Curve Sketching in R2

Chapter 5.4

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Theorem A.1.2
Assume that f : [a, b] → R is continuous at c ∈ (a, b) and that L is a real
number. If f (c) > L, then there is a number δ > 0 such that f (x) > L for
all x ∈ (c − δ, c + δ).

Theorem A.1.4
Let f be a function defined on an open interval containing the pointa. If f
is differentiable at a, then f is continuous at a.

Theorem A.1.6
(Inverse Function Theorem) Assume that f : [a, b] → R is continuous on
[a, b], differentiable on (a, b) and f 0 (x) > 0 for all x ∈ (a, b). Then the
following statements are true.
(1) f is increasing on [a, b].
(2) f has an inverse f −1 : [f (a), f (b)] → [a, b].
(3) f −1 is differentiable on (f (a), f (b), and
d −1 1
dx f (x) = f 0 (f −1 (x))
, x ∈ (f (a), f (b)).
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Theorem 5.4.1
Consider a vector function r¯ : [a, b] → R2 , such that r¯(t) = hx(t), y (t)i,
t ∈ [a, b]. Assume that r¯0 (t) = hx 0 (t), y 0 (t)i exists on (a, b) and is
continuous at a point c ∈ (a, b). If x 0 6= 0, then the following statements
are true.
(1) There exists a real number δ > 0, an open interval I containing x(c)
and a function f : I → R so that for every t ∈ (c − δ, c + δ)
r¯(t) = hx, y i if and only if y = f (x) for some x ∈ I , y ∈ R (5.2)
(2) The function f in (1) is differentiable on I and for every x ∈ I with
x(t), t ∈ (c − δ, c + δ),
dy
y 0 (t)
f 0 (x) = x 0 (t) = dt
dx (5.3)
dt

We give a proof for the case when x 0 (c) > 0. The case when x 0 (c) < 0
follows the same way

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Proof of (1)
Since r¯0 (t) exists for all t ∈ (a, b), we know from Theorem 5.3.2 that x 0 (t)
also exists for all t ∈ (a, b). Therefore x is a continuous function on (a, b)
by Theorem A.1.4.
Since x 0 (c) > 0 and x 0 is continuous at c, Theorem A.1.2 implies that
there exists a number δ > 0 such that x 0 (t) > 0 for all t ∈ (c − δ, c + δ).
The Inverse Function Theorem, Theorem A.1.6 now implies that x has an
inverse x −1 defined on the interval I = (x(c − δ), x(c + δ).
For each x ∈ I , let

f (x) = y (x −1 (x)), x ∈ I .

Now consider x0 ∈ I and y0 ∈ R so that

y0 = f (x0 ).

Let t0 = x −1 (x0 ) ∈ (c − δ, c + δ). By the definition of an inverse function,

x0 = x(t0 ).

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Proof of (1) cont’d
Furthermore,

y0 = f (x0 ) = y (x −1 (x0 )) = y (x −1 (x(t0 ))) = y (t0 ).

Therefore hx0 , y0 i = r¯(t0 ).

Conversely, consider x0 ∈ I and y0 ∈ R so that

hx0 , y0 i = r¯(t0 ) for some t0 ∈ (c − δ, c + δ).

Then x0 = x(t0 ) so that t0 = x −1 (x0 ). But y0 = y (t0 ) so that

y0 = y (x −1 (x0 )) = f (x0 ).

Therefore (5.2) holds.

Proof of (2)
Since x = x(t) is differentiable with x 0 (t) > 0 on (c − δ, c + δ), and x −1 is
its inverse, it follows from Theorem A.1.6 that x −1 is differentiable on I
and
Curve Sketching in R2 Chapter 5.4 5 / 18
Proof of (2) cont’d
d −1 (x )) 1
dx (x 0 = where x0 = x(t0 ) ∈ I with t0 ∈ (c − δ, c + δ).
x 0 (t0

Since y 0 (t) exists on (c − δ, c + δ) and f (x) = y (x −1 (x)) it therefore

follows from the Chain Rule that
y 0 (t0 ) dy
f (x0 ) = y 0 (x −1 x0 ) × d
dx (x
−1 (x ))
0 = = dt
dx
x 0 (t0 ) dt

where x0 = x(t0 ) ∈ I with t0 ∈ (c − δ, c + δ). This completes the proof.

