COLLEGE ENGLISH S.Y.

1ST SEMESTER – MIDTERM

22 – 23
OUTLINE à Coordinating conjunctions affect the meaning of your
sentence.
I. CONJUNCTIONS AND INTERJECTIONS - 'And' connects things that are alike or joined together.
II. COHESION & COHERENCE  I want popcorn and pizza.
PRONOUN, ANTECEDENTS & - 'But' connects things that are different or separated.
AGREEMENTS  I want popcorn but not pizza.
III. ADJECTIVES & ADVERBS - 'Or' is used to offer a choice.
CONTEXT CLUES  Do you want popcorn or pizza?
INTERJECTION - 'Nor' is used to offer a negative choice.
à something that interrupts a sentence  I do not want popcorn nor pizza.
à also something that expresses your emotions like - ‘Yet' is used to show a change. When it is used to
happiness, fear, anger, or pain combine two sentences, you must put a comma before
à examples: it.
- ouch, wow, uh oh, oh  I want popcorn, yet I also want pizza.
- no, gosh, shhhh - 'So' is used to show a relationship between things.
Punctuating Interjections When it is used to combine two sentences, you must
à If an interjection is spoken calmly, simply put a put a comma before it.
comma after it and continue the sentence.  I want popcorn, so I made some.
- Shhh, the baby is sleeping. - ‘For' is also used to show a relationship between
- Oh my, I dropped my pencil. things. When it is used to combine two sentences, you
à If an interjection is spoken with more emotion, it is must put a comma before it.
followed by an exclamation point. The next word is  I ordered a pizza, for I was hungry
then capitalized. SUBORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS
- Ouch! I just cut my finger. à connect a dependent clause (a clause that cannot be
- He scored the winning touchdown.Wow! written as a separate sentence) with an independent
clause
CONJUNCTION à If, While, Because, Although, After, Before, Unless,
à joins words, phrases, and sentences, which are called When, Until, Since, Then, As
clauses à Examples:
à 3 Types of Conjunctions - We celebrated after we won the game.
- Coordinating Conjunctions - Because our train was delayed, we arrived late.
- Subordinating Conjunctions - Watson listened quietly while Holmes explained his
- Correlative Conjunctions theory.
à Conjunctions can join 2 or more words CORRELATIVE CONJUNCTIONS
- I went to the store to buy eggs, milk, and bread. à connect things of equal value; connect a verb with
à Conjunctions can join 2 prepositional phrases another verb or a sentence with another sentence
- I went skiing down the hill and past the trees. à not single words, but come in pairs
à Conjunctions can join 2 clauses or sentences - Both...and
- I played cards for awhile, but then I played chess. - Whether...or
- Neither...nor
TYPES OF CONJUNCTIONS - Not only...but also
COORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS - Either...or
à connect things (words, phrases, sentences or clauses) à Examples:
of equal value - I saw both the Statue of Liberty and the Empire State
- a noun with another noun Building.
- a phrase with another phrase - I want neither pickles nor tomato on my hamburger.
à FANBOYS - I don’t know whether to play baseball or to play
- For, And, Nor, But, Or, Yet, So basketball this year.

