Applied Energy 353 (2024) 122156

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Applied Energy
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/apenergy

Empowering women for embracing energy-efficient appliances: Unraveling

factors and driving change in Pakistan’s residential sector
Noshaba Aziz a, *, Ali Raza b, Hongguang Sui b, Zhixin Zhang a, *
a
School of Economics, Shandong University of Technology, Zibo, China
b
School of Economics, Shandong University, Jinan, China

H I G H L I G H T S

• This study focuses on women’s energy-efficient appliance choices in residential energy.

• Grounded in Theory of Planned Behavior with place attachment, it offers a comprehensive model.
• Findings revealed place attachment and perceived behavioral control as pivotal factors in women’s energy choices.
• The study further reflects societal norms that indirectly affect decisions, shedding light on gender biases in appliance purchases.
• The study provides valuable insights for gender-sensitive energy policies in Pakistan, promoting sustainability and gender equality.

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: The residential sector’s role in global energy consumption highlights the need to understand residents’ energy
Energy-efficient appliances behaviors. However, there is a significant knowledge gap regarding women’s preferences for energy-efficient
Gender perspectives appliances, particularly in developing countries like Pakistan, where women have limited decision-making
Theory of planned behavior
power within their households. Grounded in the theory of planned behavior this study establishes framework
Place attachment
Energy policy
by incorporating constructs such as personal norms, perceived behavioral control, and subjective norms, along
with an additional construct of place attachment. By using the data of women of Pakistan and using partial least
square structural equation model (PLS-SEM), the findings reveal that place attachment and perceived behavioral
control substantially influences the women’s attitudes and intentions to purchase energy-saving appliances.
However, personal norms and subjective norms are found to be non-significant factors. Notably, subjective norms
are found to significantly influence the purchase willingness through attitudes. The insignificant findings reflect
the prevailing patriarchal culture that may influence women’s decision-making power towards purchasing ap­
pliances. The overall study holds significant relevance in the context of Pakistani households, where under­
standing the adoption of energy-efficient appliances from a gender perspective can provide an opportunity to
initiate efforts towards a clean and sustainable future, as well as gender equality by assisting policymakers in
establishing gender-oriented energy policies.

1. Introduction oriented strategies, particularly in countries like Pakistan, where the

Climate change is a pressing global environmental concern that has
captured significant public interest. The excessive consumption of fossil
fuels by human activities poses a grave concern, especially the carbon
footprint of the residential sector, which is found to be at 72% [1].
Though global efforts have been made to promote energy-efficient
buildings and sustainable materials [2], still individual behavior is
often overlooked in policy-making. It is crucial to develop behavior-
residential sector accounts for over 47% of total energy consumption.
Moreover, Pakistan deserves special attention due to its growing popu­
lation and significant air pollution issues, especially its major cities
experiencing alarming levels of smog, smoke, and pollution. In fact,
Pakistan was ranked as one of the most polluted countries in the world in
2019. Though progress has been made in promoting energy conserva­
tion within industrial settings [3], the residential sector still receives less
attention [4]. Embracing clean energy in the residential sector is a

