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CYBERBULLYING AMONG SECONDARY SCHOOL STUDENTS

IN HONG KONG

Article in The Hong Kong Journal of Social Work · January 2018

DOI: 10.1142/S0219246218000050

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 The Hong Kong Journal of Social Work
Vol. 52, No. 1/2 (Summer/Winter 2018) 49– 62
© World Scientific Publishing Company
Hong Kong Social Workers Association
DOI: 10.1142/S0219246218000050
by CHINESE UNIVERSITY OF HONG KONG on 01/23/19. Re-use and distribution is strictly not permitted, except for Open Access articles.

CYBERBULLYING AMONG SECONDARY SCHOOL STUDENTS

IN HONG KONG

JI-KANG CHEN
Hong Kong J. Social Work 2018.52:49-62. Downloaded from www.worldscientific.com

Associate Professor
Department of Social Work
Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong
jkchen@swk.cuhk.edu.hk

Abstract: Using a large-scale dataset from Hong Kong, this study describes the prevalence
of cyberbullying and examines how gender and grade level relate to cyberbullying among
secondary school students in Hong Kong. Participants were 1,855 students from secondary
schools (Forms 1 to 7). Students were given an anonymous questionnaire that included a
scale for reporting their experiences of cyberbullying. Responses indicated that 17.8% of
students reported cyberbullying and 30.9% experienced at least one type of cyberbullying
in the past three months. Curses, insults, and humiliation were the most common types of
cyberbullying. Males reported higher rates of bullying and victimization than did females.
The overall rates of bullying and victimization peaked in Forms 2 or 3 and in Form 6.
Cyberbullying among secondary students in Hong Kong is a serious problem that needs
immediate attention. Potential intervention programs should target males and students
in Forms 2, 3, and 6. Programs should mainly aim to reduce online curses, insults, and
humiliation by students.

Keywords: Cyberbullying, bullying, Internet, violence, Hong Kong, China, Chinese

Introduction
Cyberbullying has been recognized as one type of violence affecting adolescent
psychological well-being (Goebert, Else, Matsu, Chung-Do, & Chang, 2011;
O’Higgins-Norman & Connolly, 2011; O’Higgins-Norman & Ging, 2014; Smith,
Mahdavi, Carvalho, Fisher, Russell, & Tippett, 2008). Previous international studies
suggested that secondary school students are more vulnerable to cyberbullying than
elementary school or university students (e.g., Smith et al., 2008). These studies
also indicated the importance of investigating the prevalence of cyberbullying
by gender and grade level among secondary school students when designing
policies for tackling cyberbullying (e.g., Smith et al., 2008). There have been

49
 50 Ji-Kang Chen

few research studies of cyberbullying among secondary school students in Hong

Kong and most of the studies that have investigated this population have focused
on examining risk factors and outcomes of cyberbullying among secondary school
by CHINESE UNIVERSITY OF HONG KONG on 01/23/19. Re-use and distribution is strictly not permitted, except for Open Access articles.

students in junior years (Forms 1 to 3) (e.g., Chan & Wong, 2015, 2016, 2017;
Wong, Chan & Cheng, 2014). Empirical studies determining the prevalence and
nature of cyberbullying among secondary school students have been limited (e.g.,
Chan & Wong, 2015, 2016, 2017; Wong, Chan & Cheng, 2014). As a result, we
have limited knowledge about how gender and grade level are associated with
cyberbullying among secondary school students in Hong Kong.
Hong Kong J. Social Work 2018.52:49-62. Downloaded from www.worldscientific.com

This study uses a large-scale dataset from Hong Kong to explore

comprehensively the nature of cyberbullying among secondary school students.
The main goals of this study are (a) to describe the prevalence of specific
forms of cyberbullying and (b) to examine how student demographic variables
(gender and grade level) relate to cyberbullying. It is expected that the findings
of this study will provide additional information for school social workers and
policy makers to develop sound programs aimed at preventing and managing
cyberbullying among secondary school students in Hong Kong.
The term “cyberbullying” is used here to refer to a student’s intention to harm
or harass other students through online short message services using the Internet
and electronic devices (Strom & Strom, 2005; Kiriakidis & Kavoura, 2010).
The definition includes cursing, insulting, humiliating, threatening, intimidating,
making unwanted sexual remarks, posting private pictures, spreading rumors,
and spreading a computer virus (Kiriakidis & Kavoura, 2010).

