COLLEGE ENGLISH (MIDTERMS) - WEEK 7-11

CONJUNCTIONS AND o “And” connects things that are alike or joined

together.
INTERJECTIONS Example:
- I want popcorn and pizza.

o “But” is used to connect things that are different

CONJUNCTION
○ A conjunction is like glue. It helps things to
stick together.
○ A conjunction joins words, phrases, and
sentences, which are called clauses
○ Can connect clauses or sentences
○ Join two or more words of equal value
○ This prevents us from creating parallel
statements
o Conjunction join two or more words
Example:
- I went to the store to buy eggs, milk, and
bread.
o Conjunction can join two prepositional phrases
Example:
- I went skiing down the hill and past the
trees.
o Conjunctions can connect two clauses or
sentences
o When two sentences are joined, a comma MUST
be placed before the conjunction
Example:
- I played cards for a while, but then I played
chess.
THREE TYPES OF CONJUNCTIONS:
COORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS
○ One type of conjunction is the coordinating
conjunction.
○ They connect words, phrases, and clauses,
which are sentences.
○ They connect things of equal value.
○ This means that they would connect a noun
with another noun or a prepositional phrase
with another prepositional phrase.
○ Shows additional information
○ There are seven coordinating conjunctions:
Use FANBOYS to remember
or separated.
Example:
- I want popcorn but not pizza.
o “Or” is used to offer a choice.
Example:
- Do I want popcorn or pizza?
o “Nor” is used to offer a negative choice.
Example:
- I do not want popcorn nor pizza.
o “Yet” is used to show a change. When it is used
to combine two sentences, you must put a comma
before it.
Example:
- I want popcorn, yet I also want pizza.
o “So” is used to show a relationship between
things. When it is used to combine two sentences,
you must put a comma before it.
Example:
- I want popcorn, so I made some.
o “For” is also used to show a relationship
between things. When it is used to combine two
sentences, you must put a comma before it.
Example:
- I ordered a pizza, for I was hungry.
SUBORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS
○ Connects a dependent clause (a clause
that cannot be written as a separate
sentence) with an independent clause.
If Unless
While When
Because Until
Although Since
After Then