* Corresponding authors at: School of Economics, Shandong University of Technology, Zibo, China.
E-mail addresses: noshaba@sdut.edu.cn (N. Aziz), rzali333@yahoo.com (A. Raza), hongguang.sui@sdu.edu.cn (H. Sui), beiji2002@126.com (Z. Zhang).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2023.122156
Received 8 August 2023; Received in revised form 24 September 2023; Accepted 21 October 2023
Available online 31 October 2023
0306-2619/© 2023 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
N. Aziz et al.
promising way to tackle pollution concerns [5,6]. In the case of Pakistan,
it remains crucial to enhance the adoption of energy-saving appliances
and cultivate a conservation-minded society primarily low due to socio
cultural barriers and lack of knowledge.
In the existing literature, numerous studies have examined a wide
range of factors that influence residents’ decisions to purchase energy-
efficient appliances, such as socio-demographic variables (such as edu­
cation, financial status, and preferences for energy-efficient products),
product-related factors (including cost, price, and quality), and envi­
ronmental factors (including policy decisions and energy labels) [7,8].
However, there is a scarcity of research specifically exploring these
factors from women’s perspectives. Women play a significant role in
household management and are more environment-cognizant compared
to their male counterparts [9–11]. Cognizant people are found to have
more inclination to invest in energy-efficient appliances [12]. Unfortu­
nately, women in developing countries, including Pakistan, face
marginalization, and prevailing social norms restrict their decision-
making power towards energy-efficient appliances. Men are primarily
considered as decision-makers for purchasing decisions. Women are
more involved in bio fuel collection, and eventually face higher risks of
indoor pollution [13]. However, several socio-cultural barriers restrict
them from buying energy-efficient appliances. Addressing these barriers
and involving women more in household decision-making processes,
especially regarding clean energy adoption, are essential steps towards
fostering sustainable practices in households.
Behavioral understanding has gained substantial attention from re­
searchers, policymakers, and practitioners’ worldwide [14]. However,
as far as women are concerned, the research is sparse [15]. So, the
primary objective of this study is to delve into the factors that influence
women’s intentions to purchase energy-efficient appliances, with a
specific focus on Pakistan. Gaining insights into women’s perspectives is
crucial for developing effective strategies to promote sustainable energy
practices in households and promoting a greener future. In the litera­
ture, various theoretical frameworks have been used to understand in­
dividuals’ behavior. Among these, the theory of planned behavior (TPB),
norm activation model, and values, beliefs, and norms theory have been
widely utilized that encompassed various factors such as subjective
norms, attitudes, personal norms, and perceived behavioral control
[16], family income, housing type, number of inhabitants, age [17],
moral obligation towards the environment [18], knowledge about en­
ergy, living habits, and publicity etc. [19], and social-psychological
factors (such as attitudes and subjective norms). The main notion
behind adding constructs to the TPB framework was to enhance its
explanatory power [20,21].
In this study, we introduce the construct of place attachment as an
additional factor. Place attachment refers to the psychological and
emotional bonds that individuals develop with their living environ­
ments. Previous research has demonstrated that place attachment can
lead to environmentally conscious behavior [22,23]. However, the in­
fluence of place attachment on women’s decision-making power
regarding energy-efficient appliances remains understudied. Addition­
ally, to gain deeper insights, the study used both women’s attitudes and
willingness to pay variables given the fact that although women may
hold a positive attitude, they might not be able to purchase due to
financial constraints. Using both variables may provide a holistic
approach to investigate the phenomenon in detail. Moreover, the study
also explores the mediating role of attitude within the TPB framework to
reflect how it can enhance women’s willingness to purchase energy-
saving appliances. Further, as place attachment is a personal factor
that may vary among individuals, so the moderating role of place
attachment in the current study cannot be ignored. The overall study
holds significant relevance in the context of Pakistani households, where
understanding the adoption of energy-efficient appliances from a gender
perspective can not only provide insights into the factors driving pur­
chase intentions but also assist policymakers in establishing gender-
oriented energy policies. To meet the study objective, the study uses
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Applied Energy 353 (2024) 122156
the Partial least square structural equation model (PLS-SEM) [24], a
second-generation multivariate technique given the fact that it is the
best approach to explore relationships and generate hypotheses or to
confirm existing theories. Further, it holds several advantages, such as
dealing with small sample sizes, complex models, non-normally
distributed data or situations where predictive accuracy and flexibility
are priorities.
The remaining study is structured below. The theoretical basis is
briefly elaborated in section two, which integrates the theoretical
framework with additional constructs. The study’s hypotheses are also
explained in this section. The third and fourth sections present the
research methods with results. The results are discussed in section fifth.
Section sixth offers the study’s conclusion with potential policy
recommendations.
2. Theoretical framework and hypotheses development
2.1. Theory of planned behavior and study hypotheses
In the TPB, an individual’s intention to engage in a specific behavior
is influenced by attitude, perceived behavioral control, and subjective
norms [25]. In the current study, the theory of planned behavior (TPB) is
utilized to understand the psychological factors that influence women’s
attitudes towards purchasing energy-efficient appliances. Several
studies have incorporated additional predictors within the TPB frame­
work across diverse groups and regions [26–32]. The current study uses
the following constructs as explained below:
2.1.1. Personal norm
Personal norms encompass the principles and moral codes that guide
individuals towards specific behaviors [33]. It actually determines how
closely people’s behavior adheres to their standards [34]. In the existing
literature, “moral obligations,”“moral norms,” and “personal norms” are
sometimes used interchangeably in research [34]. A considerable body
of knowledge has incorporated moral norms to investigate their asso­
ciations with various environmental behaviors, such as the selection of
green hotels [18], participation in urban parks conservation [35],
recycling waste at the household level [36], and the adoption of energy-
efficient light bulbs [37]. Most of the studies discovered a positive as­
sociation between personal norms and environmentally friendly prod­
ucts [38]. In the current study, we hypothesize that personal norms will
not only boost women’s attitudes but also encourage them to purchase
energy-efficient appliances.
H1a. Personal norms positively and significantly influence women’s at­
titudes towards energy-saving appliances.
H1b. Personal norms positively and significantly influence women’s
purchase willingness towards energy-saving appliances.
2.1.2. Subjective norm
Subjective norms are fundamental in understanding individuals’
consumption behaviors, as they reflect the influence of the social envi­
ronment and others’ opinions [39]. The stronger the endorsements by
others in favor of buying energy-efficient appliances, the higher the
likelihood of individuals intending to adopt such appliances. Numerous
studies have extensively examined this phenomenon across various
geographical contexts. For instance, Petschnig et al. [38] explored
subjective norms and the adoption of alternative fuel vehicles in Ger­
many. Hori et al. [40] explored the association between social interac­
tion and energy-saving behaviors across five major Asian cities. In the
Korean context, Ha and Janda [41] also explored the association be­
tween subjective norms and consumers’ purchase intentions. Most of the
studies demonstrated the crucial role that subjective standards play in
influencing people’s desire to adopt environmentally conscious actions
e.g. [42–44]. Based on these findings, we propose the hypothesis that
subjective norms will not only positively and significantly influence
women’s attitudes but also their willingness to purchase energy-efficient
N. Aziz et al.
appliances.
H2a: Subjective norms positively and significantly influence women’s
attitude towards energy-efficient appliances.
H2b: Subjective norms positively and significantly influence women’s
purchase willingness towards energy-efficient appliances.
2.1.3. Perceived behavioral control
Perceived behavioral control reflects individuals’ level of easiness or
difficulty associated with engaging in specific behaviors [44]. It actually
reflects both internal and situational factors that facilitate behavior.
When individuals perceive a greater sense of control over the adoption
and usage of energy-saving products, they are more likely to engage in
their use. Alam et al. [45] conducted a study with 200 Malaysian resi­
dents and found a significant association between perceived behavioral
control and the utilization of renewable energy in small-scale house­
holds. Similarly, in the case of China, perceived behavioral control and
intention towards energy appliances were also found to be significantly
associated [46]. Therefore, the current research also hypothesizes that
the impact of perceived behavioral control on women’s attitudes and
intention towards buying energy-efficient appliances is significantly and
positively associated, as mentioned below.
H3a: Perceived behavioral control positively and significantly influences
women’s attitude towards energy-efficient appliances.
H3b: Perceived behavioral control positively and significantly influences
women’s willingness to purchase energy-efficient appliances.
2.1.4. Place attachment
Place attachment encompasses the intricate dynamics through which
individuals forge emotional and cognitive connections with specific lo­
cations, influenced by their perception of the resources and amenities
provided by their place to facilitate and accomplish goals [47]. It rep­
resents the extent to which the external environment aligns with an
individual’s intended use and is characterized by the psychological in­
vestment made in a place over time [48]. Strong place attachment en­
genders heightened concern for place development and resource
conservation [49]. Within the realm of environmental studies, place
attachment has shown positive associations with individuals’ intentions
to engage in environmental protection behavior [50–53]. Dang and
Weiss [54] conducted a comprehensive review spanning diverse
research areas, revealing significant relationships between place
attachment and behavioral intentions, including loyalty, willingness to
pay pro-tourism and pro-environmental behaviors. To guide and protect
the environment and promote sustainable development, place attach­
ment has garnered attention in research [55]. Building on these insights,
the present study hypothesizes the following:
H4a: Within the TPB framework, place attachment positively and
significantly influences women’s attitudes towards energy-efficient
appliances.
H4b: Within the TPB framework, place attachment positively and
significantly influences women’s willingness to purchase energy-efficient
appliances.
2.1.5. Attitude as a mediating role
Attitude is a learned and organized cognitive state that is shaped
through experience and social influence from people, objects, and situ­
ations [56]. In the context of energy appliances, attitude is defined as
“the degree of people’s awareness towards performing electricity-saving
behavior, which largely depends on the evaluation of a preference for
electricity savings and the information the individual holds towards
such behavior” [57]. Ajzen [58] revealed that individuals with positive
attitudes towards an action are likely to undergo that action. In the
current study, it is emphasized that the attitude of women towards a
specific behavior reflects their overall response to that behavior based
on various factors. For example, if women perceive through their norms
and perceived behavioral control that energy-efficient appliances are
better, their attitude will be positive.
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Applied Energy 353 (2024) 122156
Similarly, if subjective norms influence women’s opinions about the
appliances, it will also contribute to an increase in women’s attitudes.
The intention to purchase a specific product, even if it is costly, is
influenced by various factors, with attitude playing a significant role.
The current study hypothesizes that attitude is likely to mediate the link
between TPB constructs and purchase willingness towards energy-
efficient appliances. Previous studies also revealed that consumer atti­
tudes are strong predictors of explaining behaviors [35,41,46,59]. In
other words, the more women have a favorable attitude as a conse­
quence of personal norms, subjective norms, and perceived behavioral
control, the more likely they are to switch to energy-efficient appliances.
Therefore, the study formulates the following advanced hypotheses:
H5a: Within the TBP framework, attitude mediates the relationship be­
tween personal norms and women’s purchase willingness towards energy-
efficient appliances.
H5b: Within the TBP framework, attitude mediates the relationship of
subjective norms with women’s willingness to buy energy-efficient appliances.
H5c: Within the TBP framework, attitude mediates the relationship of
perceived behavioral control with women’s purchase willingness to buy
energy-efficient appliances.
2.1.6. The role of place attachment as a moderator in the theory of planned
behavior
Place attachment serves as a signal for individuals, alerting them to
potential threats and dangers within their physical environments, thus
eliciting response tendencies to address these risks [60]. Individuals
who hold a strong sense of place are less likely to rely on subjective
factors. They are more conscious of the repercussions of energy and
environmental problems and thus willing to take action to address them.
The study of Hernández et al. [61] revealed that people’s sense of
connection to their physical surroundings is a significant motivator for
pro-environmental behavior, as they are more familiar with the envi­
ronmental details of area [62]. In simple words, individuals with a
strong attachment to a specific area are also likely to possess extensive
knowledge about that place through direct experiences, which may
result in greater awareness of environmental issues, including pollution,
compared to individuals with lower levels of place attachment. Thus, the
study further hypothesizes the moderating role of place attachment in
various contexts following the study of De-Dominicis et al. [63], who
explored the interaction of place with preventive coping behavior and
environmental risk perception through the moderating role of place
identity. Place attachment is a personal factor that differs from person to
person [64]. Thus, the potential moderating effect of place attachment
on TPB relationships cannot be ignored. Drawing from the existing
literature, the following hypotheses are proposed:
H6a: Within the TBP framework, the relationship between subjective
norms and women’s attitudes towards energy-efficient appliances is moder­
ated by place attachment.
H6b: Within the TBP framework, the relationship between perceived
behavioral control and women’s attitude towards energy-efficient appliances
is moderated by place attachment.
H6c: Within the TBP framework, the relationship between personal norms
and women’s attitudes towards energy-efficient appliances is moderated by
place attachment.
The overall hypotheses are conceptualized based on the existing
literature, and different databases such as Web of Science, Science
Direct, PubMed, and JSTOR are used to conduct a literature search.
Various combinations of keywords related to the subject matter in the
present study are applied by defining a discipline, and then they were
limited to the selected journals. The websites of the selected journals are
also searched to look at a wide range of papers on the subject matter in
the current study.
N. Aziz et al. Applied Energy 353 (2024) 122156

