Voltage and Phase Angle Regulation

The basic concept of voltage and phase angle regulation is the addition of an appropriate in-phase or a
quadrature.component to the prevailing terminal (bus) voltage in order to change (increase or decrease) its magnitude
or angle to the value specified (or desired). Thus, voltage regulation could, theoretically, be achieved by a
synchronous, in-phase voltage source with controllable amplitude, AV, in series with the ac and the regulated
terminal, as illustrated in Figure 7.1(a). A commonly used implementation of this concept is shown schematically in
Figure 71(b). An adjustable voltage is provided by means of a tap changer from a three-phase (auto) transformer
(usually referred to as regulating or excitation transformer) for the primary of a series insertion transformer which
injects it to achieve the required voltage regulation. From the arrangement shown, it is evident that injected voltages A
Av, and Au, are in phase with the line to neutral voltages u., U, and v, respectively, as illustrated by the phasor
diagram in Figure 7.1(c). In two winding
transformers, on load tap changers are provided on the neutral side of the
windings.
In a similar manner, the arrangement of Figure 7.1(a) can be used for phase- angle
control simply by stipulating the injected voltage, Au, to have a phase of 90° relative to
the system voltage, u, as illustrated in Figure 7.2(a). With this stipulation, the injected
voltage will change the prevailing phase-angle of the system voltage. A possible
arrangement for phase angle control is shown schematically in Figure 7.2(b) with the
corresponding phasor diagram in Figure 7.2(c). For relatively small angular
adjustments, the resultant angular change is approximately proportional to the injected
voltage, while the voltage magnitude remains almost constant. However, for large
angular adjustments, the
magnitude of the system voltage will appreciably increase and, for this reason, is often referred to as a
quadrature booster transformer (QBT). The voltage magnitude could be maintained independent of the angular
adjustment by a more complex winding arrangement. Nevertheless, because of its relative simplic-ity, the QBT
arrangement has typically been used in conventional phase shifting applcations.
Continuously Controllable Thyristor Tap Changers
There are a number of possible thyristor tap changer configurations which can give continuous control with varying
degrees of circuit complexity. The basic power circuit scheme of a thyristor tap changer considered here is shown in
Figure 7.11 and repeated in Figure 7.12 for convenience. This arrangement can give continuous voltage magnitude
control by initiating the onset of thyristor valve conduction. Consider Figure
7.12 and assume that a resistive load is connected to the output terminals of the thyristor tap changer. This load of
course could be the line current in phase with the terminal voltage. The two voltages obtainable at the upper and lower
taps, u, and s respectively, are shown in Figure 7.12(a). The gating of the thyristor valves is controlled by the delay
angle a with respect to the voltage zero crossing of these voltages. For example, Figure 7.12(b) shows that at a = 0, at
which, in the present case of a resistive load, the current crosses zero and thus the previously conducting valve turns
off, valve sw, turns on to switch the load to the lower tap. At a = a, valve sw, is gated o which commutates the current
from the conducting thyristor valve sw, by forcing a negative anode to cathode voltage across it and connecting the
output to the upper tap with voltage U2. Valve sw, continues conducting until the next current zero is reached (in the
present case, the next current zero coincides with the voltage zero crossing, a=0), whereupon the previous gating
sequence continues, as shown by the load voltage waveform in Figure 7.12(b). Inspection of this waveform indicates
that by delaying the turn-on of sw, from zero to #, any output voltage between and can be attained.
Fourier analysis of the output voltage waveform for an idealized continuously controlled thyristor tap changer,
operating between voltages u, and u; with resistive U load and delay angle a with respect to zero crossing of the
voltage, can be easily carried out, yielding the following expressions for the fundamental component:
Improvement of Transient Stability with Phase Angle Regulators
As shown in Chapter 5, controlled shunt compensation increases transient stability by increasing (or maintaining) the
(midpoint) transmission line voltage during the accelerating swing of the disturbed machine(s). In Chapter 6, controlled
series reactivecompensation is shown to improve transient stability by maximizing the power transmission during the
first swing through the reduction of the effective transmission impedance. The capability of the Phase Angle Regulator
to maintain the maximum effective transmission angle during the first swing can also be utilized effectively to increase
