CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of study

Mushroom are a widely distributed food resource on earth and have been consumed because of

their nutritional value and medicinal properties for over 2000 years. For their enjoyable flavor

and taste, human health was improved by mushroom due to their nutrients, including digestible

proteins, carbohydrates, fiber, vitamins, minerals and antioxidants (Acharya et al. 2017, Zhang et

al. 2016). A wide variety of bioactive compounds from medicinal mushrooms, which are widely

used in eastern Asia, have been studied extensively, and these compounds including

polysaccharides, lectins, lactones, terpenoids and alkaloids have been reviewed (Rahi et al. 2016;

Toledo et al. 2016). Besides their pharmacological features, mushrooms are becoming more

important in our diet due to their nutritional value, high protein and low fat/energy contents.

The mushroom protein contains all the nine essential amino acid required by humans, in addition

to their good protein content, mushrooms are a relatively good source of the other nutrition like

phosphorus, iron and vitamins, including thiamine, riboflavin, ascorbic acid, ergosterol and

niacin. Mushroom are the sources of bioactive substances such as secondary metabolites

(Organic acids, terpenoids, polyphenols, sesquiterpenes, alkaloids, lactones, sterols, metal

chelating agents, nucleotides analogs and vitamins), glycoproteins and polysaccharides, mainly

1,2-glucans. Due to the presence of biologically active compounds of medical value they are

used as anti-cancer, antiviral, hepatoprotective, immuno potentiating and hypocholesterolemic

agents.(Nagy et al. 2017).

 Among the numerous species of mushroom, oyster mushrooms have more advantages over

other mushroom in terms of easy cultivation, role in bio degradation and bioremediation,

extracellular enzymes production and neutraceuticals production (Rashad et al. 2009). Pleurotus

species, commonly known as oyster mushrooms, are edible fungi cultivated worldwide

especially in south east Asia, India, and Europe (Mandrel et al. 2005). Oyster mushrooms is the

third largest (Obodai et al. 2003) commercially produced mushroom in the world. ln mushroom

production the composting time is important to ensure the effectiveness of the mushroom which

is a macro fungus. There is therefore the need to study the composting time before inoculation to

enhance easy colonization of the mycelia for fruiting substrate production is one of the most

critical stages of cultivation of mushrooms because it has a dramatic consequence of on the yeild

and quality of the crop and consequently the economic viability of the crop (Diego et al. 2011).

Mushroom is considered to be a complete health food and suitable for all age groups, child to

aged people. The nutritional value of mushroom is aggressive by numerous factors such as

species stage of development and environmental conditions. Mushrooms are rich in protein,

dietary fiber, vitamins and minerals (Chakravarty.2011;Da Silva 2012, Thatoi et al., 2014).

Mushrooms are good source of protein, vitamin and minerals (Alam et al. 2008).lt has protein

(25-30%),fat (2.5%),sugar (17-44%),mycocellulose (7-38%) and mineral; (Phosphorus,

potassium, calcium and sodium)of about 8-12%(Stanley.2011). Cultivated mushrooms have

higher protein contents and minerals, low in fat and rich in vitamin B,D,K, sometimes the

presence of vitamins A and C were also reported (Manzi et al. 2001), mushrooms contain 18

essential amino acids such as; methionine, isoleucine, lysine, glutamic acid, cysteine, aspartic

acid, phenylalanine, tyrosine, tryptophan, valine, arginine, histidine, alanine, glycine, serine and
proline(Djarijah et al. 2001) mushrooms are rich in essential unsaturated fatty acids including

Oleic, linoleic, alfa and palmitic acids.

A number of B vitamins also appear to be important for a healthy brain, the choline in

mushrooms can help with muscle movement, learning and memory, mushrooms are also the only

vegan, non-fortified dietary source of vitamin D, wild mushrooms can make a tasty dish, but the

toxins in some mushrooms can trigger fatal health issues. some wild mushrooms also high level

of heavy metals and other harmful chemicals. To avoid these dangers, only consume mushrooms

from a reliable source( Ware 2019).

They are varieties of edible mushrooms, the white button, cremini, shiitake, maitake, oysters,

enoki, beech, Portobello, trumpet, chanterelle(Garone.2021), mushrooms belongs to a

macroscopic group of organisms belonging to the kingdom fungi (mycota) of the estimated 2.2

to 3.8 million fungal species with diverse forms within this kingdom( compared to 220,000-

420,000 plant species),only 3 to 8 percent have been described. Hence, fungi have remained one

of the least understood kingdom of life (Hawksworth and Lucking 2017;Tedersoo et al. 2010).

unlike bacteria, protists and animals, fungi have evolved both microscopic forms without loosing

their heterotrophic lifestyle (smith et al. 2017).