For Or Before As
And Yet
Nor So Example:
But - We celebrated after we won the game.
- Because our train was delayed, we arrived
o Coordinating conjunctions affect the meaning of late.
your sentence - Watson listened quietly while Holmes
explained his theory.
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CORRELATIVE CONJUNCTIONS
○ Correlative conjunctions connect words,
phrases, and clauses, which are
sentences.
○ Correlative conjunctions connect things of
equal value.
○ This means that they will connect a verb
with another verb or a sentence with
another sentence.
○ Correlative Conjunctions are not single
○
words. They work in pairs.
There are five pairs of correlative
conjunctions:
Both....and
Whether...or
Neither...nor
Not only...but also
Either...or
Example:
- I saw both the Statue of Liberty and the
Empire State Building.
- I don’t want neither pickles nor tomato on
my hamburger.
- I don’t know whether to play baseball or to
play basketball this year.
- Either the student or the teacher can
answer the question.
- Not only do I play the flute, but I also play
the clarinet.
INTERJECTION
○ An interjection is something that interrupts
a sentence.
○ It is something that also expresses your
emotions like happiness, fear, anger, or
pain.
○ Not used in formal correspondence
○ Has strong and mild interjection
○ Some examples of interjections are:
Ouch Wow
Uh oh Oh no
Gosh Shhh
PUNCTUATING INTERJECTIONS
o If an interjection is spoken calmly, simply put a
comma after it and continue the sentence.
Example:
- Shhh, the baby is sleeping.
- Oh my, I dropped my pencil.
o If an interjection is spoken with more emotion, it is
followed by an exclamation point. The next word is
then capitalized.
Example:
- Ouch! I just cut my finger.
- He scored the winning touchdown. Wow!
SKIMMING AND SCANNING
SKIMMING
○ Refers to the process of reading only main
ideas within a passage to get an overall
impression of the content of a reading
selection.
○ Gong quickly through material
○ Used to quickly gather the most important
information or gist without looking at the
context entirely
Helps You:
- Read quickly
- Quickly get generalized idea
How to skim:
- Read the title.
- Read the introduction or the first paragraph.
- Read the first sentence of every other
paragraph.
- Read any headings and subheadings.
- Notice any pictures, charts, or graphs.
- Notice any italicized or boldface words or
phrases.
- Read the summary or last paragraph.
- Read the first and last sentence.
- Don’t read every word to skim.
SCANNING
○ Reading technique to be used when you
want to find specific information quickly. In
scanning you have a question in your mind
and you read a passage only to find the
answer, ignoring unrelated information.
How to Scan:
- State the specific information you are
looking for.
- Try to anticipate how the answer will
appear and what clues you might use to
help you locate the answer. For example, if
you were looking for a certain date, you
would quickly read the paragraph looking
only for numbers.
COLLEGE ENGLISH (MIDTERMS) - WEEK 7-11
- Use headings and any other aids that will
help you identify which sections might
contain the information you are looking for.
- Selectively read and skip through sections
of the passage.
COHESION AND
COHERENCE
o Terms used in discourse analysis to clarify the
reliability of written discourses.
COHESION
○ Can be thought of as all the grammatical
and lexical links that link one part of a
discourse to another. This includes use
of synonyms, lexical sets, pronouns,
verb tenses, time references,
grammatical reference, etc. For example,
'it', 'neither' and 'this' all refer to an idea
previously mentioned. 'First of all', 'then'
and 'after that' help to sequence a
discourse. 'However', 'in addition' and 'for
instance' link ideas and arguments in a
discourse.
○ You might think of cohesion as a means of
establishing connections within a discourse
at all sorts of different levels, e.g., section,
paragraphs, sentences and even phrases.
○ Cohesion as rather more mechanical links
at a language level.
○ Cohesion is the glue that holds a piece of
writing together. In other words, if a paper
is cohesive, it sticks together from sentence
to sentence and from paragraph to
paragraph.
○ Cohesive devices certainly include
transitional words and phrases, such as
therefore, furthermore, or for instance, that
clarify for listeners/readers the relationships
among ideas in a piece of writing. However,
transitions aren't enough to make writing
cohesive. Repetition of key words and use
of reference words are also needed for
cohesion.
COHERENCE
○ Can be thought of as how meanings
and sequences of ideas relate to each
other. Typical examples would be
general> particular; statement> example;
problem> solution; question> answer;
claim> counterclaim.
○ Coherent discourses make sense to the
listener/ reader. Coherence in linguistics is
what makes a discourse semantically
meaningful.
○ Coherence as the discourse making sense
as a whole at an ideas level,
○ When sentences, ideas, and details fit
together clearly, listeners/readers can
follow along easily, and the writing is