3. Methodology
3.1. Data source and study participants
The current study is conducted in the central region of Punjab
province, Pakistan, as its main cities experience significant levels of
pollution. Its main city, Lahore, previously called the “City of Gardens,”
is selected given the fact that it has been severely affected by pollution.
Moreover, women in every society care for children and families pri­
marily and are also more concerned about pollution, but how women
behave towards energy-efficient appliances in the household is the
study’s main objective. So, to reveal the phenomenon, women are taken
as participants in this study. The study focused on gathering information
from women who resided in Lahore from December 2022 to January
2023. A method of random sampling is employed to choose the partic­
ipants, distributing a total of 325 questionnaires and obtaining 300 valid
responses that yield a recovery rate of 95%. The sample’s demographic
composition is portrayed in Table 1.
constructs are also measured at the same time in this model. The
structural model (see Fig. 1) assesses the path coefficients between the
constructs. Path coefficients are taken as pointers to predict the model’s
fitness. The PLS algorithm and bootstrapping technique determine fac­
tor loadings for validating the construct’s internal consistency, reli­
ability, path coefficients, and significance levels for testing the
hypothesis. To assess the importance of pathways, a bootstrapping
technique is utilized with samples of 5000. Moreover, it is a technique of
data analysis through which the primary purpose of explaining the
variance in the dependent variables is achieved [68,69]. The mediation
of attitude is also evaluated using bootstrapped confidence intervals to
assess the indirect effect. Furthermore, the moderating effects of place
attachment on the relationships within the TPB construct and attitude
are also examined by employing bootstrapped confidence intervals. To
interpret the moderating effects, a simple slope analysis is also
conducted.
4. Results