Literature Review

Prevalence. Although reports on the rates of cyberbullying in Western countries

vary, they generally have shown rates of perpetration from 15% to 35.7% and
victimization from 7% to 49.5% (Aricak, Siyahhan, Uzunhasanoglu, Saribeyoglu,
Ciplak, Yilmaz, & Memmedov, 2008; Dehue, Bolman, & Vollink, 2008; Li,
2006; 2007; Mishna, Cook, Gadalla, Daciuk, & Solomon, 2010; O’Moore, 2012;
Wolak, Mitchell, & Finkelhor, 2007; Ybarra & Mitchell, 2004). A few studies
of cyberbullying in Northern European countries have reported lower rates, such
as the 4.8% to 7.4% reported in Finland (Sourander, Klomek, Ikonen, Lindroos,
Luntamo, Koskelainen, Ristkari, & Helenius, 2010).
It has been argued that cyberbullying among secondary school students in
Hong Kong might not be as serious as in Western countries because Chinese
students possess certain characteristics, such as a higher level of moral behavior,
more perceived academic stress, and more parental involvement and monitoring,
 Cyberbullying in Hong Kong 51

that might make cyberbullying less likely (Huang & Chou, 2010; Jackson, Zhao,
Qiu, Kolenic, Fitzgerald, Harold, & Von Eye, 2008; Ybarra & Mitchell, 2004).
However, student cyberbullying is serious because some reports have suggested
by CHINESE UNIVERSITY OF HONG KONG on 01/23/19. Re-use and distribution is strictly not permitted, except for Open Access articles.

that secondary school students spend more time on the Internet, which may
increase the risk of cyberbullying among secondary school students in Hong
Kong (Hong Kong Internet Project, 2009).
A comprehensive summary of cyberbullying among secondary students in
Hong Kong is needed. There are a few studies that looked at the prevalence of
cyberbullying among secondary school students in their junior years in Hong
Hong Kong J. Social Work 2018.52:49-62. Downloaded from www.worldscientific.com

Kong (e.g., Chan & Wong, 2015, 2016, 2017; Wong, Chan & Cheng, 2014). For
example, Wong et al. (2014) reported that 31% of secondary school students aged
12 to 15 perpetrated cyberbullying and 23% of students experienced victimization
in the surveyed year. The overall rates of cyberbullying among all secondary
school students in Hong Kong are still unknown.
Gender. There has been a theoretical debate about how gender is associated
with cyberbullying. Male students are believed to be more likely than females to
be perpetrators and victims of cyberbullying because the international literature
has consistently reported that males are more aggressive and vulnerable to
violence (Chen & Astor, 2009a, 2009b; Chen & Wei, 2011). Furthermore,
previous studies have indicated that the time and frequency of use of computers
and the Internet is higher among male students and that male students have a
lower level of moral behavior and standards in the virtual world, accept more
morally questionable online behavior, and are more likely to lack empathy (Aricak
et al., 2008; Jackson et al., 2008; Mesch, 2009; Steffgen, Konig, Pfetsch, &
Melzer, 2011; Topcu, Erdur-Baker, & Capa-Aydin, 2008; Williams & Guerra,
2007), traits which have been recognized as increasing the risk of perpetration
and victimization of cyberbullying.
However, some researchers have argued that females are more likely to be
perpetrators and victims because cyberbullying has been perceived more as a
social or relational form of violence and females are more familiar with this type
of violence (Kiriakidis & Kavoura, 2010; Kowalski & Limber, 2007; Mason,
2008). Others have argued that there is no gender difference in the prevalence of
cyberbullying because anonymity and the lack of face-to-face contact eliminate or
reduce inhibitions, decrease the power imbalance between genders, and increase
the frequency of perpetration and victimization in both genders (Bauman, 2010;
Mishna et al., 2010; Slonje & Smith, 2008; Topcu et al., 2008).
The empirical evidence on the difference in the prevalence of cyberbullying
between genders in Western countries is mixed. Some studies have found that
the prevalence of perpetration and victimization are higher for male students;
 52 Ji-Kang Chen