the transient stability limit.
The equal area criterion, used in Chapters 5 and 6 to investigate the capability of the shunt series compensator to
improve the transient stability, is used again here to assess the relative increase of the transient stability margin
attainable by transmission angle control. In this and the subsequent section, an ideal Phase Angle regulator with
characteristics as defined by (7.1) through (7.3) is assumed for uniformity and clarity.
Power Oscillation Damping with Phase Angle Regulators
Transmission angle control can also be applied to damp power oscillations. As explained in the two preceding chapters,
power oscillation damping is achieved by varying the active power flow in the line(s) so as to counteract the
accelerating and decelerating swings of the disturbed machine(s). That is, when the rotationally oscillat ing generator
accelerates and angle & increases the electric power transmi (d*delta / d * t
> 0) ted must be increased to compensate for the excess mechanical input power. Conversely, when the generator
decelerates and angle & decreases (döldt , the electric t < 0 power must be decreased to balance the insufficient
mechanical input power.
The requirements of output control and the process of power oscillation damping by transmission angle control are
illustrated in Figure 7.9. Waveforms at (a) show the undamped and damped oscillations of angle & around the steady-
state value & Waveforms at (b) show the undamped and damped oscillations of the electric p P around the steady-
state value (The momentary drop in power shown in the dot P_{0} . figure represents an assumed disturbance that
initiated the oscillation.) power
Waveform (c) shows the variation of angle a produced by the phase shifter. (For the illustration it is assumed that a has
an operating range of 2nd - sigma max <= sigma<= sigma n & is in the range of 0 < delta < pi / 2 When angle σ is
negative, making the d*delta / d * t > 0 power versus & curve (refer to Figure 7.3) shift to the left, which increases both
the angle the end terminals of the line and the real power transmitted. When d8ldt 0, angle & is made positive, which
shifts the power versus angle curve to the right and thus decreases the overall transmission angle and transmitted
power.
As the illustrations show, a "bang-bang" type control (output is varied between minimum and maximum values) is
the most effective if large oscillations are encoun- tered. However, for damping relatively small power
oscillations, continuous variation of the angle may be preferred.
Power Flow Control by Phase Angle Regulators P&Q EQUATION
The basic concept of power flow control by angle regulation, illustrated in Figure 7.3(a), is represented in terms of
the usual two-machine model in which a Phase Angle Regulator is inserted between the sending-end generator
(bus) and the transmission line. Theoretically, the Phase Angle Regulator can be
considered a sinusoidal (funda- mental frequency) ac voltage source with controllable amplitude and phase angle.
Thus, the effective sending-end voltage V becomes the sum of the prevailing sending. end bus voltage V, and the
voltage V, provided by the PAR, as the phasor diagram shown in Figure 7.3(b) illustrates. For an ideal Phase Angle
Regulator, the angle of phasor V, relative to phasor V, is stipulated to vary with σ so that the angular change does not
result in a magnitude change, that is,
Veff V,+V, and | Vseff|=|V|= Vseff = V₁ = V
(7.1)
The basic idea behind the independent angle regulation
is to keep the transmitted power at the desired level,
independent of the prevailing transmission angle 8, in a
predetermined operating range. Thus, for example, the
power can be kept at its peak value after angle &
exceeds π/2 (the peak power angle) by controlling the
amplitude of quadrature voltage V, so that the effective
phase angle (&o) between the sending- and receiving-
end voltages stays at π/2. In this way, the actual
transmitted power may be increased significantly, even
though the Phase Angle Regulator per se does not
increase the steady-state power transmission limit.
P=(V²/X)Sin(δ - σ) Q=(V²/X){1`-COS(δ - σ)}
The relationships between real power P. reactive power Q, and angles & and o are shown plotted in Figure 7.3(c). It
can be observed that, although the Phase Angle Regulator does not increase the transmittable power of the
uncompensated line, it makes it theoretically possible to keep the power at its maximum value at any angle 5 in the
range 1/2 < 8</2 + σ by, in effect, shifting the P versus & curve to the right. It should be noted that the P versus &
curve can also be shifted to the left by inserting the voltage of the angle regulator with an opposite polarity. In this
way, the power transfer can be increased and the maximum power reached at a generator angle less than #/2 (that is, at
8=/2-σ).
If the angle of phasor V, relative to phasor V, is stipulated to be fixed at +90°, the Phase Angle Regulator becomes
a Quadrature Booster (QB), with the