3.2. Research instruments 4.1. Demographic characteristics

This paper examines the TPB’s main constructs, such as subjective The demographic data is shown in Table 1, which provides infor­
norm, attitude, perceived behavioral control, behavior intention, and mation regarding the sample population under study. According to the
purchasing willingness of energy-saving appliances with an additional distribution of age groups, 36.6% of the sample is between the ages of 31
construct of place attachment. All variables are measured on a 5-point and 40. The percentages of respondents belonging to the age category of
Likert scale, ranging from “strongly disagree” to “strongly agree.” The 20–30, 41–50, and 51+, cover 16.0%, 26.6%, and 20.6%, respectively.
measurement items for each variable have been taken from previous By examining the participants’ educational backgrounds, it is clear that
studies [18,41,48,65–67], are presented in Table 2. Some indicators are about 39.0% of the sample have bachelor’s degrees, followed by in­
modified keeping in view the study’s objectives. dividuals with master’s degrees, 26.6%. The matriculation and Inter­
mediate categories account for 9.6% and 18.3% of the sample,
respectively, while the “other” group accounts for a lower percentage, i.
3.3. Statistical analysis
e. 6.3%. Concerning marital status, the data reveals that married people
make up the greatest portion of the sample, accounting for 58.6% of all
In Excel, all raw data are assembled. Data are transformed to SPSS
participants. The sample as a whole is comprised of 23.0% single in­
22.0 for statistical analysis. By using the variables of interest, descriptive
dividuals, with the remaining 18.33% falling under the “other” cate­
analysis is initially conducted. To build a statistical model of all di­
gory, which can include widowed and divorced. The information on the
mensions, the PLS-SEM approach is used, which allowed for modeling
monthly earnings of households illustrates the variation across different
personal norms, perceived behavioral control, subjective norm, and
income groups. The highest percentage, 35.0%, is associated with the
place attachment as underlying explanatory variables and attitude as
wage range of 61,000–75,000. The subsequent most significant group is
well as a willingness to buy energy-efficient appliances as an endoge­
found in the 46,000–60,000 range, which comprises 33.0% of the pop­
nous construct. The PLS model involves two stages, i.e., the measure­
ulation. The percentages of the sample that fall into the 15,000–30,000,
ment model and the structural model. The measurement model
31,000–45,000, and 75,000+ income levels are 6.0%, 8.3%, and 17.6%,
measures the relationship between apparent variables (sub-factors) and
respectively.
latent variables (factors), and the validity and reliability of the
4.2. Measurement model assessment results
Table 1
Demographic information of the sample.
4.2.1. Convergent validity
Age Frequency Percentage To examine the measurement model, convergent and discriminant
20–30 48 16 validity are primarily used before testing the hypotheses. Convergent
31–40 110 36.6 validity assesses the correlation among multiple indicators of the same
41–50 80 26.6 construct. It is measured using variance inflation factor (VIF) loadings,
51+ 62 20.6
Education
alpha, Rho-alpha, average variance extracted (AVE), and composite
Matriculation 29 9.6 reliability (CR). VIF is a measure used to assess multicollinearity among
Intermediate 55 18.3 the items or variables in a model. A high VIF indicates high multi­
Bachelors 117 39 collinearity. Loadings represent the strength of the relationship between
Masters 80 26.6
each item and its respective construct in a factor analysis. Higher
Other 19 6.3
Marital Status loadings suggest that an item is a good indicator of the underlying
Single 69 23 construct. Alpha, often referred to as Cronbach’s alpha, is a measure of
Married 176 58.6 internal consistency reliability. It assesses how closely related a set of
Other 55 18.33 items are as a group. Higher alpha values indicate greater reliability.
Monthly Household Income
15,000–30,000 18 6
Rho-A is another measure of internal consistency reliability. It is an
31,000–45,000 25 8.3 alternative to Cronbach’s alpha. AVE assesses the extent to which the
46,000–60,000 99 33 items of a construct converge or measure the same underlying concept.
61,000–75,000 105 35 Higher AVE values indicate stronger convergent validity. CR is a mea­
75,000+ 53 17.6
sure of the reliability of a latent variable (construct) in a structural
Source: Field Survey (2022) equation model. According to Hair et al. [69], the main factors such as

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N. Aziz et al. Applied Energy 353 (2024) 122156

Table 2
Scales and Convergent validity results.
Constructs Items VIF Loadings Alpha Rho-A CR AVE

Purchase willingness towards household energy-efficient appliances (WPHEEA)

I support buying household energy-efficient appliances Will1 4.103 0.823 0.936 0.949 0.949 0.758
I intend to purchase household energy-efficient appliances Will2 3.771 0.895
I plan to purchase household energy-efficient appliances Will3 2.732 0.883
I am trying to buy it no matter if it is expensive Will4 4.375 0.845
I encourage others to have energy-efficient appliances Will5 3.901 0.91
I hold strong willingness to purchase energy-efficient appliances Will6 2.628 0.866
Attitude towards household energy-efficient appliances (AHEEA)
It is beneficial to reduce budget drudgery Att1 2.196 0.815 0.858 0.869 0.892 0.546
It is a good practice to protect the environment Att2 1.22 0.529
It is a wise decision for the sustainable development of the society Att3 3.293 0.846
It is good practice to save energy shortage Att4 2.534 0.767
It can last longer Att5 2.313 0.768
It can save energy expenditures Att6 1.659 0.685
I hold a strong attitude towards household energy-efficient appliances Att7 1.486 0.716
Place Attachment (PA)
This place is close to my heart PA1 4.462 0.957 0.782 0.943 0.870 0.704
I want to see it prosperous and pollution-free PA2 4.658 0.961
It means a lot to me PA3 1.192 0.522
Subjective Norm (SN)
People of my contacts purchase household energy-efficient appliances SN1 1.82 0.773 0.798 0.841 0.854 0.543
People often contact me and expect me to take action to protect the environment SN2 1.625 0.661
People in my contacts push me to buy energy-efficient appliances SN3 1.942 0.799
It has become a social trend to opt for efficient appliances SN4 1.628 0.815
It is expected that I will also buy energy-efficient appliances SN5 1.585 0.614
Perceived Behavioral Control (PBC)
It is not hard to purchase household energy-efficient appliances PBC1 3.467 0.87 0.912 0.939 0.931 0.691
I have enough resources to buy household energy-efficient appliances PBC2 3.502 0.883
I have adequate information regarding household energy-efficient appliances PBC3 3.349 0.865
I have opportunities to opt for house energy-efficient appliances PBC4 2.272 0.794
I can easily manage house energy-efficiencies appliances PBC5 2.816 0.802
It is entirely up to me to opt for household energy-efficient appliances PBC6 1.542 0.768
Personal Norm (PN)
I should feel guilty if I don’t purchase PN1 1.335 0.219 0.828 0.528 0.806 0.546
I should have a moral obligation to opt PN2 5.751 0.816
I should be responsible for the consequences of not using it PN3 6.842 0.854
I should purchase to save the environment PN4 1.542 0.861

