AIRCRAFT DESIGN PROJECT - II

100 SEATED PASSENGER AIRCRAFT

A PROJECT REPORT

Submitted by,
BALASASTHA P (721419101015)
BALAGANESAN M (721419101012)
ADNAN KHAN M (721419101003)
MANIVASAGAM R (721419101042)
in partial fulfillment for the award of the degree

of

BACHELOR OF ENGINEERING
in

AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING

NEHRU INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY,

THIRUMALAYAMPALAYAM

ANNA UNIVERSITY: CHENNAI 600 025

DECEMBER 2022
 BONAFIDE CERTIFICATE

Certified that this project report “100 SEATED PASSENGER AIRCRAFT” is

the bonafide work of BALASASTHA P (721419101015), BALAGANESAN M

(721419101012) and ADNAN KHAN M (721419101003) and

MANIVASAGAM (721419101042) who carried out the project work under my

supervision.

SIGNATURE SIGNATURE

Dr.B.R. SENTHIL KUMAR, Mr. J. KARTHIKEYAN,

HEAD OF THE DEPARTMAENT

Professor Assitant Professor (SG)

Aeronautical Engineering Aeronautical Engineering

Nehru Institute of Engineering & Nehru Institute of Engineering &

Technology, Technology,

Coimbatore – 641 105 Coimbatore – 641 105

Internal Examiner External Examiner

 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We owe a debt of gratitude to Mr. B.R. SENTHIL KUMAR, Head of the

Department, Department of Aeronautical Engineering, for being a source of constant

encouragement and a pillar of support in all that we do, be it academic or

extracurricular.

We would like to extend our heartfelt thanks to Mr. J. KARTHIKEYAN for his

constant help, erudite guidance and immense passion which enthused us to do the

project better.

A warm token of appreciation to the management at NEHRU INSTITUTE OF

ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY, Thirumalayampalyam for providing us

with the amenities and a congenial atmosphere to work in.

 ABSTRACT

This report provides data for preliminary and detailed design of wing, fuselage,

control surface and landing gear of a 100 seated passenger aircraft with the knowledge

of design data from previous design project. In this, the theoretical aspect of

aerodynamics, aircraft structure, propulsion, stability and control are given as per the

need for design. This report also deals with in depth study of structural characteristics