coherent. The ideas tie together smoothly
and clearly. To establish the links that
readers need, you can use the methods
listed here.
○ Repetition of a Key Term or Phrase
○ This helps to focus your ideas and to keep
your listener/ reader on track.
○ Example: The problem with contemporary
art is that it is not easily understood by
most people. Contemporary art is
deliberately abstract, and that means it
leaves the viewer wondering what she is
looking at.
SYNONYMS
○ Synonyms are words that have essentially
the same meaning, and they provide some
variety in your word choices, helping the
listener/ reader to stay focused on the idea
being discussed.
○ Example: Myths narrate sacred histories
and explain sacred origins. These
traditional narratives are, in short, a set of
beliefs that are a very real force in the lives
of the people who tell them.
PRONOUNS
○ This, that, these, those, he, she, it, they,
and we are useful pronouns for referring
back to something previously mentioned.
Be sure, however, that what you are
referring to is clear.
○ Example: When scientific experiments do
not work out as expected, they are often
considered failures until some other
scientist tries them again. Those that work
out better the second time around are the
ones that promise the most rewards.
TRANSITIONAL WORDS
○ There are many words in English that cue
our listeners/readers to relationships
between sentences, joining sentences
together. Words such as however,
therefore, in addition, also, but, moreover,
etc.
○ Example: I like autumn, and yet autumn is
a sad time of the year, too. The leaves turn
COLLEGE ENGLISH (MIDTERMS) - WEEK 7-11
bright shades of red and the weather is
mild, but I can't help thinking ahead to the
winter and the ice storms that will surely
blow through here. In addition, that will be
the season of chapped faces, too many
layers of clothes to put on, and days when
I'll have to shovel heaps of snow from my
car's windshield.
SENTENCE PATTERNS
○ Sometimes, repeated or parallel sentence
patterns can help the listener/reader follow
along and keep ideas tied together.
○ Example: (from a speech by President
John F. Kennedy) And so, my fellow
Americans: ask not what your country can
do for you--ask what you can do for your
country.
"Cohesion is determined by lexically and
grammatically overt intersentential
relationships, whereas coherence is based on
semantic relationships."
- Connor
PRONOUN - ANTECEDENT
AGREEMENT
RULES:
1. A pronoun must agree with its
antecedent in both number and
gender.
EXAMPLE:
- The Taylors landscaped their yard in an
unusual way.
- Kim regained her confidence after the test.
- The cheetah licked its chops.
- The doctor makes his or her rounds every
day.
- Doctors make their rounds every day.
2. When the antecedent of a pronoun is
a collective noun, the number of the
pronoun depends upon whether the
collective noun is used as singular
or plural.
EXAMPLE:
- The class had its first meeting yesterday.
(Class is used as a single unit; therefore,
the singular pronoun is used.)
3. Agreement in person
EXAMPLE:
- Incorrect: Henry lives in Tampa where you
can sunbathe all year long.
- Correct: Henry lives in Tampa where he
can sunbathe all year long.
- Incorrect: They like camping because you
can be close to nature.
- Correct: They like camping because they
can be close to nature.
4. When a pronoun’s antecedent is an
indefinite pronoun, the pronoun
must agree in number with it.
EXAMPLE:
- Neither of the girls spent her entire
allowance.
- Several members missed their chance to
speak with the president.
5. When no gender is specified use
both a masculine and feminine
pronoun.
EXAMPLE:
- Each of the students should prepare his
or her own homework.
6. Use a singular pronoun to refer to
each, either, neither, one, everyone,
everybody, no one, nobody, anyone,
anybody, someone, or somebody.
EXAMPLE:
- Each of the teams had its mascot at the
game.
- One of the boys left his pen behind.
7. The following indefinite pronouns
are plural: both, few, many, and
several
EXAMPLE:
- Many of the actors already know their
lines.
- Both of the candidates clearly stated their
positions on the issue.
8. The indefinite pronouns all, any,
more, most, none, and some may be
singular or plural depending on how
they are used in a sentence.
EXAMPLE:
- Most of these coins are rare, but I don’t
know what they are worth.
9. Use a singular pronoun to refer to
two or more singular antecedents
joined by or or nor.
EXAMPLE:
- Neither Heidi nor Beth took her umbrella
with her.
COLLEGE ENGLISH (MIDTERMS) - WEEK 7-11
10. Use a plural pronoun to refer to two
or more antecedents joined by and.
EXAMPLE:
- The guide and the ranger wrapped their
rain ponchos in their saddle rolls.
CONTEXT CLUES
1. Definition/Explanation Clues
○ Sometimes a word or phrase's meaning is
explained immediately after its use.
Example:
- "Haberdashery, which is a store that sells
men’s clothing, is becoming more common
today.”
2. Restatement/Synonym Clues
○ Sometimes a hard word or phrase is said in
a simple way.
Example:
- "Lou was sent to the haberdashery to find a