some have shown that males perpetrate more but experience less victimization;
some have shown that males perpetrate more but that there are similar rates of
victimization between genders; some have found no difference between genders
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in perpetration and victimization; some have shown no gender differences in

perpetration but higher female victimization rates; and some have indicated
that females perpetrate more (Aricak et al., 2008; Dehue et al., 2008; Hunag
& Chou, 2010; Juvonen & Gross, 2008; Kowalski & Limber, 2007; Li, 2006,
2007; Sourander et al., 2010).
Few empirical studies have been conducted in Hong Kong to explore gender
Hong Kong J. Social Work 2018.52:49-62. Downloaded from www.worldscientific.com

differences in cyberbullying (e.g., Chan & Wong, 2015, 2016, 2017; Wong,
Chan & Cheng, 2014; Wong, Cheung & Xiao, 2018). The studies that have
been done have shown consistently that males are more likely to engage in and
experience cyberbullying. However, most of these studies were conducted among
junior secondary school students or in small samples of university students (e.g.,
Chan & Wong, 2015, 2016, 2017; Wong, Chan & Cheng, 2014; Wong, Cheung
& Xiao, 2018). We still need more evidence to understand how these findings
relate to students in secondary schools (Forms 1 to 7) in Hong Kong.
Grade level/age. Some studies have suggested that younger students are too
immature to handle conflict in cyber space and therefore are more likely to be
cyberbullies and victims (Dehue et al., 2008; Sourander et al., 2010). Others have
suggested that the prevalence of cyberbullying increases with grade level because
the time and frequency of use of computers and the Internet increase with age
(Bauman, 2010; Kowalski & Limber, 2007; Sourander et al., 2010; Ybarra &
Mitchell, 2004). A few studies have found that the prevalence of cyberbullying
peaks in middle school and declines in high school (Williams & Guerra, 2007).
Other empirical studies have even suggested that relationships between grade level
(or age) and the prevalence of cyberbullying are weak or even non-significant
(Bauman, 2010; Juvonen & Gross, 2008; Slonje & Smith, 2008).
Empirical evidence on the association between age and cyberbullying in Western
countries is mixed. Some studies have found that the prevalence of perpetration
and victimization of cyberbullying is higher for younger students; some have
shown that perpetration is higher for older children and victimization is higher
for younger children; some have suggested that perpetration and victimization
are higher for older students; and some have found no relationship between
age and prevalence (Dehue et al., 2008; Juvonen & Gross, 2008; Kowalski &
Limber, 2007; Slonje & Smith, 2008; Sourander et al., 2010).
In Hong Kong, there is little empirical evidence showing how gender and
grade level relate to cyberbullying among secondary students (e.g., Chan & Wong,
2015, 2016, 2017; Wong, Chan & Cheng, 2014). This study uses a large-scale
 Cyberbullying in Hong Kong 53

dataset from Hong Kong to explore the nature of cyberbullying. The prevalence
of each form of cyberbullying is examined and compared across gender and
grade level (grades 7–13). This report expands our knowledge of cyberbullying
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and provides additional empirical information to guide further policies on this

issue in Hong Kong.