Source: Authors’ estimations

loadings, CR, and AVE values should be greater than 0.50, 0.70, and
0.50, respectively. In the current study, all values that fall within the
mentioned cutoffs endorse good convergent validity.
4.2.2. Discriminant validity
For discriminant validity, the Fornell-Larcker method and the
Heterotrait-Monotrait (HTMT) correlation ratios are used. Discriminant
validity is also part of the measurement model that empirically differ­
entiates the constructs from one another and measures the differences
between the overlapping constructs. In particular, the Fornell-Larcker
Criterion examines the discriminant validity of different constructs in
a research model. In Table 3, each row and column in the table corre­
sponds to a different construct or variable. Diagonal elements in the
table are the square root of the average variance extracted for each
construct. The AVE represents the average amount of variance that each
construct explains in its items or indicators. It measures the amount of
variance captured by the construct compared to the measurement error.
Off-diagonal elements are the correlations (or co-variances) between
pairs of constructs that show how much two constructs are related to
each other. To put it simply, in the Fornell-Larcker criterion, the square
root of the AVE is compared with the correlation of latent constructs. In
Table 3, attitude towards household energy-efficient appliances
(AHHEEA) has a diagonal element (0.739) that reflects the square root
of its own AVE and indicates that AHHEEA explains 73.9% of the vari­
ance in its items. Likewise, willingness to purchase household energy-
efficient appliances (WPHHEEA) has a diagonal element of (0.871)
that indicates that WPHHEEA explains 87.1% of the variance in its
items. (See Tables 4 and 5.)
Similarly, perceived behavioral control, personal norm, place
attachment, and subjective norm explains 83.1%, 73.9%, 83.9%, and
73.7% of the variance in their items respectively. For discriminant val­
idity, the square root of the AVE for each construct should be greater
than the correlations between that construct and all other constructs.
This condition seems to be met in the current study as all the diagonal
elements (AVE) are higher than the correlations between the constructs.
This shows that the constructs are distinguishable from each other and
have discriminant validity.
Moreover, the correlation’s HTMT ratio is also employed to check
discriminant validity. It is a tool to evaluate whether the constructs in a
model are distinct from one another, meaning that they are measuring
different underlying concepts rather than being highly correlated or
overlapping. According to Gaskin and James [70], the correlation co­
efficient under HTMT should not be exceeded to 0.9. It is actually a rule
of thumb often used in structural equation modeling (SEM) to ensure
that discriminant validity is adequately established. If it is higher than
0.9, it shows that there is a high degree of correlation between the two
constructs. In SEM, such high correlations may indicate multi­
collinearity, which can make it challenging to disentangle the effects of
individual constructs on the observed variables. In the current case, all
HTMT values for all variables are not higher than 0.90, implying that all
variables in the current study have discriminant validity.
4.3. Structural model assessment
To test the significance of the relationship in the second step of
analyzing the data, the PLS bootstrapping technique is used. Path co­
efficients and the value of R2 explain the explanatory power of the
structural model. Fig. 1 presents a structural model for variables that fall

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N. Aziz et al. Applied Energy 353 (2024) 122156

Fig. 1. Structural model assessments.

Table 3
Fornell- Larcker Criterion results.
Attitude towards household Willingness to purchase Perceived Personal Place Subjective
energy-efficient appliances household energy-efficient Behavioral Control Norm (PN) Attachment Norm (SN)
(AHHEEA) appliances (WPHHEEA) (PBC) (PA)

Attitude towards household 0.739

energy-efficient appliances
(AHHEEA)
Willingness to purchase 0.507 0.871
household energy-efficient
appliances (WPHHEEA)
Perceived Behavioral Control 0.446 0.216 0.831
(PBC)
Personal Norm (PN) 0.056 0.083 0.078 0.739
Place Attachment (PA) 0.651 0.526 0.565 0.203 0.839
Subjective Norm (SN) 0.385 0.243 0.311 0.069 0.457 0.737

Table 4
Heterotrait-Monotrait ratio results.
Attitude towards household Purchase willingness towards Perceived Personal Place Subjective
energy-efficient appliances household energy-efficient Behavioral Control Norm Attachment Norm
appliances

Attitude towards household

energy-efficient appliances
Purchase willingness towards 0.526
household energy-efficient
appliances
Perceived Behavioral Control 0.481 0.219
Personal Norm 0.091 0.072 0.12
Place Attachment 0.724 0.545 0.66 0.249
Subjective Norm 0.422 0.231 0.325 0.129 0.559

6
N. Aziz et al. Applied Energy 353 (2024) 122156

Table 5 Table 5 (continued )