(Okigbo et al. 2021), mushroom is fungus that lacks chlorophyll and can be found thriving on

dead organic matter such as wood, rice, straw, plantain leaves and orange leaves. Mushrooms are

classified into three major groups; firstly is the medicinal mushrooms: they are mushrooms

which can be utilized in treatment of some diseases such as cancer, high blood pressure, diabetes,

stimulating immune system and controlling of high cholesterol level, some examples are Daldnia

Concentrica, Gernoderma spp, Pleurotus teberegium Agaricus sylvaticus, Lentinies edodex.

Secondly edible mushrooms; they are mushrooms which can be consumed because of their taste,

substitute for meat and medicinal purposes e.g Volvaricella volvaricella, Auricullaria auricular,

Lentinies squrrosielus. Thirdly, is the poisonous mushroom which contains chemicals, known as

toxins which are hazardous to human immune system and lead to death if instant medical

treatment is not administered quickly to the consumer, some examples are: Amanita bisporigera.

Amanita muscaria. Amanita virosa. Amanita phalloides also know as death trap(David et al.

2012).

Rice husks could serve as a good substrate for which might be due to the presence of some

phytochemical and other nutritional factors.(Akpaja et al. 2012).Rice husks are the hard

protecting covering of grains of rice, Oryza sativa, it is the most important food crop consumed

by more than half of the world's population and a good substrate, for mushroom cultivation. lt

provides aeration and are safe for employees to handle and work with which is suitable for

decayed or retain into the garden bed by the consumer. Rice husks creates larger poses in the

substrates that become air filled after irrigation and drainage(Fapohunda et al. 2012).

Fluted pumpkin (Telfaina occidentalis hook. F) is a leaf and seed vegetable indigenous to South

eastern Nigeria but now cultivated in many parts of the country with high nutritional values

(Akoroda 1990; Akanbi et al. 2007; Odiaka et al. 2008). lt leaves locally referred to as Ogu in

the riverine area of the Niger Delta region of Nigeria, is an important dietary component, fluted

pumpkin is a potential substrate in mushroom production.

1.2 Justification of study

Both rice husks and fluted pumpkin husks are biodegradable, making the environmentally

friendly choices for substrate materials. After use they can be recycled or composted.

However they are several substrate that's been used for mushroom production which includes;

spent coffee ground, wheat, straw, sugar cane bagasse and sawdust, each of these materials have

different properties that make it suitable for growing different types of mushrooms.

Agricultural waste products such as rice husks and fluted pumpkin husk, that should be discarded

can be used for beneficial purposes, by using rice husk and fluted pumpkin husk, l can produce

edible and medicinal mushrooms for human benefits, because they have the right nutrients and

PH levels for growth.

1.3 Aim and objective of study

Aim; To enhance the production of mushrooms from rice husks and fluted pumpkin husks.

Objective; To produce mushrooms from waste products.

 CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

The purpose of this review is to examine the existing research on enhancing the production of

mushroom.

(Wiafe-Kwagyan et al. 2023) cultivated edible mushrooms such as pleurotus ostreatus with

appreciable success. The presence of fungal competitors and potential pathogens in the substrates

obstructs yeild. The samples of mushrooms and corresponding compost bags were stored in

sterile and sealed polyvinyl translucent bags were transported to the mycology laboratory at the

department of plant and environmental biology, university of Ghana, Legion.

(Engin.2018) Oyster mushrooms of the Pleurotus genus (Pleutorus ostreatus )were used in

drying experiments, visually fresh and equally ripen mushrooms were supplied by a local

grower .Mushroom were cooled immediately and brought to the department of food Engineering

where the process of drying was conducted, they were kept at 4°C,and mushrooms with similar

sizes were selected for drying experiments. The hot air drying process was conducted at

temperatures of 45,55 and 65°C in a hot air dryer, during the study in which the drying process

was carried out to analyze the impact of the oyster mushrooms on colour change, the colour

values of the samples taken at pre-determined. Certain intervals during the drying process were

measured with the colour measuring device, the values of the reaction rate constant, found after

the drying at 45°,55 and 65°C of the ∆E value were respectively 0.058,0.065 and 0.089.
(Munir et al. 2021) reviewed the potential of Effective microbes (EM) in the mushroom

cultivation industry, the potential activator and how it enhances the mushroom yield performance.

The mushroom cultivating technique is critical to achieving large yeilds. More mushrooms can

be harvested in less time by employing effective microbes (EM)as a yeild performance booster.

However, EM is not yet commercially accessible despite the fact that numerous potential EM

exist, including dominant bacteria from mushroom production, bacteria bio inoculant, and

antilisterial agent. The EM activator found inside the substrate represents another yet to be

commercialized yeild performance booster, several possible EM activators including diary waste

water, rice husks biochar and tea compost, can be transformed from industrial waste with a

steady increase in industrial waste.