following relationships:The transmitted power P versus angle

& as a parametric function of the inpes quadrature voltage V,
is shown, together with the characteristic phasor agrand the
Quadrature Booster, in Figure 7.4. It can be observed that the
maximum tran ble power increases with the injected voltage
V, since, in contrast to the proper P Angle Regulator, the
APPROACHES TO THYRISTOR-CONTROLLED VOLTAGE AND PHASE ANGLE
REGULATORS (TCVRS AND TCPARS) CONVERTER BASED PHASE ANGLE REGULATOR
It is shown in Chapters 5 and 6 that there are two basic approaches to modern, power electronics-based reactive
compensators: one that uses conventional thyristors (which commutate "naturally" at current zeros) to control current
in reactive impedances, and the other that employs turn-off (GTO) thyristors (or similar devices) in switching power
converters to realize controllable synchronous voltage sources. This dual ap- proach, in a different form, extends also
to voltage and phase angle regulators.
As indicated at the beginning of this chapter, voltage and angle regulation are generally accomplished by in-phase
and, respectively, quadrature voltage injection. Thus, both the conventional thyristor-and
GTO-controlled converter-based approaches insert a controlled voltage between the given bus and the controlled
terminal or line. The major difference between the two is that whereas the thyristor-based approach ob- tains the
insertion voltage from appropriate taps of the regulating ("excitation") trans- former, the GTO-based approach
generates this voltage from a de power supply. Conse- quently, the function of the thyristor-based controller in the first
approach is that of an on-load tap-changer: selecting the proper tap of the regulating transformer and injecting the thus
obtained voltage, usually by an insertion transformer, in series with the line. The function of the GTO-based voltage
source is to generate the required voltage and inject it, also by an insertion transformer, in series with the line. At first
sight, the differ-
ence between the two approaches appears to be minor. However, it will be seen that the two approaches result in
important operational and performance differences, the most significant of which is the capability of the voltage-
source-based approach to be sell sufficient in supplying or absorbing the reactive power the voltage or angle
regulation demands. The thyristor-based approach must be supplied externally, usually by the sy tem, both the real
and reactive power required to accomplish the desired regulation Another major difference is in the unrestricted
controllability of the injected voltage which, as is explained in the next chapter, leads to broad, new functional
possibilities in Flexible AC Transmission Systems.

In this section the Thyristor-Controlled Voltage and Phase Angle Regulators (TCVRS and TCPARS) are
discussed and in the following section the converter-based Voltage and Phase Angle Regulators are introduced as
a preparation for the more general treatment given in Chapter 8.

There are two main reasons for the application of Thyristor-Controlled Voltage and Phase Angle Regulators instead of
mechanical on-load tap changers: One is the elimination of the expensive regular maintenance and the other is to
provide the high speed of response necessary for dynamic system control.
 Basic Operating Principle of UPFC
From the conceptual viewpoint, the UPFC is a generalized synchronous voltage source (SVS), represented at the
fundamental (power system) frequency by voltage phasor V, with controllable magnitude Vpq (0 ≤ Vpq/Vpqmax) and
angle p (0 ≤ ps P9 2m), in series with the transmission line, as illustrated for the usual elementary two- machine
system (or for two independent systems with a transmission link intertie) in Figure
8.3. In this functionally unrestricted operation, which clearly includes voltage and angle regulation, the SVS
generally exchanges both
reactive and real power with
the transmission system.
In the presently used practical
implementation, the UPFC
consists of two voltage:
sourced converters, These
back-to-back converters,
labeled "Converter 1" and
"Converter 2" in the
figure, are operated from a
common dc link provided
by a dc storage capacitor.
As indicated before, this
arrangement functions as
an ideal
ac-to-ac power converter in
which the real power can
freely flow in either
direction between the ac
terminals of the two
converters, and each
converter can
independently generate (or
absorb) reactive power at
its own ac output terminal.
Converter 2 provides the
main function of the
UPFC by injecting a voltage V with controllable magnitude V, and phase angle p în series with the line via an insertion
transformer. This injected voltage acts essentially as a synchronous ac voltage
conventional transmission control
capabilities
Viewing the operation of the
Unified Power Flow Controller
from the standpoint of
traditional power transmission
based on reactive shunt
compensation, series com-
pensation, and phase angle
regulation, the UPFC can fulfill
all these functions and thereby
meet multiple control objectives
by adding the injected voltage
with V_{N} appropriate
amplitude and phase angle,
to the (sending-end) terminal voltage Usingphasor representation, the basic UPFC power flow control function.
Phase angle regulation (phase shift) is shown in Figure 8.5(c) where V_{A} = V_{1} is injected with an angular
relationship with respect to V_{1} that achieves the phase shift (advance or retard) without any change in
magnitude. Multifunction power flow control, executed by simultaneous terminal voltage regulation, series
capacitive line compensation, and phase shifting, is shown in Figure 8.5(d) where \ V{N} = Delta*V + V_{r} +
V_{r} This functional capability is unique to the UPFC. No single conventional equipment has similar
multifunctional capability.
The general power flow control capability of the UPFC, from the viewpoint of conventional transmission control, can
be illustrated best by the real and reactive power transmission versus transmission angle characteristics of the simple
two-machine system shown in
Figure 8.3. With reference to
this figure, the transmitted
power P and the reactive
power-JQ., supplied by the
receiving end, can be
expressed as follow P-jQ r =V r
((V_{r} + V_{R} -
V_{r})/(jX)) ^ *