of aircraft components.
TABLE OF CONTENTS

S.No TITLE PAGE NO

1. Abstract 4

2. List of symbols & Abbreviations 6

3. Introduction 10

4. V – n diagram 13

5. Load Estimation on wings 17

6. Shear force and bending moment diagram 26

7. Gust V-n diagram 32

8. Load Estimation on Fuselage 35

9. Detailed Design of an Aircraft Wing 43

10. Detail Design of an Aircraft Fuselage 51

11. Design of Control Surfaces 59

12. Design of Wing-Root Attachment 64

13. Landing Gear Design 70

14. 3 – view diagram 74

15. Conclusion 75

16. References 76
List of Symbols and Abbreviations

 - Angle of attack

 - Climb angle

 - Density factor

 - Density of air

 - Dihedral angle

 - Glide angle

 - Turn angle

 - Turn rate

 - Wing thickness ratio correction factor

 - Yaw angle

1/4 - Quarter chord sweep angle

Cm/e - Elevator control power

Cn/r - Rudder control power

fuel - Density of fuel

(L/D) cruise - Lift-to-drag ratio at cruise

(L/D) loiter - Lift-to-drag ratio at loiter

ac - Aerodynamic Centre
at - Lift curve slope of tail

av - Lift curve slope of vertical tail

aw - Lift curve slope of wing

b - Wing span

c - Chord length

ĉ - Mean chord

c.g - Centre of gravity

CAEP - Committee of Aviation Environmental Protection

CD - Drag coefficient

CD0 - Zero lift drag co-efficient

Cfe - Skin friction coefficient

Cl - Rolling moment coefficient

Clf - Function of airfoil chord over which the flow in laminar

CLmax - Maximum Lift coefficient

Cm - Pitching moment coefficient

Cn - Yawing moment coefficient

cR - Root chord

cT - Tip chord

D - Drag force

d - Tire diameter
E – Endurance

e - Oswald efficiency factor

g - Acceleration due to gravity

Ktf - Factor allowed for trapped fuel

L - Lift force

LE - Leading edge of wing

lf - Length of fuselage

Lt - Load on tyre

lv - Aerodynamic center of vertical tail to the airplane’s center of gravity

M - Mach number

MTOW - Maximum Takeoff Weight

N0 - Neutral point

Ne - Number of engines located on top surface of wing

q - Dynamic pressure

R - Turn radius

R/C - Rate of climb

Rr - Rolling radius of tyre

S - Wing area

SFC - Specific Fuel Consumption

Sref - Wing reference area

STD - Landing run distance

Swet - Wing wetted area

T - Thrust force

t/c - Wing thickness ratio T/W

- Thrust loading

Tf - A factor which is unity for streamlined shape V -

Velocity of air/aircraft

Vcruise - Velocity at cruise Vf -

Volume of fuel

Vstall - Velocity at stall w -

Tyre width

W/S - Wing loading

W0 - Gross weight of aircraft

Wcrew - Crew weight

We - Empty weight of aircraft Wf -

Weight of fuel

Wpayload – Aircraft payload weight

Xlew - Distance of location of wing from nose of the aircraft λ

 3. INTRODUCTION

3.1. Design of an airplane:

Airplane design is both an art and a science. It’s the intellectual engineering process of
creating on paper (or on a computer screen) a flying machine to
➢ Meet certain specifications and requirements established by potential users (or as
perceived by the manufacturer) and
➢ Pioneer innovative, new ideas and technology.

The design process is indeed an intellectual activity that is rather specified one that is
tempered by good intuition developed via by attention paid to successful airplane designs that
have been used in the past, and by (generally proprietary) design procedure and databases
(hand books etc.) that are a part of every airplane manufacturer.

3.2. Phases of airplane design:

The complete design process has gone through three distinct phases that are carried out
in sequence. They are,
➢ Conceptual design
➢ Preliminary design
➢ Detailed design

3.3. Outline aircraft design project 2:

The structural design of the aircraft which is done in aircraft design project 2 involves:
➢ Determination of loads acting on aircraft
• Schrenk’s Curve
• Critical loading performance

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➢ Determination of loads acting on individual structures

• Structural design study – Theory approach

• Load estimation of wings

• Load estimation of fuselage.

• Material Selection for structural members

• Detailed structural layouts

• Design of some components of wings, fuselage.

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 Parameters Values

Seating capacity 100

length of aircraft 38m

Height of aircraft 11m

Wing span 40m

Wing area 149 m2

Root – 8m
Wing chord length Mean-5.47m
Tip-1.5m

Wing taper ratio 0.18

t/c ratio 0.14

L/D max 22.68

L/D cruise 19.64

Wing sweep angle 25o

Cabin width 5

Fuselage width 5.5

Empty weight (lb) 22338.8 kg

Max takeoff weight (lb) 51297.83 kg

Max fuel capacity (lb) 22446.7 L

Speed 0.86 M

Range 3500km

Table 1.1 Parameters taken from design project I

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 4. V – n diagram
Analysis of the V-n diagram is critical during the design of an aircraft as it affects the
operation of the aircraft. A maneuver or gust of wind may temporarily force an aircraft outside
its safe flight envelope and thereby cause structural damage endangering flight safety.

Each airplane type has its own particular V-n diagram with specific V's and n's. The
flight operating strength of an airplane is presented on a graph whose horizontal scale is
airspeed (V) and vertical scale is load factor (n).

Flight regime of any aircraft includes all permissible combinations of speeds, altitudes,
weights, centers of gravity, and configurations. This regime is shaped by aerodynamics,
propulsion, structure, and dynamics of aircraft. The borders of this flight regime are called
flight envelope or maneuvering envelope. The safety of human onboard is guaranteed by
aircraft designer and manufacturer. Pilots are always trained and warned through flight
instruction manual not to fly out of flight envelope, since the aircraft is not stable, or not
controllable or not structurally strong enough outside the boundaries of flight envelope. A
mishap or crash is expected, if an aircraft is flown outside flight envelope. The flight envelope
has various types; each of which is usually the allowable variations of one flight parameter
versus another parameter. These envelopes are calculated and plotted by flight mechanics
engineers and employed by pilots and flight crews. For instance, the loadmasters of a cargo
aircraft must pay extra caution to the center of gravity location whenever they distribute
various loads on the aircraft. There are several crashes and mishaps that safety board’s report
indicated that load master is responsible, since they deployed more loads than allowed, or
misplaced the load before take-off. Nose heavy and tail heavy are two flight concepts that
pilots are familiar and experienced with, and are trained to deal with them safely .

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4.1 Limit load factor:

This is the boundary associated with permanent structural deformation of one or

more parts of the airplane if n is less than a limit load factor the structure may deflect during a
maneuver. But it will be return to its original state when n is equal to 1 if n is greater than the
limit load factor then the airplane structure will experience a permanent deformation. It will
be inner structural damage.