Methods
The data used in this study were taken from a research project conducted by the
Hong Kong J. Social Work 2018.52:49-62. Downloaded from www.worldscientific.com

author in 2010. The survey was a collaboration with a social welfare organization
engaged in providing diverse social services to people in Hong Kong. This social
welfare organization includes a large-scale professional team providing school
social work services to secondary schools in Hong Kong.
The participants were randomly selected from school lists provided by the
school social work team in this social welfare organization. The probability
sampling method was a two-stage cluster sample. The strata were three regions of
Hong Kong (Hong Kong Island, Kowloon, and New Territories) and school bands.
In the first stage, schools were randomly selected according to the appropriate
strata. In the next stage, classes were randomly selected in each grade in the
selected schools. All students in the selected class were included in the sample.
Students responded to a questionnaire in the classroom under the guidance of
professionally trained survey monitors or school social workers. The questionnaire
included over 80 items regarding the students’ basic demographic background
and their personal, school, and cyber experiences. The scales in this questionnaire
were derived from Western literature and translated version of these scales were
validated in Taiwan and Hong Kong. Each questionnaire took approximately 30
minutes to complete. Informed consent was obtained from the students and their
parents, school teachers, and principals; an explanation of the purposes of this
study, assurances of anonymity and confidentiality, and an acknowledgement of
the freedom to withdraw from the study at any time and for any reason were
given. Before the main survey was conducted, a pilot study was conducted in a
middle school in Hong Kong to further confirm the validity of the scales used
in this questionnaire. This study was supported by a Direct Grant of the Chinese
University of Hong Kong (CUHK). The questionnaires, procedures, informed
consent forms, and ethical issues were reviewed and supervised by CUHK. The
present study received ethical approval from the Survey and Behavioral Research
Ethics Committee at CUHK before the pilot study was conducted.
This study surveyed 1,855 students from eight secondary schools in grades
7 through 13. About half of the students were boys (46.0%), 53.6% were girls,
 54 Ji-Kang Chen

and 0.2% did not indicate gender. The grade level distribution was 15.5% in
Form 1, 16.2% in Form 2, 15.6% in Form 3, 13.9% in Form 4, 16.4% in Form
5, 12.6% in Form 6, and 9.5% in Form 7. About 0.3% of students did not
by CHINESE UNIVERSITY OF HONG KONG on 01/23/19. Re-use and distribution is strictly not permitted, except for Open Access articles.

indicate their grade level.

Measurement

Perpetration of cyberbullying (α= .89). Students were asked how many times
in the past three months they had engaged in various cyberbullying behaviors
Hong Kong J. Social Work 2018.52:49-62. Downloaded from www.worldscientific.com

through online short message services via the Internet and electronic devices
(e.g., emails, blogs, Messenger, Facebook, or forums). Students could check
one of five categories: never, one or two times, three or four times, five or six
times, or more than seven times. Cyberbullying items included cursing/insulting/
humiliating, threatening/intimidating, posting or sending private/embarrassing
pictures without consent, making unwanted sexual remarks, spreading rumors,
and spreading a computer virus. Responses were then recoded into “never” and
“at least once.”
Victimization of cyberbullying (α= .83). Students were also asked how many
times in the previous three months they had experienced various forms of
cyberbullying through online short message services via the Internet and electronic
devices (e.g., emails, blogs, Messenger, Facebook, or forums). Students could
check one of five categories: never, one or two times, three or four times, five
or six times, or more than seven times. Victimization of cyberbullying included
being cursed/insulted/humiliated, being threatened/intimidated, having private/
embarrassing pictures posted without consent, receiving unwanted sexual remarks,
having rumors spread, and receiving a computer virus. Answers were then recoded
into “never” and “at least once.”
Gender. Students were asked to indicate whether they were male or female.
Grade level. Student grade level was self-reported, ranging from Form 1 to
Form 7. This was double-checked by the proctor of the tests because the proctor
surveyed students in the same grade at each test sitting.