Path analysis results. Relationships Beta T- Confidence (U.L) Decision
Relationships Beta T- Confidence (U.L) Decision value Intervals
value Intervals Bias
Bias Corrected
Corrected (L.L)
(L.L)
0.025 0.975
0.025 0.975
energy efficient
H1a: Personal Norm- − 0.075 1.426 − 0.179 0.028 0.154 appliances - >
> Attitude towards Purchase
household energy willingness
efficient appliances towards household
− 0.007 − 0.024 − 0.162 0.096 0.916 energy efficient
H1b: Personal appliances
Norm- > Purchase 0.028 1.636 − 0.003 0.065 0.102
willingness H5c: Perceived
towards household Behavioral Control
energy-efficient - > Attitude
appliances towards household
0.090 1.689 − 0.019 0.190 0.091 energy efficient
H2a: Perceived appliances - >
Behavioral Purchase
Control- > Attitude willingness
towards household household energy
energy efficient efficient appliances
appliances 0.155 4.360 0.095 0.237 0.000
− 0.153 3.036 − 0.257 − 0.057 0.002 H5d: Place
H2b: Perceived Attachment - >
Behavioral Attitude towards
Control- > household energy
Purchase efficient appliances
willingness - > Purchase
towards household willingness
energy-efficient towards household
appliances energy efficient
0.160 2.683 0.041 0.274 0.007 appliances
H3a: Subjective − 0.001 0.072 − 0.030 0.020 0.943
Norm- > Attitude H6a: Personal
towards household Norm*Place
energy efficient attachment - >
appliances Attitude towards
− 0.021 0.397 − 0.129 0.081 0.705 household energy
H3b: Subjective efficient appliances
Norm- > Purchase 0.058 2.408 0.021 0.117 0.016
willingness H6b:Subjective
towards household norm*Place
energy-efficient Attachment - >
appliances Attitude towards
0.499 9.005 0.393 0.607 0.000 household energy
H4a: Place efficient appliances
Attachment - > 0.017 1.059 − 0.012 0.051 0.290
Attitude towards H6c: Perceived
household energy behavioral
efficient appliances control*place
0.422 6.114 0.285 0.557 0.000 attachment- >
H4a: Place Attitude towards
Attachment - > household energy
Purchase efficient appliances
willingness Source: Authors’
towards household estimations
energy-efficient
appliances
− 0.023 1.337 − 0.065 0.005 0.181 within the theory of planned behavior framework (TPB) that cover
H5a: Personal exogenous variables, namely, personal norm, perceived behavioral
Norm - > Attitude
control, subjective norm, and place attachment. In contrast, the
towards household
energy efficient dependent variables are attitude and purchase willingness towards
appliances energy-efficient appliances. To gain deeper insights into women’s
>Purchase behavior towards energy-efficient appliances, the study used both atti­
willingness tude and willingness to pay variables, given the fact that although
towards household
energy efficient
women may hold a positive attitude, they might not be able to purchase
appliances due to financial constraints. It is clear that all the relationships for
0.050 2.166 0.013 0.104 0.030 attitude, such as subjective norm (β = 0.160, p = 0.000), perceived
H5b: Subjective behavioral control (β = 0.090, p = 0.091), and place attachment (β =
Norm - > Attitude
0.499, p = 0.000) are significant except personal norm. Moreover, in the
towards household
case of purchase willingness towards energy-efficient appliances, it is

7
N. Aziz et al. Applied Energy 353 (2024) 122156

found that perceived behavioral control (β = − 0.153, p = 0.000) and Table 6

place attachment (β = 0.422, p = 0.000) are significant. The results for R2. f2 and VIF.
personal norms towards both attitude and purchase willingness (β = Constructs R2 Adjusted R2 F square VIF Q2
− 0.075, p = 0.154, β = − 0.007, p = 0.916) are insignificant. Further
Intention to purchase 0.342 0.331 – – 0.233
mediation analysis showed that subjective norms could contribute to HEEA
boosting purchasing willingness towards appliances through attitude. Attitude towards HEEA 0.488 0.475 0.048 1.806 0.224
The subjective norm is shown to have substantial mediation effects (β =
0.050, p = 0.030, respectively). Likewise, place attachment is also found
to show a mediation effect (β = 0.155, p = 0.000). Regarding the
5. Discussions
moderating effect of place attachment, the interaction between place
attachment and the subjective norm is found to be positively and
The crux of environmental protection lies in human behavior
significantly associated with attitude (β = 0.058, p = 0.016). However,
[73,74]. One crucial avenue for addressing climate change is reducing
no moderating effect was observed for the relationship between personal
energy consumption or adopting energy-efficient appliances. Further­
norms and perceived behavioral control with women’s attitudes towards
more, women are regarded as more responsive to environmental con­
buying energy-saving appliances.
cerns. However, women’s autonomy in household affairs is often
Fig. 2 below illustrates a positive interaction effect between subjec­
constrained by male dominance in many developing countries.
tive norms and place attachment on women’s attitudes towards house­
Addressing this gender disparity may not only boost women’s decision-
hold energy-efficient appliances. It shows that as place attachment
making power at the household level but also lead to a favorable envi­
increases, the impact of subjective norms on women’s attitudes towards
ronment [75]. Regarding energy-efficient appliances, extensive research
energy-efficient appliances becomes stronger. In other words, higher
has explored residents’ willingness to adopt such appliances. However,
levels of place attachment strengthen the relationship between subjec­
literature on the attitude of women regarding the purchase of energy-
tive norms and women’s attitudes towards household energy-efficient
efficient appliances remains sparse. The study leverages the TPB to
appliances, as indicated by the steeper slope of the high moderator
establish a comprehensive framework for investigating not only the
line. Conversely, there is a flatter slope for low levels of place attach­
factors influencing women’s behavior towards energy-saving appliances
ment, indicating a weaker relationship between subjective norms and
but also to explore the status of women and their power, particularly in
women’s attitudes towards household energy-efficient appliances. In
the context of energy at the household level. As expected, the study did
simpler terms, when individuals have a stronger attachment to a place,
not show significant findings in the context of personal norms, both with
the influence of subjective norms on their attitude towards household
attitude and purchase willingness for household energy-efficient appli­
energy-efficient appliances is more pronounced. In contrast, a weaker
ances. This implies that although personal norms reflect the internalized
place attachment weakens this relationship.
values and beliefs of individuals, in the context of women, they are
Further, the findings in Table 6 reveal that the exogenous constructs
influenced by a multitude of complex dynamics, such as societal and
(personal norm, perceived behavioral control, subjective norm, and
cultural factors. In male-dominated societies, economic considerations
place attachment) contribute to 48% and 34% of the variance in
and decision-making power may predominantly reside with men. Even if
women’s attitudes and willingness to buy energy-efficient appliances at
women possess strong personal norms favoring energy efficiency, soci­
the household level, respectively. Additionally, to address collinearity
etal expectations and gender roles usually impede the translation of
and evaluate common method bias (CMB), a comprehensive collinearity
these norms into actual purchasing intentions. Within the household,
test should be used in PLS-SEM. The CMB is determined using VIFs as
decision-making power is also influenced by family dynamics [76].
stated by Kock [71]. The findings confirmed that the VIF values for
Additionally, the growth of women in patriarchal societies from an early
latent constructs are not greater than 5 [72], implying that the data is
age can also impact their decision-making power. Davis [77] also
free of CMB (see Table 6). To evaluate the structural model’s predictive
showed that social influence and different phases of life also influence
power, Q2 is also assessed. The findings suggest that the model has good
women’s decision-making power.
predictive relevance.