BASIC CONTROL OF P&Q

CONTROL
 Basic Operating Principles and Characteristics IPFC
In its general form the Interline Power Flow Controller employs a number of de-to-ac converters each providing
series compensation for a different line. In other words, the IPFC comprises a number of Static Synchronous Series
Compensators. However, within the general concept of the IPFC, the compensating converters are linked together
at their de terminals, as illustrated in Figure 8.29. With this scheme, in addition to providing series reactive
compensation, any
converter can be controlled to supply real power to the common
dc link from its own transmission line. Thus, an overall surplus
power can be made available from the under utilized lines which
then can be used by other lines for real power compensation. In
this way, some of the converters, compensating overloaded lines
or lines with a heavy burden of reactive power flow, can be
equipped with full two-dimensional, reactive and real power
control capability, similar to that offered by the UPFC.
Evidently, this arrangement mandates the rigorous maintenance
of the overall power balance at the common de terminal by
appropriate control action, using the general principle that the
underloaded lines are to provide help, in the form of appropriate
real power transfer, for the overloaded lines.

1)SINGLE.PHASE FULL.WAVE BRIDGE CONVERTER OPERATION: Although FACTS Controllers will

generally utilize three-phase converters, a singlephase, full-wave bridge converter may also be used in some designs. In
any case, it is 7A Chapter 3 I Voltage-Sourced Converters important to first understand the operation of a single-phase
bridge converter and operation of a phase-leg to further understand the principles of voltage-sourced converters. Figure
3.2(a) shows a single-phase full-wave bridge converter consisting of four valves, (1-1') to (4-4'), a dc capacitor to provide
stiff dc voltage, and two ac connection points, a and b. The designated valve numbers represent their sequence of turn-on
and turn-off. The dc voltage is converted to ac voltage with the appropriate valve turn-on, turn-off sequence. with turn-off
devices 7 and 2 turned on, voltage uo6 becomes *V4fot one half-cycle, and, with 3 and 4 turned on and devices 1, and2
turned off, uo6 becomes -Vafor the other half-cycle. This voltage waveform occurs regardless of the phase angle,
magnitude and waveform of the ac current flow. The ac current is the result of interaction of the converter generated ac
voltage with the ac system voltage and impedance. For example, suppose that the current flow from the ac system, as
shown by the second waveform, is a sinusoidal waveform io6, angle 0, leading with respect to the square-wave voltage
waveform.

2)Three-Level Converter with Parallel Legs :There is yet another method of achieving a three-level converter, which
is to connect two phase-legs in parallel per phase. The two legs are paralleled through an inductor and the ac connection
is made at the midpoint of this inductor, and their pulse sets are phase shifted by an angle a each in the opposite directions
(a total of 2cr). The ac terminal voltage of the two phase-legs, with respect to a hypothetical dc midpoint,by the first two
waveforms, shifted from each other by an angle, 2a. The net ac terminal voltage, with respect to the dc midpoint, is the
average of the two voltages, and is shown by the third waveform. It consists of a half-cycle pulse of variable duration o:
180 - Zdo, the same as for the three-level converter with split capacitor discussed above. The inductor voltage is given by
the difference of the ac voltage of the two legs, and is shown by the fourth waveform, which conveys that greater the
required range of control, larger would be the inductor size. Its MVA rating would be directly proportional to the integral
of the voltage V1. It is natural to suppose that one can go to higher levels, i.e., four-level, five level, and so on. However,
detailed consideration of these higher level topologies would reveal a major problem of voltage balancing between the
capacitors. It is not reasonable to assume that the current flow though each level is balanced within some tolerable range
for a converter to continue to operate in five level mode on its own. However, if there is a two-converter system, with dc
bus in between, it is possible to link the two converters in a way to ensure balanced capacitor voltages of different levels.
 3) 24. AND 48.PULSE OPERATION :Two L2-pulse converters, phase shifted by 15 degrees from each other, can
provide a 24-pulse converter, obviously with much lower harmonics on ac and dc side. Its ac output voltage would have
24n 11 order harmonics, i.e.,23rd, 25th, 47th, 49th . . . harmonics, with magnitudes of 1/23rd, 1/25th,1/47th, 1/49th. . .,
respectively, of the fundamental ac voltage. The question now is how to arrange this 15 degrees phase shift. One
approach is to provide L5 degrees phase-shift windings on the two transformers of one of the two 12-pulse converters.
Another approach is to provide phase-shift windings for * 7.5 degrees phase shift on the two transformers of one 12-
pulse converter and -7.5 degrees on the two transformers of the other 12-pulse converter. The latter is preferred because it
requires transformers of the samedesign and leakage inductances. It is also necessary to shift the firing pulses of one 12-
pulse converter by 15 degrees with respect to the other. All four six-pulse converters can be connected on the dc side in
parallel, i.e., 12 phase-legs in parallel. Alternately all four six-pulse converters can be connected in series for high
voltage, or two pair of 12- pulse series converters may then be connected in parallel. Each six-pulse converter will have a
separate transformer, two with wyeconnected secondaries, and the other two with delta-connected secondaries. Primaries
of all four transformers can be connected in series in order to avoid harmonic circulation current corresponding the 12-
pulse order, i.e., 11th. 13th,23rd,24th. It may be worthwhile to consider two 12-pulse converters connected in parallel on
the ac system busbars, with interphase reactors, for a penalty of small harmonic circulation inside the converter loop.