new suit. He needed to wear one for his
uncle’s wedding."
➔ Because the sentence says that Lou would
find a suit at the haberdashery, then it must
be a place where clothes for men are sold.
3. Contrast/Antonym Clues
○ Sometimes a word or phrase is clarified by
the presentation of the opposite meaning
somewhere close to its use. Look for signal
words when applying context clues.
Example:
- "Lou wanted to go to the haberdashery, but
Ann wanted to shop at the boutique.”
➔ The signal word ‘but’ tells the reader that
an opposite thought is going to be stated.
4. Inference/General Context
Clues
○ Sometimes a word or phrase is not
immediately clarified within the same
sentence. Relationships, which are not
directly apparent, are inferred or implied.
The reader must look for clues within,
before, and after the sentence in which the
word is used.
Example:
- “The haberdashery was Lou’s favorite
place. He loved shopping for nice suits.
The people who worked there were so kind
and helpful.”
5. Punctuation
○ Readers can also use clues of punctuation
and type style to infer meaning, such as
quotation marks (showing the word has a
special meaning), dashes , parentheses or
brackets (enclosing a definition), and italics
(showing the word will be defined).
Example:
- Tom's father was a haberdasher, or men’s
shop keeper, in the story. Tom's father was
a haberdasher (men’s shop keeper) in the
story. In the story, Tom's father was a
haberdasher-or men’s shop keeper.
- Tom's father was a “haberdasher”. He had
a clothing store for men.
ADJECTIVES AND
ADVERBS
ADJECTIVE
○ Describes a noun or a pronoun
○ A part of speech that modifies a noun or
pronoun.
○ Adjectives usually tell what kind, how
many, or which about nouns or pronouns.
Example:
- The handsome handsome man lay on the
red couch.
ADVERB
○ Describes a verb
○ A part of speech that modifies another
adverb, a verb, or an adjective. It is often
recognized by the suffix -ly at the end of it.
○ Adjectives usually describe an action in
terms of how, when, where, and to what
extent it occurred.
Bad or Badly
Bad is an adjective used with linking verbs such as
feel, seem, be, look, etc.
Incorrect: I feel badly that he is not taking part in
the game.
Correct: I feel bad that he is not taking part in the
game.
Badly is an adverb used to modify action verbs.
Incorrect: Sometimes Hollywood romance ends
bad.
Correct: Sometimes Hollywood romance ends
badly.
Calm or Calmly
Calm is an adjective, and it is used to modify nouns
and pronouns. It is also used with linking verbs.
COLLEGE ENGLISH (MIDTERMS) - WEEK 7-11
Incorrect: She appeared calmly after the accident.
Correct: She appeared calm after the accident.
Calmly is an adverb that modifies verbs.
Incorrect: She tried to be brave and take the bad
news calm.
Correct: She tried to be brave and take the bad
news calmly.
Easy or Easily
Easy is an adjective used to modify nouns and
pronouns. It is also used with linking verbs.
Incorrect: The assignment looked easily.
Correct: The assignment looked easy.
Easily is an adverb, and it is used to modify verbs.
Incorrect: The players were moving easy around
the field.
Correct: The players were moving easily around
the field.
Good or Well
Good is an adjective. It is also often used with
linking verbs.
Incorrect: It felt well to score an A on the final.
Correct: It felt good to score an A on the final.
Well, when used as an adjective, implies "in good
health." When used as an adverb, well means
"expertly."
Correct: My grandmother looks well even now in
her eighties.
Incorrect: My friend plays the piano good.
Correct: My friend plays the piano well. (expertly)
Real or Really
Really is an adverb, and it modifies other adverbs,
verbs, or adjectives. It has a meaning of "very."
Incorrect: Students did real well on the midterm.
Correct: Students did really well on the midterm.
Real is an adjective, and can be used to modify
nouns or noun phrases. It has a meaning of "true or
genuine."
Incorrect: Students took a really midterm last
week.
Correct: Students took a real midterm last week.
Slow or Slowly
Slow can be used as an adjective and as an
adverb. In the first example, slow is an adverb and
in the second one, it is an adjective.
Correct: The traffic is moving slow. This is a slow
dance.
Slowly is only an adverb. It can replace slow
anywhere it is used as an adverb. Slowly also
appears in sentences with auxiliary verbs where
slow cannot be used.
Incorrect: He has been slow recovering from his
knee injury.
Correct: He has been slowly recovering from his
knee injury.
FORMAL AND INFORMAL
LANGUAGE
ART IMITATES LIFE
o In writing, formal and informal language work in a
similar way... to influence tone, which, in turn,
speaks to your audience.
TONE
○ Tone is defined as the writer’s attitude
toward the subject matter and his or her
readers.
AUDIENCE
○ The audience is your reader or listener– the
recipient of your verbal or written
communication.
DICTION
○ Diction is word choice
○ Word choice is important in establishing
tone
THREE LEVELS OF DICTION:
- High or Formal Diction
- Neutral Diction
- Informal or Low Diction
COLLEGE ENGLISH (MIDTERMS) - WEEK 7-11