Remark 5.4.2
In Theorem 5.4.1, the roles of x and y can be interchanged. Consider a
vector function r¯ : [a, b] → R2 such that r¯(t) = hx(t), y (t)i so that
r¯0 (t) = hx 0 (t), y 0 (t)i exists on (a, b) and is continuous at a point
c ∈ (a, b). If y 0 (c) 6= 0, then there exist a real number δ > 0, an open
interval I containing y (c) and a function g : I → R so that for every
t ∈ (c − δ, c + δ)

r¯(t) = hx, y i if and onlyCurve

if Sketching
x = f (y in R)2 for some y ∈ I , x ∈
Chapter
R. 5.4 6 / 18
 r¯(t) = hx, y i if and only if x = f (y ) for some y ∈ I , x ∈ R.

Furthermore, g is differentiable on I and

dx
x 0 (t)
g 0 (y ) = y 0 (t) = dt
dy where y = y (t) ∈ I for some t ∈ (c − δ, c + δ).
dt

Remark 5.4.3
Let r¯, [a, b] and c be as given in Theorem 5.4.1. A particularly important
case is when

x 0 (c) 6= 0 and y 0 (c) = 0.

In this case, according to Theorem 5.4.1, a small piece of the curve around
the point r¯(c) is the graph y = f (x) of a differentiable function f , and
y 0 (c)
f 0 (x(c)) = x 0 (c) = 0.

Therefore the tangent line to the curve at r¯(c) is horizontal. If

x 0 (c) = y 0 (c) = 0, then neither Theorem 5.4.1 nor Remark 5.4.2 apply.
Curve Sketching in R2 Chapter 5.4 7 / 18
In this case, further investigation is required to determine the behaviour of
the curve at r¯(c).

Example 5.4.4
We sketch the curve C with parameterisation

r¯(t) = ht 3 − 3t, t 2 i, t ∈ [−2, 2]

Solution
Note that we are only considering values for t in the interval [−2, 2].
Therefore all other values for t are disregarded.
• End points
r¯(−2) = h−2, 4i and r¯(2) = h2, 4i.
• y -intercepts For y -intercepts, we set
x(t) = t 3 − 3t = 0
and solve for t to find
√ √
t = 0 or t = 3 or t = − 3.
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Solution cont’d
Therefore the y -intercept are at
√ p √
r¯(0) = h0, 0i and r¯( 3) = r¯ − 3 = h0, 3i (5.5)

• x-intercepts We set
y (t) = t 2 = 0
to find
t = 0.
Therefore the x-intercept is at r¯(0) = h0, 0i (5.6)
• Turning points Determine any possible turning points in the curve;
that is, points on the curve where the tangent line is either horizontal
or vertical.
According to Remark 5.4.3, for a horizontal tangent, we must find
t ∈ (−2, 2) such that
y 0 (t) = 2t = 0 and x 0 (t) = 3t 2 − 3 6= 0.

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Clearly,

y 0 (t) = 0 if and only if t = 0 and x 0 (0) = −3 6= 0.

Therefore the curve has a horizontal tangent at

r¯(0) = h0, 0i (5.7)

For a vertical tangent, we find t ∈ (−2, 2) such that

x 0 (t) = 3t 2 − 3 = 0 and y 0 (t) = 2t 6= 0.

We have

x 0 (t) = 0 if and only if t = −1 or t = 1 and y 0 (±1) = ±2 6= 0

Therefore the tangent to the curve is vertical at

r¯(−1) = h2, 1i and r¯(1) = h−2, 1i (5.8)

Curve Sketching in R2 Chapter 5.4 10 / 18

We have sufficient information to make a rough sketch of the curve C . We
plot the points (5.5), (5.6), (5.7) and (5.8), keeping in mind that the
points in (5.7) and (5.8) are points where the tangent line to the curve is
horizontal and vertical, respectively.

Example 5.4.5
We sketch the curve parameterised by r¯(t) = hte t , t 2 − 2ti, − 32 ≤ t ≤ 32 .