(Thomas et al. 1998) evaluated the lignocellulosic biomass from coconut palm (Cocus nucifera

Linn.)such as bunch waste (spathe+spadices), leafstalk(petiole), leaflet and coir pith (by products

from coir processing industry)as substrate for the cultivation of oyster mushroom, pleurotus

sajor-caju (Fr.) singer. A low-cost mushroom shield built exclusively of coconut materials such

as coconut wood and plaited coconut leaves inside a coconut plantation was used as spawn run

and cropping. Leaf stalk and bunch waste were superior to leaflets and coir pith in producing

significantly more edible mushrooms. Biological efficiency of 58.9% was obtained in leafstalk,

followed by bunch waste(56.9%), coir pith(39.7%) and leaflets(38.2%).The yeild of sporophore

was positively related to cellulose content and the cellulose.

(Sharma et al. 2014) brought up to date the present status and future prospects of edible

mushrooms for their anti microbial potentiality, mushrooms are superior nutritional supplements

and attributed with magnificent nutritional values. The medicinal bioactive compounds present in

mushroom includes; Polysaccharides, lipopolysaccharides, proteins, peptides, glycoproteins,

nucleotides, triterpenoids, lectins, lipids and their derivatives. The antimicrobial properties of

certain mushrooms provide human disease control that is generally safe and effective. The

presented information will give a view to researchers for upgrading mushroom from functional

food to holistic mushroom medicine to encounter multi drug resistant pathogenic

microorganisms.

(Okigbo et al., 2021) Studies were carried out to investigate cultivation of some indigenous

edible mushrooms in Anambra State. The most suitable substrates for cultivation of Pleurotus

tuberregium and Volvariella volvacea were also investigated. Spawn of Volvariella volvacea was

obtained from the Department of Life Science, University of Benin, Edo State and sclerotia of

Pleurotus Tuberregium purchased from Eke Awka Market, Anambra State were used for this

study. The methods used were site preparation, substrate preparation, soil preparation, sclerotia

preparation, cultivation of sclerotia, irrigation, spawn cultivation and harvesting of mushrooms.

Means were separated using Duncan's Multiple Range Tests (DMRT). All the three substrates

utilized for cultivation of mushrooms in this study supported their growth and development.

Plantain leaves supported fast colonization and produced high yield fruit bodies of Volvariella

volvacea. The ability to use agricultural wastes for cultivation of mushrooms will boost food

production for ever increasing population.

(Nwachukwu and Adedokun 2014) Pleurotus tuber-regium (Rumph. Ex Fr.) Singer (King tuber

mushroom) was cultivated on sawdust; mixture of sawdust and waste paper and mixture of

Telfairia occidentalis Hook.F. (Fluted pumpkin) stem and waste paper in order to examine

growth of the mushroom on the test substrates. The spawn of the mushroom was used to

inoculate the substrates. Mycelia ramification and sclerotia production were monitored on the

substrates during the research. The sclerotia produced were analyzed for protein and crude fiber
content. Mycelia ramification for paper mixed with fluted pumpkin stem treatment was

significantly different from sawdust and sawdust mixed with paper at P=0.05. Fluted pumpkin

stem and waste paper could serve as substrates for cultivation of P. tuber-regium.

(Oghenekaro et al., 2008) The effect of three heavy metals, that is, lead, zinc and copper, on the

growth of Pleurotus tuberregium, was investigated. Lead carbonate, zinc carbonate and copper

sulphate were added to the mushroom substrate at concentrations of 0.1, 0.5, 1.0 and 2.0 g/250 g

of substrate. Two sets were prepared using spawn and sclerotia as inocula. On a mycelial density

rating, ranging from 0 -5, the spawn-inoculated treatment was higher than that of the sclerotia.

The average mycelial density was highest in copper-contaminated substrate that was inoculated

with spawn, with a mean value of 5.0, while the lowest was in copper-contaminated substrate

that was inoculated with sclerotia, with a mean value of 2.0. Fruit bodies were formed only in the

copper-contaminated substrate at concentrations of 1.0 and 2.0 g/ 250 g of substrate. Shrinkage

of the mushroom fruit body occurred seven days after formation of primordia. Biological

efficiency of the harvested sporophores was 0.01 and 0.02%, respectively.

(Lotfy et al. 2010) Mushrooms grown on substrates treated with different concentrations of

manganese, copper, lead and zinc were studied. Mushrooms grown on substrates treated with

different concentrations of manganese, copper and zinc fruited at about the same time (4 weeks

after spawning). The mushrooms treated with lead took about 2 more weeks to fruit, This could

be due to toxicity caused by lead. The heavy metal concentration extracted from the mushroom

fruiting bodies of Pleurotus ostrea-tus were 2000 mg/kg mushroom tissue, 3000 mg/kg

mushroom tissue, 1000 mg/kg mushroom tissue and 500 mg/kg mushroom tissue for lead,

copper, manganese and zinc respectively. The results shows that Pleurotus ostreatus cultivated

mushrooms are able to uptake and bioconcentrate the above heavy metals.
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