementary notes

Exercise

1. The diagram below shows some stages of aerobic respiration.

glucose
At which stage(s) is carbon dioxide released?
stage P
A. R only
B. P and R only pyruvate
C. P and Q only
stage Q
D. Q and R only

2. Which of the following statements about pyruvate is / are stage R

correct?
(1) It contains less energy than glucose per molecule.
(2) It is produced in the mitochondria.
(3) It is converted into lactic acid when oxygen is absent.
A. (3) only
B. (1) and (2) only
C. (1) and (3) only
D. (1), (2) and (3)

3. Which of the following is / are produced by both aerobic respiration and anaerobic respiration
in humans?
(1) ATP
(2) water
(3) carbon dioxide
A. (1) only
B. (1) and (2) only
C. (1) and (3) only
D. (1), (2) and (3)

4. In a set-up, some living yeast cells were added to glucose solution that had been boiled and
cooled. The graph below shows the changes in the amounts of three substances in the set-up.

3
Amount

2
1

Time

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Supplementary notes

What do curves 1, 2 and 3 represent, respectively?

1 2 3
A. yeast glucose ethanol
B. glucose yeast ethanol
C. ethanol yeast glucose
D. glucose ethanol yeast

5. Which of the following comparisons between alcoholic fermentation and lactic acid
fermentation is correct?
Alcoholic fermentation Lactic acid fermentation
A. uses alcohol as the substrate uses lactic acid as the substrate
B. more energy is released less energy is released
C. produces carbon dioxide does not produced carbon dioxide
D. occurs in yeast only occurs in animal only

6. Which of the following comparisons between aerobic respiration and photosynthesis is

correct?
Aerobic respiration Photosynthesis
A. anabolic process catabolic process
B. all stages occur in mitochondria all stages occur in chloroplasts
C. electron transport chain involved electron transport chain not involved
D. forms water in the final stage uses water in the first stage

7. Below are the steps in bread-making.

(1) Mix flour, sugar, water and yeast to form a dough.
(2) Leave the dough undisturbed at 30 °C for 1 hour.
(3) Bake the dough in an oven at 230 °C for 30 minutes.
(a) Name the process carried out by yeast that can make the dough rise in step (2). Explain
why the process can make the dough rise. (3 marks)

(b) The dough will not rise any further after it has been put in the oven for 10 minutes.
Suggest a reason to explain why. (1 mark)

(c) (i) Name another product produced by the yeast during bread-making. (1 mark)

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Supplementary notes

(ii) What happens to this product when the dough is baked? (1 mark)

(Total: 6 marks)
8. The diagram below shows an experimental set-up used to measure the rate of respiration of
some geminating seeds.
glass tube X glass tube Y

sodium hydroxide sodium hydroxide

solution solution

germinating seeds boiled seeds

(washed with (washed with
disinfectant) disinfectant)
moist cotton coloured moist cotton
wool liquid wool

(a) Two hours after the start of the experiment, the liquid level in glass tube X rose for 1 cm
and the liquid level in glass tube Y dropped for 1 cm.
(i) Explain the changes in the liquid levels. (4 marks)

(ii) Given that the cross-sectional area of the glass tubes is 0.5 cm2, calculate the rate of
respiration of the germinating seeds. (1 mark)

(b) The rise in the liquid level in glass tube X gradually slowed down. Explain why.
(2 marks)

(c) Explain why the germinating seeds and the boiled seeds should be washed with
disinfectant before the experiment. (1 mark)

(Total: 8 marks)

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Supplementary notes

ANS

1. D
2. C
3. A
4. B
5. C
6. D

7. (a) (i) To remove carbon dioxide from the air (1)

(ii) To show that the air entering the bell jar is free of carbon dioxide (1)
(b) The bell jar should be covered with a piece of black cloth in order to exclude light. (1)
Otherwise, the potted plant will undergo photosynthesis and absorb carbon dioxide. (1)
The pot should be wrapped in a polythene bag (1)
to prevent the respiration of soil microorganisms from affecting the result. (1)
(c) The lime water in flask C would turn milky. (1)
This shows that that potted plant releases carbon dioxide. (1)
(Total: 8 marks)

8. (a) (i) Germinating seeds consumed oxygen during respiration and released carbon dioxide.
(1)
The carbon dioxide produced was absorbed by the sodium hydroxide solution. (1)
The air pressure in the flask containing the germinating seeds became lower than the
atmospheric pressure. (1)
As a result, the coloured liquid in glass tube X was drawn upwards.
The liquid level in glass tube Y dropped because of the weight of the liquid. (1)
(ii) (1 + 1)  0.5 / 2 = 0.5 cm3/hour (1)
(b) As oxygen in the flask became used up, germinating seeds switched to anaerobic
respiration. (1)
Less and less (No more) carbon dioxide was produced. (1)
(c) This is to kill any microorganisms on the surface of the seeds. Otherwise, microorganisms
may carry out respiration and affect the results. (1)
(Total: 8 marks)

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