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 COLLEGE ENGLISH S.Y.
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22 – 23
- Either the student or the teacher can answer the à Example:
question. - The problem with contemporary art is that it is not
- Not only do I play the flute, but I also play the clarinet. easily understood by most people. Contemporary art is
COHESION AND COHERENCE deliberately abstract, and that means it leaves the
à Terms used in discourse analysis to clarify the viewer wondering what she is looking at.
reliability of written discourses
Cohesion SYNONYMS
à all the grammatical and lexical links that connect one à words that have essentially the same meaning, and
part of a discourse to another they provide some variety in your word choices
à includes: à example:
- synonyms - Myths narrate sacred histories and explain sacred
- lexical sets origins. These traditional narratives are, in short, a set
- pronouns of beliefs that are a very real force in the lives of the
- verb tenses people who tell them.
- time references
- grammatical references PRONOUNS
à examples: à for referring back to something previously mentioned;
- IT, NEITHER, THIS – refer to an idea previously be sure that what you are referring to is clear
mentioned à this, that, these, those, he, she, it, they, and we
- FIRST OF ALL, THEN, AFTER THAT – help to à example:
sequence a discourse - When scientific experiments do not work out as
- HOWEVER, IN ADDITION, FOR INSTANCE – link expected, they are often considered failures until some
ideas and arguments in a discourse other scientist tries them again. Those that work out
Coherence better the second time around are the ones that
à How meanings and sequences of ideas relate to each promise the most rewards.
other
à Examples: TRANSITIONAL WORDS
- General – specific à cue listeners/readers to relationships between
- Statement – example sentences, joining sentences together
- Problem – solution à however, therefore, in addition, also, but, moreover
- Question – answer à example:
- Claim – counterclaim - I like autumn, and yet autumn is a sad time of the year,
à When sentences, ideas, and details fit together too. The leaves turn bright shades of red and the
clearly, listeners/readers can follow along easily, and weather is mild, but I can't help thinking ahead to the
the writing is coherent. winter and the ice storms that will surely blow through
à The ideas tie together smoothly and clearly. here. In addition, that will be the season of chapped
Cohesion vs. Coherence faces, too many layers of clothes to put on, and days
COHESION when I'll have to shovel heaps of snow from my car's
à mechanical links at a language level windshield.
COHERENCE
à discourse making sense as a whole at an ideas level SENTENCE PATTERNS
Cohesive Devices à repeated or parallel sentence patterns can help the
à Transition words and phrases listener/reader follow along and keep ideas tied
à Repetition of key words together
à Use of reference words à example:
Methods Used in Writing - And so, my fellow Americans: ask not what your
REPETITION OF A KEY TERM OR PHRASE country can do for you--ask what you can do for your
à Helps to focus your ideas and to keep your listener/ country.
reader on track from a speech by President John F. Kennedy

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 COLLEGE ENGLISH S.Y.
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RULE # 5
"Cohesion is determined by lexically and grammatically overt à Agreement with indefinite pronouns antecedents
intersentential relationships, whereas coherence is based on - When no gender is specified use both a masculine and
semantic relationships." – CONNOR feminine pronoun.
à anything, something, anyone, everyone, each, all
Pronoun-Antecedent Agreement à Example:
PRONOUN - Each of the students should prepare his or her own
à A word that takes the place of a noun homework.
ANTECEDENT RULE # 6
à The word, phrase, or clause that a pronoun can à Use a singular pronoun to refer to the ff:
replace; comes before the pronoun is used - each, either, neither, one, everyone, everybody, no
Remember one, nobody, anyone, anybody, someone, or
à Any time that you have a pronoun, you'll have an somebody
antecedent, even if it's not in the very same sentence. à Examples:
RULE # 1 - Each of the teams had its mascot at the game.
à A pronoun must agree with its antecedent in both - One of the boys left his pen behind.
number and gender. RULE # 7
à Examples: à The ff indefinite pronouns are plural.
- The Taylors landscaped their yard in an unusual way. - both, few, many, and several
- Kim regained her confidence after the test. à Examples:
- The cheetah licked its chops. - Many of the actors already know their lines.
RULE # 2 - Both of the candidates clearly stated their positions on
à Collective Nouns the issue.
- When the antecedent of a pronoun is a collective noun, RULE # 8
the number of the pronoun depends upon whether the à The ff may be singular or plural depending on how they
collective noun is used as singular or plural. are used in a sentence.
à Example: - all, any, more, most, none, and some
- The class had its first meeting yesterday. à Examples:
(Class is used as a single unit; therefore, the - Most of these coins are rare, but I don’t know what
singular pronoun is used.) they are worth.
RULE # 3 RULE # 9
à Agreement in person à Use a singular pronoun to refer to two or more singular
- 1st person antecedents joined by or or nor.
- 2nd person à Example:
- 3rd person - Neither Heidi nor Beth took her umbrella with her.
à Example: RULE # 10
- Incorrect: They like camping because you can be close à Use a plural pronoun to refer to two or more
to nature. antecedents joined by and.
- Correct: They like camping because they can be close à Example:
to nature. - The guide and the ranger wrapped their rain ponchos
RULE # 4 in their saddle rolls.
à Agreement with indefinite pronouns antecedents
- When a pronoun’s antecedent is an indefinite pronoun, CONTEXT CLUES
the pronoun must agree in number with it. à Hints
à anything, something, anyone, everyone, each, all à found within a sentence, paragraph, or passage that a
à Examples: reader can use to understand the meanings of new or
- Neither of the girls spent her entire allowance. unfamiliar words
- Several members missed their chance to speak with FIVE TYPES OF CONTEXT CLUES
the president. à Definition/Explanation Clues