4.2 Ultimate load factor:

This the boundary associates with outright structural failure. If nis greater than
the ultimate load factor, parts of the airplane will break. Both the aerodynamics and a structural
limitation for a designed aircraft are illustrated in the v-n diagram.

There are four main critical conditions:

• High angle of Attack (+)

• Low angle of Attack (-)

For airplane design, the limit load factor depends on the type of aircraft. Some typical

values for limit load factors are given below:

Aircraft type npositive nnegative

Normal general aviation 2.5 to 3.8 -1 to 1.5

Aerobatic aviation 3 to 4 -1.2 to 2

Civil transport 6 -3

Fighter 6.5 to 9

Table 4.1

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4.3 Positive Load Factor:

+nmax = (T/W) max*(L/D) max

= 0.375*22.68

= 8.505

4.4 Negative Load Factor:

-nmax = 0.4*(+nmax )

= 0.4*8.505

= 3.402

4.5 Stalling Velocity:

Vstall = √ (2*(w/s)/Ꝭ*clmax)

= √ (2*343.129*9.81/1.225*0.552)

= 43.35 m/s

4.6 Velocity at +nmax:

VA = Vstall*√ +nmax

= 126.423m/s

4.7 Velocity at -nmax:

VB = √ (2*(w/s)(- nmax)/Ꝭ*(-clmax)

= √ (2*(343.129*9.81)(-3.402)/1.225*(0.72)

= 161.14

4.8 Cruise Velocity:

Vcruise = 180.5 m/s

4.9 Dive Velocity:

VD = 1.5* Vcruise = 270.765 m/s

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For different velocity conditions the load factors obtain and graph plotted between aircraft
velocity and load factor to obtain V-N diagram for our design configuration.

The obtained data are tabulated below,

AIRCRAFT VELOCITIES LOAD FACTOR

0 0
43.35 1
126.423 8.5
270.76 8.75
270.78 0
180.51 -3.402
161.14 -3.402
0 0

Result:
Thus, the v-n diagram design calculation of aircraft wing has been done and the graphs
are plotted.

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 5. LOAD ESTIMATION ON WINGS
5.1. Loads acting on wing:
As both the wings are symmetric, let us consider the starboard wing at first. There are
three primary loads acting on a wing structure in transverse direction which can cause
considerable shear forces and bending moments on it. They are as follows:
➢ Lift force (given by Shrenck’s curve)
➢ Self-weight of the wing
➢ Weight of the power plant
➢ Weight of the fuel in the wing

5.1.1. Shrenck's curve

Shrenck’s Curve is used to obtain the Lift distribution along the span of an Aircraft
wing.
For designing an aircraft and its parts, it is necessary to study the loads and its
distribution over the surface of the aircraft. Especially for the structural design of a wing, it is
important to study the distribution of its main load, the lift distribution along its span. Hence
the lift distribution over the span of the wing is obtained by Shrenck’s curve is an average of
Trapezoidal Lift Distribution and Elliptic Lift Distribution.
Shrenck’s Curve is given by,
Y1+Y2
Y=
2

Were,
Y1 is Linear Variation of lift along semi wing span also named as L1,

Y2 is Elliptic Lift Distribution along the wing span also named as L2

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5.1.2. Linear lift distribution:
Known value:
Vcruise = 0.3
Ꝭ = 0.3715 kg/m3
ct = 1.5 m
cr = 8 m

Lift at root,

LRoot = ρV2CLCRoot / 2

LRoot = (1.225) * (180.51)2 * (1.57) * (8) / 2

LRoot = 76018.79 (N/m)

Lift at tip,

LTip = ρV2CLCRoot / 2

LTip = (1.225) * (180.51)2 * (1.57) * (1.5) / 2

LTip = 16261.31 (N/m)

By representing this lift at sections of root and tip we can get the equation for the wing.
Equation of linear lift distribution for starboard wing
LT = Lr (1-2y/b (1-λ))
LT = 6337.12(1-0.09y)
Equation of linear lift distribution for port wing the y replace by –y.
The value of y varies from 0 to b/2.
For our design consideration y varies from 0 to 7.335.