Characteristic of Formal and What makes INFORMAL

Informal Language Language?
o Simple grammatical structure
FORMAL o Personal evaluation
- Using first person
○ Serious - Using forms of “you”
○ Objective o Colloquial or slang vocabulary
○ Impersonal - Contractions are considered slang
○ Reasoning
○ Controlled
○ Reserved What makes FORMAL
Language?
INFORMAL
o Formal language, even when spoken, is often
associated with the conventions expected of written
○ Light
standard English.
○ Humorous
o Although you generally don’t worry as much
○ Personal about formality in speaking, it is extremely
○ Casual important in writing because of the knowledge you
○ Offhanded are recording through the written word.
○ "Loose" o Formal language does not use contractions
○ Plainspoken o Avoids personal pronouns such as: you, I, us, me,
○ Simple and we
o Includes more polysyllabic words—BIGGER
words
Why Does it even Matter? o Complex, complete sentences
o Avoidance of colloquial or slang vocabulary
○ Official or serious situations are often
signaled by the use of formal language,
while ordinary or relaxed situations are What to Avoid in Formal Writing
signaled by the use of informal language.
● Exclamation marks
What determines Formal and Informal: ● Needless words like “well” and “you know”
- Public versus private occasion, ● First and second person point of view
- The size of the audience, ● Beginning sentences with coordinating
- The relationship of the speaker/writer with conjunctions
the audience, ● Too many short, choppy sentences that
○ The ability to vary your language according could be combined to make more complex
to the situation is often considered a mark sentence structures
of an educated person. ● Avoid most shortenings in formal writing. In
formal English, you talk on the “telephone,”
not the “phone”
Certain Situations ● Know what acronyms may be used in your
writing. In formal English, you should limit
your use of acronyms, abbreviations
FORMAL SITUATIONS making use of letters that stand for certain
words
○ Job interview ● Similarly, limit your use of absolute terms,
○ Principal's office visit such as "everybody," "always," "never"
○ Business letter ● Avoid cliché’s and colloquialisms
○ Class essay

INFORMAL SITUATIONS

○ Text message
○ Friendly letter
○ “Locker” conversation
○ Journal-style writing
COLLEGE ENGLISH (MIDTERMS) - WEEK 7-11

Common Colloquialisms and

Informal Words

A lot, alot Cute

Ain't Fellow

Alright, all right For sure

Anyways Get, obtain

Anybody, anyone Get, understand

As Gonna, wanna

Big, large great Got

Buy How come

Contraption How do you do

Could of, would of, Humongous

should of

Kid Shall, will, should,

would

Kinda, kind of, sorta, So

sort of

Let Thus, thusly

Like Until, till, ‘til

PREPOSITIONS - SPACE (PLACE,
Most Use
POSITION, AND DIRECTION)
On the other hand Use to

Pretty Yeah

Real, really

PREPOSITIONS
o A preposition is: “a word or group of words that is
used with a noun, pronoun, or noun phrase to show
direction, location, or time, or to introduce an
object”.

o Prepositions express relationships such as space

(place, position, direction), time, or figurative
location. A preposition always has an object
(usually a noun or pronoun). The preposition and its
object (and any modifiers) are together called a
prepositional phrase.
COLLEGE ENGLISH (MIDTERMS) - WEEK 7-11

OTHER IMPORTANT
PREPOSITIONS

PREPOSITIONS - TIME
COLLEGE ENGLISH (MIDTERMS) - WEEK 7-11

PREPOSITIONAL PHRASE

○ A prepositional phrase is a group of words

containing a preposition, a noun or pronoun
object of the preposition, and any modifiers
of the object.

Most commonly used prepositions: