Index

1. Introduction
2. Some common alloys
3. Characteristics of alloys
4. Uses of alloys
5. Preparation of alloys
6. Analysis of alloy
7. Exp.1

INTRODUCTION:
An Alloy is a homogenous mixture of two or more metals
or a non-metal. An alloy of mercury with another metal is
called amalgam. Alloys are usually harder than their
components but very often less ductile and less
malleable. Thus the hardness of gold is increased by
addition of copper to it. The melting point of an alloy is
always lower than the melting points of the constituent
metals. Other properties such as reactivity towards
atmospheric oxygen and moisture, mechanical strength,
ductility, colour etc., also under goes a change when an
alloy is made from its constituents (metals). This change
of properties is very useful and makes an alloy beneficial.
The composition of alloys may differ slightly depending
upon the quality of the alloy though the main components
remain the same. An alloy(through the Fr. Aloyer, from
Lat. Alligare, to combine), is a partial or complete solid
solution of one or more elements in a metallic matrix.
Complete solid solution alloys give single solid phase
microstructure, while partial solutions give two or more
phases that maybe homogeneous in distribution depending
on thermal (heat treatment) history. Alloys usually have
different properties from those of the component
elements. Alloying one metal with other metal or non
metal often enhances its properties. For instance, steel is
stronger than iron, its primary element. The physical
properties, such as density, reactivity, Young’s modulus,
and electrical and thermal conductivity, of an alloy may
not differ greatly from those of its elements, but
engineering properties, such as tensile strength and shear
strength may be substantially different From those of the
constituent materials. This is sometimes due to the sizes
of the atoms in the alloy, since larger atoms exert a
compressive force on neighbouring atoms, and smaller
atoms exert a tensile force on their neighbours, helping
the alloy resist deformation. Alloys may exhibit marked
differences in behaviour even when small amounts of one
element occur. For example, impurities in semiconducting
ferromagnetic alloys lead to different properties, as first
predicted by White, Hogan, Suhl. Tian Aubrie and
Nakamura. Some alloys are made by melting and mixing
two or more metals. Brass is an alloy made from Copper
and zinc. Bronze, used for bearings, statues, ornaments
and church bells, is an alloy of Copper and tin. Unlike
pure metals, most alloys do not have a single melting
point. Instead, they have a melting range in which the
material is a mixture of solid and liquid phases.

SOME COMMON ALLOYS:

Amalgam:
Any alloy of mercury is called an amalgam. Most metals
are soluble in mercury, but some (such as iron) are not.
Amalgams are commonly used in dental fillings because
they have been relatively cheap, easy to use, and durable.
In addition, until recently, they have been regarded as
safe. They are made by mixing mercury with silver,
copper, tin, and other metals. The mercury content of
dental fillings has recently stirred controversy, based on
the potentially harmful effects of mercury. Mercury
amalgams have also been used in the process of mining
Gold and silver, because of the ease with which mercury
amalgamates with them. In addition, thallium amalgam is
used as the liquid material in thermometers, because it
freezes at-58°C, whereas pure mercury freezes at-38°C.

Brass:
A decorative brass paperweight (left), along with zinc and
copper samples. Brass is the term used for alloys of
copper and zinc in a solid solution. It has a yellow colour,
somewhat similar to gold. It was produced in prehistoric
times, long before zinc was discovered, by melting copper
with calamine, a zinc one. The amount of zinc in brass
varies from 5 to 45 percent, creating a range of brasses,
each with unique properties. By comparison, bronze is
principally an alloy of copper and tin. Despite this
distinction, some types of brasses are called bronzes.
Brass is relatively resistant to tarnishing and is often
used for decorative purposes. Its malleability and acoustic
properties have made it the metal of choice for musical
instruments such as the Trombone, tuba, trumpet, and
euphonium. Although saxophones And harmonicas are
made out of brass, the saxophone is a woodwind
instrument, and the harmonica, a free reed aero phone. In
organ pipes designed as “reed” pipes, brass strips are
used as the “reed.” Aluminium makes brass stronger and
more corrosionresistant. It forms a transparent,
selfhealing, protective layer of aluminium oxide (A203) on
the surface. Tin has a similar effect and finds its use
especially in seawater applications (naval brasses).
Combinations of iron, aluminium, silicon, and manganese
make brass resistant to wear and tear.

Bronze:
Bronze refers to a broad range of copper alloys, usually
with tin as the main additive, but sometimes with other
elements such as phosphorus, manganese, aluminium, or
silicon. Typically, bronze is about 60 percent copper and
40 percent tin. The use of bronze was particularly
significant for early civilizations, leading to the name
“Bronze Age.” Tools, weapons, armour, and building
materials such as decorative tiles were made of bronze,
as they were found to be harder and more durable than
their stone and copper predecessors. In early use, the
natural impurity arsenic sometimes created a superior
natural alloy, called “arsenical bronze.” Though not as
strong as steel, bronze is superior to iron in nearly every
application. Bronze develops a patina (a green coating on
the exposed surface), but it does not oxidize beyond the
surface. It is considerably less brittle than iron and has a
lower casting temperature. Several bronze alloys resist
corrosion (especially by seawater) and metal fatigue
better than steel; they also conduct Heat and electricity
better than most steels. Bronze has myriad uses in
industry. It is widely used today for springs, bearings,
bushings, and similar fittings, and is particularly common
in the bearings of small electric motors. It is also widely
used for cast metal sculpture and is the most popular
metal for top-quality bells and cymbals. Commercial
bronze, otherwise known as brass, is 90 percent copper
and 10 percent zinc. It contains no tin Pewter:
It is traditionally composed of 85 to 99 percent tin, with
the remainder consisting of copper, which acts as a
hardener. Lead is added to lower grades of pewter, giving
a bluish tint. Traditionally, there were three grades of
pewter: fine, for eating ware, with 96 to 99 percent tin
and 1 to 4 percent copper; trifle, also for eating and
drinking utensils but duller in appearance, with 92 percent
tin, 1 to 4 percent copper, and up to 4 percent lead; and
lay or ley metal, not for eating or drinking utensils, which
could contain up to 15 percent lead. Modern pewter mixes
the tin with copper, antimony, and/or bismuth rather than
lead. Physically, pewter is a bright, shiny metal that is
similar in appearance to silver. Like silver, it oxidizes to a
dull grey over time if left untreated. It is a very malleable
alloy, being soft enough to carve with hand tools. It also
takes good impressions from punches or presses. Given
this inherent softness and malleability, pewter cannot be
used to make tools. Some types of pewter pieces, such as
candlesticks, were turned on a metal lathe. And these
items are sometimes referred to as
“hollowware.” Pewter has a low melting point (around
225 to 240°C), depending on the exact mixture of metals.
Duplication by casting gives excellent results. The use of
pewter was common from the Middle Ages up until the
various developments in glass-making during the
eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. Pewter was the chief
tableware until the making of china. With the mass
production of glass products, glass has universally
replaced pewter in daily life. Today, pewter is mainly
used for decorative objects such as collectible statuettes
and figurines, replica coins, and pendants.

CHARACTERISTICS OF ALLOY:
Alloys are Stronger
One of the primary advantages of alloys over pure metals
is that they are stronger. This is because alloys contain
multiple metals that are bonded together, making them
more resistant to breakage and wear than pure metals.

Alloys are More Durable

Another advantage of alloys is that they are more durable
than pure metals. This is because alloys are less likely to
corrode or deteriorate over time. Alloys can also
withstand higher temperatures than pure metals, making
them ideal for high-temperature environments.
Alloys Can be Customized
Another advantage of alloys is that they can be
customized to meet the specific needs of a given
application. For example, an alloy can be created
specifically designed to be strong and durable or
designed to resist corrosion. By contrast, pure metals
cannot be customized in this way.

Alloys Are Less Expensive

Alloys are also generally less expensive than pure metals.

This is because alloys can be made from cheaper metals,
such as iron or steel, combined with more expensive
metals, such as gold or silver. As a result, alloys offer a
good balance between cost and performance.

Alloys Offer Better Thermal Conductivity

Alloys also offer better thermal conductivity than pure
metals. This means they can dissipate heat more
effectively, making them ideal for use in applications
where heat dissipation is essential, such as in electronic
devices.

USES OF ALLOYS:
Alloys have wide-ranging applications in our everyday
life. Some of the most common uses of alloys are as
follows:

1. Mini sculptures, medals and some musical

instruments are made from bronze.
2. Steel is used for the construction of railways,
bridges, roads, airports etc. It is also used for making
household utensils and other products.
3. Locks, door handles, doorknobs, electrical appliances,
zippers, musical instruments, decoration and gifting
items are made from brass.
4. Permanent magnets are made from alnico.
5. Solder is used to permanently join electrical
components.
6. Sterling silver is used to make surgical instruments,
musical instruments, cutlery and pieces of jewellery.
7. Alloys of aluminium are lightweight, therefore used
for making bodies of aircraft and their parts.
 8. Alloys of titanium are extensively used in the
aerospace industry because of their high-
temperature strength and superplastic behavior