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 COLLEGE ENGLISH S.Y.
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- "Haberdashery, which is a store that sells men’s à Articles
clothing, is becoming more common today.” - a, an, the
à Restatement/Synonym Clues
- "Lou was sent to the haberdashery to find a new suit.
He needed to wear one for his uncle’s wedding." ORDER OF ADJECTIVES
à Contrast or Antonym Clues
- "Lou wanted to go to the haberdashery, but Ann
wanted to shop at the boutique.”
à Inference or General Context Clues
- “The haberdashery was Lou’s favorite place. He loved
shopping for nice suits. The people who worked there
were so kind and helpful.”
à Punctuation
- Tom's father was a haberdasher, or men’s shop
keeper, in the story.
- Tom's father was a haberdasher (men’s shop keeper)
in the story. à a Venetian glass ashtray
- In the story, Tom's father was a haberdasher -or men’s à a brown German beer-mug
shop keeper. à the first three days
- Tom's father was a “haberdasher”. He had a clothing à my last two jobs
store for men. à a big black cat
à the round glass table
ADJECTIVE WHEN TO USE A COMMA?
à modifies nouns and pronouns à When two or more adjectives come from the same
à tells what kind of person, place, or thing a noun or category
pronoun is - Anna is a sophisticated, quintessential woman.
à may also point out which one or how many
à Example: ADVERB
- The ship was an English vessel. (what kind) à Modifies an active verb or a verb phrase by expressing
- This factory is mine. (which one) manner, place, time, degree, or number.
- Many people enjoy the annual dinner. (how many, à 3 Kinds of Adverbs
which one) - Simple
à 2 MAIN TYPES OF ADJECTIVES - Interrogative
- Descriptive – an adjective that modifies a noun or - Negative
pronoun by describing it or expressing its quality Types of SIMPLE Adverbs
o Kat owns friendly cats. à Time
- (recently, during, sometimes)
- Limiting – an adjective that modifies a noun or pronoun
à Manner
by restricting it rather than describing the qualities or
- (slowly, carefully, quickly)
traits of it
à Degree
o Kat owns some cats.
- (almost, quite, enough)
LIMITING ADJECTIVES
à Place
à Demonstrative
- (here, everywhere, outside)
- this, that, these, those
à Frequency
à Interrogative
- (never, always, rarely)
- whose, what, which
à Reason
à Quantifying
- (since, hence, therefore, because)
- many, some, few, couple, any, all, several
INTERROGATIVE ADVERB
à Possessive
à Introduces a sentence that asks a question
- my, your, his, her, its, our, their
à where, when, why and how

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à Examples: - class essay
- When will you return?
- How is the trunk being sent? What makes informal language?
RELATIVE ADVERBS – in relation to interrogative adverb CHARACTERISTICS
à This is the village where I grew up. - simple grammatical structure
à I don’t remember when I went to bed last night. - personal evaluation
NEGATIVE ADVERB  using first person
à Denies or contradicts a statement (no, not , never,  using forms of "you"
only, scarcely and hardly) - colloquial or slang vocabulary
à Note: two negative adverbs should not be used  including contractions
together.
à Examples: What makes formal language?
- I can scarcely believe my eyes. (correct) CHARACTERISTICS
- I haven’t no more sea shells. (incorrect) - no contractions
- no personal pronouns (such as I, you)
- includes more polysyllabic words (BIGGER words)
FORMAL vs INFORMAL LANGUAGE - complex, complete sentences
FORMAL INFORMAL - avoids colloquial or slang vocabulary
serious light
objective humorous What to avoid in formal writing
impersonal personal - exclamation marks
reasoned casual - needless words like "well" and "you know"
controlled off-handed - first and second person POV
reserved "loose" - beginning sentences with coordinating conjunctions
plain spoken - too many short, choppy sentences
simple - avoid most shortenings, like phone for telephone
- limit the use of acronyms
FORMAL LANGUAGE - required in official or serious situations - limit the use of absolute terms like everybody, always,
INFORMAL LANGUAGE - used in ordinary or relaxed never
situations - avoid cliches and colloquialisms

What determines formal or informal? Common Colloquialisms and Informal Words

- public vs private occasion - a lot, a lot
- size of the audience - ain't
- relationship of the speaker/writer with the audience - alright, all right
- anyways
Your ability to vary your language according to the situation is - anybody, anyone
a mark of an educated person - as
- big, large, great
Informal Situations - buy
- text or chat message - could of, would of, should of
- friendly letter - cute
- "locker" conversation - fellow
- journal-style writing - for sure
- get, obtain
Formal Situations - get, understand
- job interview - gonna, wanna
- principal's office visit - got
- business letter - how come