Results
Table 1 presents the prevalence of the perpetration of cyberbullying by gender.
Overall, 17.8% of students in this sample reported perpetrating at least one act
of cyberbullying in the last three months. Cursing, insulting, or humiliating were
the most common forms of cyberbullying (43.8%). Other common types were
posting or sending private pictures (5.5%), making unwanted sexual remarks
 Cyberbullying in Hong Kong 55

(4.4%), spreading rumors (4.4%), and threatening or intimidating (4.1%). Spreading

a computer virus was the least common type of perpetration.
In addition, 30.9% of students reported experiencing at least one type of
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cyber victimization in the past three months. Table 2 shows the percentage of
victimization by gender. Being cursed, insulted, or humiliated were the most
common types (18.7%). Other common experiences were having rumors spread
(9.9%), having private pictures shared without consent (9.2%), and receiving a
computer virus (8.0%). Unwanted sexual remarks, jokes, or comments (7.5%)
and being threatened or intimidated (6.2%) were the least common types of
Hong Kong J. Social Work 2018.52:49-62. Downloaded from www.worldscientific.com

cyber victimization.

Table 1. Prevalence of perpetration of cyberbullying and gender comparison

Types of cyberbullying Overall Male Female λ2

Overall 17.8 23.6 12.3 34.3**
Cursing, insulting, or humiliating 13.5 19.4 8.2 43.7**
Posting or sending private/embarrassing pictures 5.5 7.3 3.8 9.7**
Making unwanted sexual remarks, jokes, or comments 4.4 7.7 1.5 35.7**
Gossip or spreading rumors 4.4 7.0 2.0 24.2**
Threatening or intimidating 4.1 7.0 1.4 32.4**
Spreading computer virus 2.9 4.8 1.2 18.8**

Notes: Comparisons are for male and female students.

*p<.01, **p<.001

Table 2. Prevalence of victimization of cyberbullying and gender comparison

Types of victimization Overall Male Female λ2

Overall 30.9 35.3 26.7 13.8**
Being cursed, insulted, or humiliated 18.7 24.1 13.8 28.1**
Having rumors spread 9.9 13.5 6.6 21.2**
Private/embarrassing pictures posted or sent 9.2 11.4 7.2 8.4*
Computer virus spread 8.0 10.4 5.7 12.6**
Unwanted sexual remarks, jokes, or comments 7.5 8.9 6.0 4.8*
Being threatened or intimidated 6.2 8.5 4.0 14.0**

Notes: Comparisons are for male and female students.

*p<.01, **p<.001
 56 Ji-Kang Chen

Gender

Approximately 23.6% of males and 12.3% of females reported perpetrating at

by CHINESE UNIVERSITY OF HONG KONG on 01/23/19. Re-use and distribution is strictly not permitted, except for Open Access articles.

least one type of cyberbullying (see Table 1). Boys reported higher rates of each
form of perpetration than did girls (from 4.8% to 19.4% for boys; from 1.2% to
8.2% for girls). For example, almost one-fifth (19.4%) of boys reported cursing,
insulting, or humiliating others through cyber space, whereas only 8.2% of girls
reported doing so. Gender differences were found overall and for each form of
perpetration (overall: λ2 =34.3, p<.001; for cursing, insulting, or humiliating: λ2
Hong Kong J. Social Work 2018.52:49-62. Downloaded from www.worldscientific.com

=43.7, p<.001; for sending private pictures: λ2 =9.7, p<.001; for sexual remarks:
λ2 =35.7, p<.001; for spreading rumors: λ2 =24.2, p<.001; for threatening or
intimidating: λ2 =32.4, p<.001; for spreading a virus: λ2 =18.8, p<.001). These
results suggest that male students are more likely to cyberbully than female
students in Hong Kong.
Overall, male students (35.3%) reported higher rates of cyber victimization
than females did (26.7%). In addition, male students reported higher rates for
each type of cyber victimization (from 8.5% to 24.1% for boys; from 4.0% to
13.8% for girls). For example, almost a quarter (24.1%) of boys reported being
cursed, insulted, or humiliated in cyber space, whereas only 13.8% of girls
reported experiencing these things. Gender differences were found overall and
for each form of cyber victimization (for overall: λ2 =21.2, p<.001; for cursing,
insulting or humiliating: λ2 =28.1, p<.001; for spreading rumors: λ2 =24.2, p<.001;
for sending private pictures: λ2 =8.4, p<.01; for spreading virus: λ2 =12.6, p<.001;
for sexual remarks: λ2 =4.8, p<.01; for threatening or intimidating: λ2 =14.0,
p<.001). These results suggest that there are different rates of cyber victimization
between genders.