3.1)Midpoint Voltage Regulation for Line Segmentation: Consider the simple two-machine (two-bus) transmission
model in which an ideal var compensator is shunt connected at the midpoint of the transmission line.For simplicity, the
line is represented by the series line inductance. The compensator is represented by a sinusoidal ac voltage source (of the
fundamental frequency), in-phase with the midpoint voltage, V., and with an amplitude identical to that of the sending-
and receiving-end voltages . The midpoint compensator in effect segments the transmission line into two independent
parts: thefirst segment, with an impedance of X/2, carries power from the sending end to the midpoint, and the second
segment, also with an impedance of X/2, carries power from the midpoint to the receiving end. The relationship between
voltages 7and line segment currents .Ism, and Imr .Note that the midpoint var compensator exchanges only reactive
power with the transmission line in this process. The relationship between real power P, reactive power Q, and angle d'for
the case of ideal shunt compensation. It can be observed that the midpoint shunt compensation can significantly increase
the transmittable power (doubling its maximum value) at the expense of a rapidly increasing reactive power demand on
the midpoint compensator (and also on the end-generators). It is also evident that for the single-line system of the
midpoint of the transmission line is the best location for the compensator. This is because the voltage sag along the
uncompensated transmission line is the largest at the midpoint. Also, the compensation at the midpoint breaks the
transmission line into two equal segments for each of which the maximum transmittable power is the same. For unequal
segments, the transmittable power of the longer segment would clearly determine the overall transmission limit.

2) A STATic synchronous COMpensator (STATCOM): It is a fast-acting device capable of providing or absorbing

reactive current and thereby regulating the voltage at the point of connection to a power grid. It is categorised under

Flexible AC transmission system (FACTS) devices. The technology is based on VSCs

with semi-conductor valves in a modular multi-level configuration.

The dynamic reactive current output range is symmetrical (during normal disturbed

network conditions); however, non-symmetrical designs are possible by introducing

mechanically or thyristor switched shunt elements with unified control systems to

cover most conventional applications. The STATCOM design and fast response makes

the technology very convenient for maintaining voltage during network faults (as
STATCOMs are capable of providing fast fault current injection limited to the rated current), enhancing short term

voltage stability. In addition, STATCOMs can provide power factor correction, reactive power control, damping of low-

frequency power oscillations (usually by means of reactive power modulation), active harmonic filtering, flicker

mitigation and power quality improvements. Typical applications are in the electric power trans-mission, electric power

distribution, electrical networks of heavy industrial plants, arc furnaces, high-speed railway systems and other electric

systems, where voltage stability and power quality are of the utmost importance.