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Solution
• Endpoints We start by determining the end point of the curve
−3 3
r¯(− 23 = h− 3e2 2 , 21 3 3e 2 3
4 i and r¯( 2 ) = h 2 , − 4 i (5.9)
• y -intercepts For the y -intercepts, we set x(t) = te t = 0 and solve
for t. Clearly,
x(t) = 0 if and only if t = 0.
Therefore the only y -intercept is at
r¯(0) = h0, 0i. (5.10)
• x-intercept For the x-intercept, set y (t) = t2 − 2t = 0 and solve for
t to find
t = 0 or t = 2 > 23 .
Hence the only x-intercept of C is at
r¯(0) = h0, 0i (5.11)
To determine the points where tangent to the curve is horizontal, we
determine t ∈ (− 23 , 32 ) where
y 0 (t) = 2t − 2 = 0 and x 0 (t) = e t + te t 6= 0.
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Clearly,

y 0 (t) = 0 if and only if t = 1.

Furthermore,

x 0 (1) = 2e 6= 0.

Therefore, according to Remark 5.4.3, the curve has a horizontal tangent

at the point

r¯(1) = he, −1i (5.12)

We now determine those points, if any, where the curve has a vertical
tangent. We have

x 0 (t) = e t + te t = 0 if and only if t = −1 and y (−1) = −4 6= 0.

Therefore the curve has a vertical tangent at

r¯(−1) = he −1 , 3i. (5.13)

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Plotting the points (5.9), (5.10), (5.11), (5.12) and (5.13) remembering
where horizontal or vertical tangents appear, and ’connecting the dots’ in
order of increasing t, we arrive at a rough sketch of the curve.

Example 5.4.6
We sketch the curve parameterised by r¯(t) = ht − sin t, 1 − cos ti, where
−2π ≤ t ≤ 2π.
Curve Sketching in R2 Chapter 5.4 14 / 18
Solution
• end points
r¯(−2π) = h−2π, 0i and r¯(2π) = h2π, 0i (5.14)
• y -intercepts
Set x(t) = t − sin t = 0 and solve for t. Clearly,
x(0) = 0.
Furthermore, x 0 (t) = 1 − cos t > 0 for all nonzero t ∈ (−2π, 2π) so
that
x(t) < x(0) = 0 if t < 0 and x(t) > x(0) = 0 if t > 0.
Therefore x(t) = 0 if and only if t = 0, so the only y -intercept is at
r¯(0) = h0, 0i (5.15)
• x-intercepts Set y (t) = 1 − cos t = 0 and solve for t to find
t = −2π, t = 0 or t = 2π
Hence the x-intercepts are at
r¯(−2π) = h−2π, 0i, r¯(0) = h0, 0i and r¯(2π) = h2π, 0i.

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Solution cont’d
• Tangents
To determine the points where the tangent to the curve is horizontal,
we determine t ∈ (−2π, 2π) where
y 0 (t) = sin t = 0 and x 0 (t) = 1 − cos t 6= 0.
Clearly,
y 0 (t) = 0 if and only if t = −π, t = 0 or t = π.
Furthermore,
x 0 (0) = 0 and x 0 (−π) = x 0 (π) = 2 6= 0.
Therefore, according Remark 5.4.3, the curve has a horizontal tangent
at the points
r¯(−π) = h−π, 2i and r¯(π) = hπ, 2i (5.17)
Note that Remark 5.4.3 does not give any information on what
happens at points where x 0 (t) = y 0 (t) = 0; that is, at the point
r¯(0) = h0, 0i.

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For −2π < t < 0, x 0 (t) 6= 0 so that this part of the curve is the graph
y = f (x) of a function f , and
dy
dy sin t
dx = dt
dx = 1−cost .
dt

Using l’Hospitals’ Rule, we have

dy cos t
lim = lim = −∞.
t→0− dx t→0 sin t
−

In the same way,

dy
lim+ = ∞.
t→0 dx
Therefore the curve forms a ’sharp cusp’ at the point r¯(0). We check
whether or not the curve has any vertical tangents. For −2π ≤ t ≤ 2π we
have

x 0 (t) = 1 − cos t = 0 if and only if t = 0.

Curve Sketching in R2 Chapter 5.4 17 / 18

This value of t has already been dealt with, so there are no points where
the tangent to the curve is vertical.
Plotting the point in (5.14), (5.15), (5.16), (5.17) and (5.18),
remembering where horizontal tangents and sharp cusps appear, and
’connecting the dots’ in order of increasing t, we arrive at a rough sketch
of the curve

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