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- kid - Prepositions of Manner
- kinda, kind of, sorta, sort of - Prepositions of Agent/Instrument
- let - Prepositions of Measure
- like - Prepositions of Source
- pretty - Prepositions of Possession
- real, really
- shall, will, should, would, Prepositions of Time
- so - INDICATE WHEN SOMETHING HAPPENS,
- until, 'till, 'til HAPPENED OR WILL HAPPEN
- yeah  I'll call you at 9 a.m.
 Our meeting is on Monday.
PREPOSITION  I bought this phone in 2019.
- a word used before a noun, a noun phrase or a  He immediately went home after school
pronoun, connecting it to another word - Common examples
- most prepositions take different meanings depending  at
on the context  on
usage
 in
- indicate more abstract ideas such as purpose or
 during
contrast
 after
 We went for a walk despite the rain.
- tell where or when something is in relation to another  before
thing  while
 Run fast! The large dog is behind you!  for
Kinds of Prepositions  until/till
- Simple prepositions - consists only one word  since
 (in, on, at, for, of)  from...to
- Compound Prepositions - consists of two or more  ago
words  by
 (instead of, despite of)  to
Other examples  past
- behind  between...and
- beside  within
- above - USING IN, ON, & AT
- over  AT - for a specific period, or holidays without the
- during word 'day'
- before o at night
- since o at 3 o'clock
- while o at Easter
- through
 ON - for days, dates, and specific holidays
- at the end
o on Sunday
- at the bottom
- in the middle of o on your birthday
- according to o on April 1st
- in addition to  IN - for unspecific or general amount of time
o in 2020
8 Types of Prepositions o in January
- Prepositions of Time o in the 21st century
- Prepositions of Place Prepositions of Place
- Prepositions of Movement - SHOW WHERE SOMETHING HAPPENS

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 She met him at the park.  away from
 I placed the money on the table.  toward
 He's sleeping in his room.  pas
- Common examples:  on to
 At  over
 On  under
 In  through
 Above  across
 After  up
 By  down
 Beneath
 beside/next to Commonly Confused Prepositions
 close to/near in, of, on
 between COMMON USAGE
 among - in - completely or partly enclosed by something
 in front of - of - belonging to something or someone; contained in
 behind something
- on - basis for something
 under
 below
in, on, at
 over COMMON USAGE
 across from/opposite - in - general or longer period of time
- USING IN, ON & AT - on - shorter or more specific periods of time (like days,
 AT - for a specific point dates, and holidays)
o at the airport - at - specific time, or holidays without the word 'day'
o at work
o at the front desk Stressing Content and Function Words
 ON - for something with a surface
o on the table Stress-timed or syllable-timed?
o on the floor SYLLABLE
o on the carpet - a single, unbroken sound of a spoken (or written) word
o on the wall - usually contains a vowel and accompanying
 IN - for something inside or confined consonants
o in the mall STRESS
- the relative emphasis that may be given to certain
o in the jar
syllables in a word, or to certain words in a phrase or
o in the room
sentence
Prepositions of Movement In ENGLISH,
- INDICATE MOVEMENT IN WHICH SOMETHING OR stressed syllables are louder, longer and have a higher pitch
SOMEONE IS MOVING than non-stressed syllables
 Annie went to the park. - fun
 The rat ran into the box. - Eng . lish
 They drove around the city for almost an hour. - lang . uage
- Common examples: - sy . lla . ble
 To
 Into Sentence stress
 out of - pattern of stressed and unstressed words across a
 around sentence

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 COLLEGE ENGLISH S.Y.
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emphasis is on words that carry important information,
although this can change significantly, depending on the
specific meaning the speaker wants to communicate

Stress-timed vs. Syllable-timed langauges

stress-timed
- stressed syllables are said at approximately regular
intervals, and unstressed syllables shorten to fit this
rhythm
syllable-timed
- each syllable takes roughly the same amount of time

In English, the MORE syllables in a sentence, the MORE time

you need to pronounce the sentence (It depends on the
number of stressed words.)

If the number of stressed words is the same, you will need

approximately the same amount of time.
- Dogs chase cats.
- The dogs chase cats.
- The dogs chase the cats.
- The dogs will chase the cats.
- The dogs will be chasing the cats.

Rules for Sentence Stress in English Exception to the RULE

https://www.englishclub.com/pronunciation/sentence- - Sometimes, we can stress a word that would normally
stress.htm be unstressed.
 for clarification
Not ALL WORDS are stressed.  to correct someone's understanding
- Content words = stressed
- Function words = unstressed
Time between stressed words is always the same