1.1)Types of FACTS controllers:

Ans.
• Series Controllers
• Shunt Controllers
• Combined series-series Controllers
• Combined series-shunt Controllers
-Series controllers = The series controller could be a variable impedance or a variable source, both are power electronics
based devices to serve the desired needs. In principle, all series controllers inject voltage in series with the line.
-Shunt controllers: Variable impedance, variable sources or combination of these. Inject current into the system at the
point of connection. Injected current is in phase quadrature with the line voltage Supplies or consumes variable reactive
power.
-Combined series-series controllers: The combination could be separate series controllers or unified series-series
controller. Series Controllers provide independent series reactive compensation for each line but also transfer real power
among the lines via the power link- Interline Power Flow Controller.
-Combined series-shunt controllers: The combination could be separated series and shunt controllers or a unified power
flow controller. Combined shunt and series Controllers inject current into the system with the shunt part of the Controller
and voltage in series in the line with the series part of the Controller.
2)Importance and benefits of FACTS:
Ans. i) Control of power flow as ordered. ii) Increase the loading capability of lines to their thermal capabilities,
including short term and seasonal. iii) Increase the system security through raising the transient stability limit, limiting
short-circuit currents and overloads, managing cascading blackouts and damping electromechanical oscillations of power
systems and machines. iv) Provide secure tie line connections to neighboring utilities and regions thereby decreasing
overall generation reserve requirements on both sides. v) Provide greater flexibility in siting new generation.vi) Reduce
reactive power flows, thus allowing the lines to carry more active power. vii) Increase utilization of lowest cost
generation.
3)Limitation of loading capability:
Ans. Basically, there are three kinds of limitations : i)Thermal ii)Dielectric iii)Stability
Thermal : Function of the ambient temperature, wind conditions, condition of the conductor, and ground clearance. It
varies perhaps by a factor of 2 to 1 due to the variable environment and the loading history.The nominal rating of a line is
generally decided on a conservative basis, envisioning a statistically worst ambient environment case scenario.
Dielectric : An insulation point of view, many lines are designed very conservatively. +10% voltage (i.e., 500 kV-550
kV) or even higher. Dynamic and transient overvoltages are within limits. Modern gapless arresters, or line insulators
with internal gapless arresters, or powerful thyristor-controlled overvoltage suppressors at the substations can enable
significant increase in
the line and substation voltage capability.
Stability There are a number of stability issues that limit the transmission capability. These include: Transient stability;
Dynamic stability; Steady-state stability; Frequency collapse; Voltage collapse; Sub-synchronous resonance.
4)FACTS and HVDC difference:
Ans. HVDC: i) HVDC systems are used in areas where power is transmitted over very long distances or to take power
from offshore wind farms .ii) interconnection of energy systems - is one of the most important reasons for using
HVDC. iii) lower power losses during long-distance transmission of electricity iv) building energy networks through
maritime areas v) power output from renewable electricity generation areas .
FACTS: The advantages of FACTS devices are listed below;The FACTS devices are used to increase the power transfer
capability of the transmission line. Hence, it saves costs to develop an entirely new transmission line.It increases the
loading capability of the transmission line of their thermal capability.It reduces the amount of reactive power in the
transmission line. In this way, the transmission line can transfer more amount of active power to the load.The FACTS
devices are used to control the amount of flow of power through the transmission line. So, it helps to follow the guideline
and contract of utility and ensure the optimum flow of power.It reduces the cost of power as it reduces the transmission
cost. It increases the quality of power, voltage stability, thermal stability, and transient stability of the system.

6) Cascaded H bridge inverter:

Ans. One of the basic and well-known topologies among all multilevel inverters is Cascaded H-Bridge Multilevel
Inverter. It can be used for both single and three phase conversion. It uses H-Bridge including switches and diodes. At
least three voltage levels are required for a multilevel inverter. This can be accomplished by a single H-Bridge unit in
Cascaded H-Bridge Multilevel Inverter. As the name suggests this multilevel inverter uses full H-Bridges connected is
series to produce inverted AC from separate DC sources. These DC sources can be any natural resource such as sunlight
or wind energy or anything. It does not need any capacitors or diodes for clamping .The wave is quite sinusoidal in nature
even if you don’t filter it. Due to their advantages they are often used now-a-days.

7)CSI operation:
Ans. The CSI is a constant current source which supplies ac to the input,
and it is also called dc-link converter in which load current is
constant. The current source inverter is also known as current fed
inverter which converts the input dc into ac and its output can be three-
phase or single phase. According to the definition of the current
source, an ideal current source is the kind of source in which current is
constant and it is independent of voltage.The voltage source is connected
in series with a large value of inductance (L d) and this named the circuit
as the current source. The circuit consists of six diodes (D 1, D2, D3, D4,
D5, D6), six capacitors (C1, C2, C3, C4, C5, C6),
six thyristors (T1, T2, T3, T4, T5, T6) which are fixed with a phase
difference of 600. The inverter output is connected to the induction motor. For a given speed, torque is controlled by
varying the dc-link current Id and this current can be varied by varying the V d. The conduction of two switches in the
same lag doesn’t lead to a sudden rise of current due to the presence of a large value of inductance L d.