Grade levels

Figure 1 presents the rates of perpetration and of victimization by grade level.

Overall, the rates of victimization increased after Form 1 (30.7%), peaked in
Form 2 (36.2%), and gradually declined between Form 3 (32.4%) and Form 4
(27.0%). However, the rates increased after Form 4, peaked again in Form 6
(31.9%), and then declined between Form 6 and Form 7 (23.7%).
A similar trend was found in rates of perpetration. The rates of perpetration
increased between Form 1 (16.6%) and Form 3 (20.7%). There was a slight
decrease between Form 3 and Form 4 (17.2%) but an increase between Form 4
and Form 6 (20.3%). The rates declined in Form 7 (10.5%).
 Cyberbullying in Hong Kong 57

Figure 1. Distribution of percentage of perpetration and victimization of cyberbullying

among Hong Kong secondary students by grade levels
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40

30

20
Hong Kong J. Social Work 2018.52:49-62. Downloaded from www.worldscientific.com

10

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Perpetration Victimization

Discussion
This study uses a large-scale sample to provide empirical evidence of the scope
of cyberbullying among secondary school students in Hong Kong. The sample
included students from Forms 1 to 7 in Hong Kong secondary schools. Students’
reports of cyberbullying were examined by gender and grade level. The study
provides quantitative information about students’ self-reported different types
of cyberbullying.
Overall, the results of this study show that 17.8% of Hong Kong secondary
school students reported cyberbullying others and 30.9% reported being
cyberbullied in the past three months. The results concur with a study conducted
in another Chinese society (Taiwan), which suggested that 20.4% of students
had been cyberbullied and 34.9% had cyberbullied others (Huang & Chou,
2010). The results indicate that the overall rates are generally in the range of
prevalence reported in most Western countries, which range from 15% to 35.7%
for perpetration and from 7% to 49.5% for cyber victimization (Aricak et al.,
2008; Mishna et al., 2010; Ybarra & Mitchell, 2004). Although the methodologies,
sampling strategies, and definition of cyberbullying differ between previous
studies and the present one, there is undoubtedly a high rate of cyberbullying
among secondary school students in Hong Kong. The findings do not support
 58 Ji-Kang Chen

theories asserting that certain characteristics of Chinese students, such as a higher

level of moral behavior and more parental attention to academic work, lead to
a lower prevalence of cyberbullying than in Western cultures (Huang & Chou,
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2010; Jackson et al., 2008; Ybarra & Mitchell, 2004).

This study indicates that cursing, insulting, and humiliating are the most
common types of cyberbullying among secondary school students in Hong
Kong. Sending private/embarrassing pictures, making unwanted sexual remarks
or comments, spreading rumors, and threatening or intimidating others are
relatively less common. The least common type of cyberbullying is intentionally
Hong Kong J. Social Work 2018.52:49-62. Downloaded from www.worldscientific.com

spreading a computer virus to others. For victimization, being cursed, insulted,

and humiliated are the most common type. Fewer students (but still a significant
number) reported having rumors spread about them, having private pictures
distributed without consent, and receiving a computer virus or unwanted sexual
remarks. Students had the least experience of being threatened and intimidated
in cyber space. These findings are consistent with studies in Western countries,
which have shown that curses, insults, or humiliation are the most common type
of violence in cyber space (Aricak et al., 2008; Juvonen & Gross, 2008; Mishna
et al., 2010; Sourander et al., 2011; Topcu et al., 2008).
The prevalence of perpetration and victimization consistently increased
after Form 1, peaked in Form 2 or Form 3 and again in Form 6, followed by
a sharp decline. These results conflict with studies that found weak or even
non-significant relationships between grade level (or age) and the prevalence of
cyberbullying (Bauman, 2010; Juvonen & Gross, 2008; Slonje & Smith, 2008).
The findings imply that grade level may play an important role in the prevalence
of cyberbullying. The results of this study are also not consistent with previous
studies that found that younger students tend to be cyberbullies and victims,
nor with studies that found more incidents of cyberbully among older students
(Dehue et al., 2008; Kowalski & Limber, 2007; Sourander et al., 2010).
The results of this study suggest grade level patterns between perpetration
and victimization of cyberbullying among secondary students in Hong Kong
are similar, with both showing two peaking point. The results do not support
the proposition that the developmental patterns of cyberbullying mirror those
in school violence or traditional bullying, which show peaking during early
adolescence (around Forms 1 to 3) followed by a continuous decrease (Chen
& Astor, 2009a, 2009b; Williams & Guerra, 2007). These findings imply that
the developmental patterns of cyberbullying, school violence, and traditional
bullying might be different.
 Cyberbullying in Hong Kong 59