Fig. 2. Subjective Norm by place attachment interaction on attitude towards Household Energy Efficient Appliance.

8
N. Aziz et al.
The results regarding perceived behavioral control (PBC) are found
to be significant and positive in the case of attitude but negative in the
case of purchase willingness. In the current study, the reason or barrier
that may contribute to the negative relationship with PBC is finance.
Although women’s positive attitude towards energy-efficient appliances
reveals that they may be ethically aware of the environmental conse­
quences and also have a strong desire to choose energy-efficient appli­
ances, they might not have enough resources to purchase them. Energy-
efficient appliances often come with a higher upfront cost compared to
less efficient alternatives despite their potential long-term cost savings
through reduced energy consumption. If women perceive these appli­
ances as unaffordable, it significantly diminishes their intention to
purchase. The results are aligned with the studies of Zahno et al. [78],
Liu and Mauzerall [79], and Guo et al. [80], who revealed that socio­
economic status and financial burden are key factors. In Pakistan, there
is still a conventional notion of gender ideology in most households that
result in women having lower decision-making power [81–83]. It is
crucial to challenge traditional gender ideologies and promote fair intra-
household resource allocation [84]. The results by Shrestha and Keitsch
[85] showed that ownership over finances significantly contributes to
the conscious use and purchase of energy appliances. In contrast, Kar­
unarathna et al. [86] along with many other constructs, revealed that
perceived behavioral control influences the behavioral intention of
purchasing energy-saving appliances significantly.
In the context of subjective norm, although the results are found to be
significant with attitude, they are insignificant in the case of women’s
purchasing willingness. Similar to the TPB framework, this highlights
the significance of subjective norms and reflects the perceived social
pressures and expectations from others in shaping their attitude. How­
ever, the non-significant relationship reflects that women in developing
countries are not easily influenced by other’s opinions, especially when
money is involved. The results are similar to the studies of Tan et al.
[29], Wang et al. [87], and Perret et al. [88] who revealed that social
peer pressure might influence people’s behavior. Some other studies
[89,90] also discovered that individuals modified their behaviors as a
consequence of participating in community organizations to showcase
sustainability.
Furthermore, the results regarding place attachment exhibit a robust
and direct influence on both women’s attitude and purchasing willing­
ness towards energy-saving appliances, substantiating the hypothesis
that a stronger emotional bond and rational thinking to the physical
environment leads to a higher likelihood of positive attitude and pur­
chase intention. In the realm of emerging environmental pollution, it
reflects women’s emotional bond as well as the rational thinking that
she establishes with her place of residence. Women are aware of how
their decisions today can affect the planet and future generations.
Further energy-efficient appliances provide better temperature control,
air quality, and noise reduction, which can contribute to a healthier and
more comfortable living environment both for women as well as for their
children. This interpretation aligns cohesively with Halpenny [91],
which under-scores the salience of place attachment in driving pro-
environmental behaviors. Additionally, individuals who possess a
strong attachment to their community exhibit a heightened propensity
to engage in environmentally protective behaviors [64,92,93].
Regarding the mediation analysis, the findings suggest that subjec­
tive norms have an indirect influence on purchasing intention through
attitudes. It infers that subjective norms reflect social networks and
people’s habits of buying energy-saving appliances. It also encompasses
societal expectations and encouragement from family and friends.
Importantly, women often seek information from friends and media
before making major purchases. In the current study, it is evident that
attitude plays a vital role in translating subjective norms into purchasing
intentions, thus endorsing the mediation hypothesis. This finding is
particularly significant as it has received limited attention in previous
studies. Still, it can provide valuable insights for agencies and policy­
makers aiming to enhance purchase intention among women. This
9
Applied Energy 353 (2024) 122156
evidence implies that overall women may not be willing to purchase
appliances predominantly due to financial constraints. However, when
they receive social influence about the benefits of choosing energy-
efficient appliances, their mindset can be inclined towards making
such purchases. The results are in alliance with the studies of López-
Mosquera et al. [35], Trelohan [94], Hunter et al. [95], and Har­
ichandan et al. [96] who revealed that subjective norm influences
consumer behavior. Place attachment also emerges as a central factor,
exerting both direct and indirect effects on purchasing intentions. The
findings suggest that individuals who have a stronger attachment to
their environment hold positive attitudes towards energy-efficient ap­
pliances, which, in turn, enhance their intentions to purchase such
products. Within developing countries, especially from a women’s
perspective, the significance of place attachment becomes even more
pronounced as it reflects women’s deep-rooted connections to their
communities and surroundings. Women are concerned about the envi­
ronment not just for the sake of their children’s future but for the well-
being of society as a whole. Consequently, they are more inclined to
conserve natural resources. Earlier studies revealed that women are
more likely to conserve energy and protect the environment compared
to men [97].
The analysis also sheds light on the interaction between place
attachment, TPB constructs, and attitudes. Place attachment acts as a
positive moderator in the relationship between subjective norms and
women’s attitudes. This moderation effect of place attachment un­
derscores the role of individuals’ psychological bonds and rational
thinking with their surroundings in shaping their attitudes and subse­
quent intentions. It is generally believed that people with a strong
attachment to their environment are more likely to activate defense
mechanisms rooted in their acquired knowledge and protective re­
sponses, thereby relying less on subjective norms to shape their pro-
environmental intentions. On the other hand, individuals with weaker
place attachments exhibit a diminished influence of their place-related
self-schemas on attitudes. However, the study only found evidence for
subjective norms and did not find support for the moderating role of
place attachment in the association between perceived behavioral con­
trol and personal norms. This unexpected result may be attributed to
internal consciousness, cultural norms, and social norms.
6. Conclusion
The growing interest in energy-efficient appliance adoption among
researchers arises from the need to address climate issues and gain a
better understanding of consumer behavior in the energy domain. To
effectively achieve efficient energy goals, it is crucial to incorporate
insights from social science research, particularly by considering
women’s perspectives. Exploring women’s behavior may provide a more
comprehensive understanding and help devise strategies to promote the
adoption of energy-efficient appliances. Women hold significant roles in
household management and exhibit a greater concern for energy secu­
rity. However, women in developing countries are marginalized and
unable to make decisions, highlighting the need to explore factors
driving women’s preference towards energy-efficient appliances.
Grounded in the TPB framework, this study incorporates constructs such
as personal norms, perceived behavioral control, and subjective norms,
along with an additional construct of place attachment within the TPB
framework. The findings emphasize the substantial influence of place
attachment and perceived behavioral control on women’s attitudes and
intentions to purchase energy-saving appliances. However, personal
norms and subjective norms were found to be non-significant factors.
Notably, subjective norms were found to influence purchase willingness
through attitudes. The insignificant findings reflect the prevailing pa­
triarchal culture that may influence women’s decision-making power
towards purchasing appliances. However, it also provides an opportu­
nity to initiate efforts towards a clean and sustainable future, as well as
gender equality.
N. Aziz et al. Applied Energy 353 (2024) 122156