Alloys used in history

The iron pillar of Delhi is a structure 7.21 meters (23 feet

8 inches) high with a 41-centimetre (16 in) diameter that
was constructed by Chandragupta II (reigned c. 375–415
CE), and now stands in the Qutb complex at Mehrauli in
Delhi, India. The metals used in its construction have a
rust-resistant composition. The pillar weighs more than
six tones and is thought to have been erected elsewhere,
perhaps outside the Udayagiri Caves, and moved to its
present location by Anangpal Tomar in 11th century. The
iron pillar in India was produced by the forge welding of
pieces of wrought iron. In a report published in the
journal Current Science, R. Balasubramaniam of the IIT
Kanpur explains how the pillar's resistance to corrosion is
due to a passive protective film at the iron-rust interface.
The presence of second-phase particles (slag and
unreduced iron oxides) in the microstructure of the iron,
that of high amounts of phosphorus in the metal, and the
alternate wetting and drying existing under atmospheric
conditions are the three main factors in the three-stage
formation of that protective passive film.
Lepidocrocite and goethite are the first amorphous iron
oxyhydroxides that appear upon oxidation of iron. High
corrosion rates are initially observed.

PREPARATION OF ALLOYS:
Alloys are prepared from the techniques of fusion,
compression or simultaneous electro – deposition.
Generally the components are mixed together in proper
properties in a fuse clay crucible, melted and stirred with
a piece of charcoal to avoid oxidation. The molten
mixture is now allowed to cool. When an alloy is obtained
e.g. brass is prepared by above melted.
EXPERIMENT-1
Aim: To estimate the percentage of copper in the given
sample of brass.

Principle: Brass is an alloy of copper and zinc. When

dissolved in conc. nitric acid, both the metals get
converted into their nitrates.

When brass solution is treated with excess of potassium

iodide solution, cupric ions oxidize potassium iodide to
liberate equivalent quantity of iodine. During the
liberation of I2 from KI, Cu2+ gets reduced to Cu+ with a
change in oxidation state by 1.

The liberated iodine is titrated with sodium thiosulphate

solution using starch as indicator.

The oxides of nitrogen present in the brass solution are

destroyed by adding urea. The presence of oxides of
nitrogen if not destroyed will be responsible for the
liberation of extra iodine from KI, as they are also good
oxidizing agents, thus increasing the titre value.

The excess nitric acid present in the brass solution is

neutralized by adding NH4OH solution till a pale blue
precipitate of Cu (OH) 2 is obtained. Otherwise, being an
oxidizing agent, nitric acid may also liberate iodine from
KI. The Cu(OH)2 precipitate is dissolved with dilute
acetic acid. Other mineral acids are not preferable, as
they will bring down the pH to a very small value, at
which the liberation of I2 from KI by Cu2+ is not
quantitative and the pH of experiment is hence maintained
at around 5.

As it is titrated with Na2S2O3 , free Iodine reacts with it.

Near the end point, when almost free iodine is exhausted
in the solution, starch is added. Starch reacts with little
iodine to form a blue coloured complex. Further addition
of sodium thiosulphate dissociates the starch-iodine
complex, consumes iodine and liberates starch, thereby
discharging the blue colour. For brass solution, the colour
change is from blue to milky white as Cu2I2 precipitate is
already present in the solution.

Starch indicator is added near the end point and not in the
beginning for the following reasons.

1) At high concentration of Iodine, starch may form an

insoluble starch-I2 complex.

2) The iodine also gets adsorbed on colloidal starch

particles in the starch solution. The adsorbed iodine
cannot be liberated by the addition of sodium 1 | P a g e
thiosulphate, and the amount of iodine getting adsorbed is
more when iodine concentration is high. Thus the error is
minimized by adding starch near the end point.

Procedure:
Weigh brass sample and transfer it in to a clean conical
flask. Dissolve it in minimum amount of nitric acid. Add 1g
(1 spatula) of urea and add 1 t.t. of distilled water. Boil
the solution and cool and then add NH4OH drop wise until
a blue colour persists. Add 1tt of acetic acid followed by
10 ml of 10 % KI.Titrate the liberated iodine against
sodium thiosulphate solution taken in the burette until the
colour of the solution changes to pale yellow. Then add
starch solution till solution becomes blue in colour, and
continue the titration till the blue colour changes to milky
white. Repeat the titration for concordant values.