Males reported higher rates of cyberbullying than female students did. This is
consistent with previous studies that found that males are more aggressive and
vulnerable to cyberbullying, school violence, and traditional bullying (Aricak et
by CHINESE UNIVERSITY OF HONG KONG on 01/23/19. Re-use and distribution is strictly not permitted, except for Open Access articles.

al., 2008; Chen & Astor, 2009a, 2009b; Huang & Chou, 2010; Chan & Wong,
2015, 2016, 2017; Wong, Chan & Cheng, 2014; Wong, Cheung & Xiao, 2018).
The results do not support the argument that cyberbullying is more like a social
form of violence and more prevalent among females, or theories that anonymity
in cyber space makes gender differences insignificant (Bauman, 2010; Juvonen
& Gross, 2008; Kiriakidis, & Kavoura, 2010; Kowalski & Limber, 2007; Mishna
Hong Kong J. Social Work 2018.52:49-62. Downloaded from www.worldscientific.com

et al., 2010; Slonje & Smith, 2008; Topcu et al., 2008; Williams & Guerra,
2007; Ybarra & Mitchell, 2004). Although cyberbullying has been considered
a special form of violence because it takes place in anonymous cyber space, it
is like traditional types of violence among adolescents in that male students are
more aggressive and vulnerable.
There are several limitations of this study. First, the survey was cross-sectional.
Therefore, one cannot establish a cause-effect relationship or chart the student
developmental progression of cyberbullying. To comprehensively understand the
scope of development progression, future research should use a longitudinal study.
Second, the self-reporting nature of the data may have resulted in under-reporting
or over-reporting of cyberbullying (Chen & Astor, 2009a). Future researchers will
benefit from collecting data from multiple sources, such as from online users. In
addition, this study mainly focuses on secondary school students in Hong Kong.
Caution must be taken in generalizing the results to students in other schools,
such as elementary schools.
This study provides evidence that cyberbullying in Hong Kong is a serious
problem that calls for the immediate attention of educators, educational
psychologists, and social workers. Currently, there are few intervention programs
in Hong Kong and few studies of potential interventions for cyberbullying in
Hong Kong. The Retroactive Whole School Approach has been suggested as a
potentially effective program for tackling cyberbullying (Chan & Wong, 2015,
2016; Wong, Chan & Cheng, 2014). Another intervention program which might
be effective was designed to reduce cyberbullying by changing student attitudes
about cyberbullying behavior and increasing their awareness of cyberbullying
(Leung, Fung & Farver, 2017). Based on this study, intervention programs should
consider targeting males and students in Forms 2, 3, and 6 and focus on tackling
cursing, insulting, and humiliating behavior among secondary school students to
achieve maximum effectiveness.
 60 Ji-Kang Chen

Acknowledgement
This study was supported by the Direct Grant, The Chinese University of Hong
by CHINESE UNIVERSITY OF HONG KONG on 01/23/19. Re-use and distribution is strictly not permitted, except for Open Access articles.

Kong, Hong Kong (Project Number: 2020980).

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Memmedov, C. (2008). Cyberbullying among Turkish adolescents. Cyberpsychology
& Behavior, 11(3), 253–261.
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