8) VSI operation:
Ans. The voltage source inverter is a somewhat older design and less expensive to implement. Various implementations
of the VSI are also known as six-step, twelve-step, or even eighteen-step inverters.
Voltage Source Inverters Operation:
In the VSI, the switches are turned on and off at regular intervals to deliver rectangular pulses of voltage to each phase.
The line voltages are formed by connecting the line terminals of the motor to either the high or the low side of the DC bus
voltage. Because the three motor terminals must be connected to the two DC terminals, three of the inverter switches will
always be closed and, at any point in time, one of the applied line voltages is zero. During the first 30° interval, switches
4, 5, and 6 are closed. Thus, terminals A (switch 4) and B (switch 6) of the motor is connected to the low side of the DC
bus and VAB is zero. Switch 5 is in the top half of the bridge and connects terminal C to the high side of the DC bus.
Because C is connected to the high side and A to the low side, the line voltage VCA is positive with a magnitude equal to
the DC bus voltage. The third line voltage, VBC, is negative, however, because C is at a higher potential than B. Although
the voltages are not sinusoidal, they will have a fundamental component and higher harmonics. It can be shown that the
rms value of the fundamental is given by
10) Transient stability:
Ans. Transient stability refers to the ability of the power system to maintain synchronism after being subjected to a severe
disturbance, such as a short circuit on a transmission line. Loss of transient stability can lead to catastrophic events, such
as cascading failure and/or wide-spread blackout. Therefore, maintaining transient stability is an essential requirement in
power system operation. Post-disturbance transient stability assessment (TSA) is of great importance to avoid the
instability propagation following a disturbance. It predicts the system stability status under an ongoing disturbance, and
its assessment decision is utilized to trigger emergency control actions such as generator tripping and/or load shedding.
The traditional TSA method is time-domain (T-D) simulation, which iteratively solves a set of high-dimensional non-
linear differential algebraic equations . The T-D simulation is computationally burdensome and requires accurate
information of system modelling. With the wide deployment of phasor measurement units (PMU), power system
operating condition can be monitored in real-time, which opens the way for real-time post-disturbance TSA. Based on the
real-time system data, a number of direct methods have been proposed to speed up the T-D simulation for post-
disturbance TSA. Some examples are piecewise constant-current load equivalent , emergency single machine equivalent,
and post-disturbance trajectory analysis . Although these methods reduce the complexity of the TSA problem, they can
only provide conservative and approximate assessment result, and their decision-making speed is still insufficient to
timely trigger emergency control actions.
11)STATCOM : A STATic synchronous COMpensator (STATCOM) is a fast-acting device capable of providing or
absorbing reactive current and thereby regulating the voltage at the point of connection to a power grid. It is categorised
under Flexible AC transmission system (FACTS) devices. The technology is based on VSCs with semi-conductor valves
in a modular multi-level configuration.The dynamic reactive current output range is symmetrical (during normal
disturbed network conditions); however, non-symmetrical designs are possible by introducing mechanically or thyristor
switched shunt elements with unified control systems to cover most conventional applications. The STATCOM design
and fast response makes the technology very convenient for maintaining voltage during network faults (as STATCOMs
are capable of providing fast fault current injection limited to the rated current), enhancing short term voltage stability. In
addition, STATCOMs can provide power factor correction, reactive power control, damping of low-frequency power
oscillations (usually by means of reactive power modulation), active harmonic filtering, flicker mitigation and power
quality improvements. Typical applications are in the electric power trans-mission, electric power distribution, electrical
networks of heavy industrial plants, arc furnaces, high-speed railway systems and other electric systems, where voltage
stability and power quality are of the utmost importance. A typical STATCOM configuration consists of multi-level
VSCs based on IGBTs, phase reactors and step-up transformer. It is shunt-connected to the grid
.
12)STATCOM comparison:
Ans.Difference Between SVC and Statcom may be noted that in the normal linear operating range of the V-I
characteristic and functional compensation capability of the STATCOM and the SVC are similar. However, the basic
operating principles of the STATCOM, which, with a converter based var generator, functions as a shunt-connected
synchronous voltage source, are basically different from those of the SVC, since SVC functions as a shunt-connected,
controlled reactive admittance. This basic operational difference renders the STATCOM to have overall superior
functional characteristics, better performance, and greater application flexibility as compared to SVC. Another Difference
Between SVC and Statcom is the ability of the STATCOM to maintain full capacitive output current at low system
voltage also makes it more effective than the SVC in improving the transient (first swing) stability.