In order to overcome pollution, several studies proposes that poli­
cymakers should focus on green energy technologies [98–102], but
based on the current study’s findings the policymakers should under­
stand and consider the distinctive roles and responsibilities of women,
particularly in household energy usage, and provide them with infor­
mation, education, and resources. Regardless of the challenges women
face, they are often found to be loyal to their community, so government
departments should organize documentaries and environmentally
friendly public service announcements to educate women about the
adverse repercussions of environmental degradation. By instilling a
sense of responsibility, especially in women, their norms can be acti­
vated, leading to an increased intention to purchase energy-saving ap­
pliances. Moreover, the results highlight the significance of subjective
norms in shaping individuals’ attitudes. Motivating people to share their
experiences and knowledge with others regarding energy-efficient ap­
pliances can create social pressure and promote a pro-environmental
atmosphere.
The study is not without limitations; the study appears to focus only
on women’s perspectives in Pakistan, which may limit its generaliz­
ability to other demographic groups or regions with different cultural
contexts. Findings from this study might not be applicable to more
diverse populations or developed countries. The study does not explic­
itly account for external factors that may influence appliance purchases,
such as economic constraints, product availability, or marketing efforts
by appliance manufacturers. The study focuses on attitudes and in­
tentions rather than actual behavior. It would be valuable to investigate
whether these intentions translate into real-world actions and sustained
adoption of energy-efficient appliances over time. In summary, while
the study provides important insights into gender roles, place
attachment, and energy-efficient appliance adoption, it is essential to
acknowledge its limitations in the future to ensure a comprehensive
understanding of the research findings and their broader implications.
CRediT authorship contribution statement
Noshaba Aziz: Writing – original draft, Methodology, Formal anal­
ysis, Conceptualization. Ali Raza: Writing – review & editing, Valida­
tion, Resources, Data curation. Hongguang Sui: Funding acquisition,
Writing - review & editing. Zhixin Zhang: Supervision, Validation.
Funding
This research is supported by the Postdoctoral Science Foundation of
China grant number [2021M691610], National Natural Science Foun­
dation of China [General Project, 71873077], National Social Science
Foundation of China [Major Project, 17ZDA040], Social Science Foun­
dation of Shandong Province [Key Project, 23BJJJ03], and National
Natural Science Foundation of China grant number [71850410541].
Declaration of Competing Interest
It is declared that there is no conflict of interest between authors or
any other third party regarding the submitted research paper.
Data availability
Data will be made available on request.

Appendix A. Questionnaire

This questionnaire is only for research purposes, and all the information will be kept confidential. Your support will be highly appreciable.
Date——————————————————————————————————————————————————————————.
Region———————————————————————————————————————————————————————

1. Socioeconomic and demographic details

1.1 Age
1. 20–30
2. 21–40
3. 41–50
4. 51+
1.2 What is the highest educational level that you attained so far?
1. Matriculation
2. Intermediate
3. Bachelors
4. Masters
1.3 Marital status
1. Single
2. Married
3. Other
1.4 What is your household’s monthly income.

1. 15,000–30,000.
2. 31,000–45,000.
3. 46,000–60,000.
4. 61,000–75,000.
5. 75,000+.

2. Research questions detail.

2.1 How would you rate yourself regarding purchase willingness towards household energy efficient appliances (WPHEEA)?

10
N. Aziz et al. Applied Energy 353 (2024) 122156

Indicators Strongly Disagree Disagree Neither Agree Strongly Agree

I support to buy household energy efficient appliances

I intend to purchase household energy efficient appliances
I plan to purchase household energy efficient appliances
I am trying to buy no matter if it is expensive
I encourage others to opt household energy efficient appliances
I hold strong willingness to purchase household energy efficient appliances

2.2 How would you rate your attitude towards household energy efficient appliances (AHEEA)?

Indicators Strongly Disagree Disagree Neither Agree Strongly Agree

It is beneficial to reduce budget drudgery

It is a good practice to protect environment
It is a wise decision for the sustainable development of the society
It is good practice to save energy shortage
It can last longer
It can save energy expenditures
I hold a strong attitude towards household energy efficient appliances

2.3 As a citizen, how would you rate yourself towards place attachment?

Indicators Strongly Disagree Disagree Neither Agree Strongly Agree

This place is close to my heart

I want to see it prosperous and pollution free
It means a lot to me

2.4 Indicate whether you agree or disagree with the following statements of subjective norm?

Indicators Strongly Disagree Disagree Neither Agree Strongly Agree

People of my contacts purchase household energy efficient appliances

People of my contacts expect me to take action to protect environment
People of my contacts push me to buy energy efficient appliances
It has become a social trend to opt energy efficient appliances
It is expected that i should also buy energy efficient appliances

2.5 Indicate whether you agree or disagree with the following statement of perceived behavioral control?

Indicators Strongly Disagree Disagree Neither Agree Strongly Agree

It is not hard to purchase household energy efficient appliances

I have enough resources to buy household energy efficient appliances
I have adequate information regarding household energy efficient appliances
I have opportunities to opt household energy efficient appliances
I can easily manage household energy efficient appliances
It is entirely up to me to opt household energy efficient appliances

2.6 Please rate the extent to which you agree with these statements of personal norm?

11
N. Aziz et al. Applied Energy 353 (2024) 122156

Indicators Strongly Disagree Disagree Neither Agree Strongly Agree

I should feel guilty if i don’t purchase

I should have moral obligation to opt
I should be responsible of the consequences of not using it
I should purchase to save environment

Thank you for your cooperation.

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