15)TCSC operation: A TCSC is a series-controlled capacitive reactance that can provide continuous control of power on
the ac line over a wide range. The principle of variable-series compensation is simply to increase the fundamental-
frequency voltage across an fixed capacitor (FC) in a series compensated line through appropriate variation of the firing
angle. This enhanced voltage changes the effective value of the series-capacitive reactance. A simple understanding of
TCSC functioning can be obtained by analyzing the behavior of a variable inductor connected in parallel with an FC.
DIFFERENT MODES OF OPERATION:1. Bypassed Thyristor mode: In this bypassed mode, the thyristors are made to
fully conduct with a conduction angle of 180. Gate pulses are applied as soon as the voltage across the thyristors reaches
zero and becomes positive, resulting in a continuous sinusoidal of flow current through the thyristor valves. This mode is
employed for control purposes and also for initiating certain protective functions. 2.Blocked – Thyristor Mode: In this
mode, also known as the waiting mode, the firing pulses to the thyristor valves are blocked.If the thyristors are
conducting and a blocking command is given, the thyristors turn off as soon as the current through them reaches a zero
crossing. 3.Partially Conducting Thyristor Mode or Vernier Mode: This mode allows the TCSC to behave either as a
continuously controllable capacitive reactance or as a continuously controllable inductive reactance. It is achieved by
varying the thyristor-pair firing angle in an appropriate range. However, a smooth transition from the capacitive to
inductive mode is not permitted because of the resonant region between the two modes.
13) TSC and TCR operation:
Ans. When the current flow through the thyristor controlled resistance it will differ from the maximum to zero by varying
the firing delay angle, α. The α is denoted as a delay angle point at which the voltage will become positive and the
thyristor will become on & there will be current flow. When α is at 900 then the current is at maximum level and the TCR
is known as the full condition & the RMS value is calculated by the equation below .I TCR – max =
V svc / 2ΠfL TCR

Where,

Vsvc is an RMS value of line to line bus bar voltage and the SVC is connected. TCR is defined as a total TCR transducer
for phase.

The operation of the thyristor switched capacitor are considered by the following conditions:i)Steady-state current ii)Off-
state voltage iii)De blocking – normal condition iv)De blocking – abnormal condition

i)Steady-State Condition:It is said to be when the thyristor-switched capacitor is in ON state and currently leads the
voltage at 900. The RMS value is calculated by using the given equation. It’s = Vsvc / Xtsc

Xtsc = 1/ 2ΠfCtsc – 2ΠfLtsc

ii)Off-State Voltage:In the off-state voltage, the TSC should be off and there is no current flow in the thyristor-switched
capacitor. The voltage is supported by the thyristor valve. If the TSC is switched off for a long time, then the capacitor
will fully discharge and the thyristor valve will experience the AC voltage of an SVC bus bar.

iii)De-blocking – Normal Condition:The de-blocking normal condition is used when the TSC is switched ON and the
care must be taken to choose the correct instant in sort to keep away from creating very large oscillatory currents. As the
TSC is a resonant circuit there will be any sudden shock that will produce a high-frequency ringing effect which will
affect the thyristor valve.

14)TSSC operation:The thyristor switched series capacitor is a modification of the fixed series capacitor with a
thyristor based static switch connected across the capacitor. A TSSC consists of a capacitor shunted by appropriately
rated bypass valve of reverse parallel connected thyristors in series .The operating principle of the TSSC is straight
forward i.e the degree of series compensation is controlled in a step like way by increasing or decreasing the number of
series capacitor inserted .It is placed by turning off and bypass by turning on the corresponding thyristor valve. A
thyristor valve commutates naturally, that is, it turns off when current crosses zero. Thus capacitor can be placed into the
line by the thyristor valve only at the zero crossings of the line current. Therefor insertion takes place at line current zero,
a full half-cycle of the line current will charge the capacitor from zero to maximum and consecutive, opposite polarity
half-cycle of the line current will discharge it from maximum to zero. The capacitor placing at line current zero,
necessited by the switching limitation of thyristor valve, result in dc offset voltage which is equivalent to the amplitude of
the ac capacitor voltage. In order to reduce the initial surge current in valve and the corresponding circuit transient, the
thyristor valve should be turned on for bypassed only when the capacitor voltage is zero. With the prevailing dc offset,
this requirement can conviction a delay of up to one full cycle, which would be set the theoretical limit for the attainable
response time of the TSSC. It could be applied for power flow control and damping power oscillation where the required
speed of response is moderate. TSSC is operated in different modes. 1) Voltage Compensating Mode. 2) Impedance
Compensating Modes.