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WING SEMI SPAN LIFT
0 76018.79
1 71457.6626
2 66896.5352
3 62335.4078
4 57774.2804
5 53213.153
6 48652.0256
7 44090.8982
8 39529.7708
9 34968.6434
10 30407.516
11 25846.3886
12 21285.2612
13 16724.1338 Fig-5.1 Linear variation of lift along wing semi span
14 12163.0064
15 7601.879
16 3040.7516
17 -1520.3758
18 -6081.5032
19 -10642.6306
20 -15203.758

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5.1.3. Elliptic Lift Distribution:
Twice the area under the curve or line will give the lift which will be required to
overcome weight. Considering an elliptic lift distribution we get,
L/2 = W/2 = πab1/4
A = πab1/4
Were,
b1- is Actual lift at root

a - is wing semi span

Lift at tip,

b = 4w/2πa

b = 13617.84 N/m

Y2 = 2b/a √ (a2 – x2)

Y2 = 2 * 13617.84 / 15.95 (√ (15.952 – x2)

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 x y2
0 27235.69 Elliptial lift distribution
1 27182.1 30000

2 27020.72
3 26749.59 25000

4 26365.32
5 25862.87 20000

6 25235.18
15000
7 24472.62
8 23562.1
10000
9 22485.64
10 21218.02
5000
11 19722.39
12 17941.84
0
13 15780.22
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18
14 13049.48
Wing Semi Span (m)
15 9259.121
15.95 0

Fig-5.2 Elliptical variation of lift along wing semi span

5.1.4. Construction of schrenk’s curve:

Shrenck’s Curve is given by,

Y=Y1 + Y2
Y = (-4782.66454) x + 86727.02) + (1707.566 √(15.952 – x2)) / 2

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 x y
Shrenck's curve
0 155850.2
100000
1 147979.8
90000 Linear Lift
2 140055.5
80000 Eliptical Lift
3 132076.4
70000 Shrenck Curve
4 124040.7
5 115945.9 60000

6 107788.5 50000

7 99563.64 40000

8 91264.81 30000
9 82883.01 20000
10 74405.63
10000
11 65814.25
0
12 57080.4 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
13 48156.02 Wing Semi Span (m)

14 38947.08
15 29208.33

Fig-5.3 Shrenck’s Curve along wing semi span

5.2. Self-weight of wing (𝒀𝟑):

Self-weight of the wing,

wwing / wTo = 0.349

W (wing) = 0.349*341011.2208
w (wing) = 119012.9161 N
w (Port wing) = -59506.45 N (Acting Downwards)

w (Starboard) = -59506.45 N (Acting Downwards)

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Assuming parabolic weight distribution,
Y = k * (x - (b/2))2
-59506.45 = ʃ15.95 k * (x - (b/2))2
0
-427961.25 = x*(1.95)3
k = -43.99499709

x Y3 Self -Weight Variation

0
0 -11192.4
0 5 10 15
1 -9832.99 -1500
2 -8561.54
3 -7378.07 -3000
4 -6282.6
-4500
5 -5275.11
6 -4355.61 -6000
7 -3524.11
8 -2780.59 -7500
9 -2125.07
-9000
10 -1557.53
11 -1077.99 -10500
12 -686.432
-12000
13 -382.866
Wing Semi Span (m)
14 -167.291
15 -39.7055

Fig-5.4 Self Weight variation along wing semi span

5.3. Fuel weight:

This design has fuel in the wing so we have to consider the weight of the fuel in one the
wing.
W (Fuel Wing) / 2 = 91660.75 / 2
W (Fuel Weight) = 45830.37 N

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 x Yf
0 -5917.33 Fuel Weight
0
1 -5480.87 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
2 -5044.4
-1000
3 -4607.94
4 -4171.48
-2000
5 -3735.02
6 -3298.56
-3000
7 -2862.1
8 -2425.63 -4000
9 -1989.17
10 -1552.71 -5000
11 -1116.25
12 -679.789 -6000
13 -243.327 Wing Semi Span
13.5575 0
Fig5.5 Slope of the fuel weight

Again, by using general formula for straight line y=mx+c we get,

dy = 1740.39 Dy = (5917.33-dy)
Were,
m = 5917.33-1740.39m/13.5575
m = 4176.93/13.5575

m = 436.46N/m2

Solving this equation,

Yf =436.46 x – 5917.33

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 x Yf
0 -5917.33
1 -5480.87
2 -5044.4
3 -4607.94
4 -4171.48
5 -3735.02
6 -3298.56
7 -2862.1
8 -2425.63
9 -1989.17
10 -1552.71
11 -1116.25
12 -679.789
13 -243.327
13.5575 0
Fig-5.6 Fuel Weight variation along wing semi span

Result:
Thus, the load estimation and distribution design calculation of aircraft wing has been
done and the graphs are plotted.

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 6.SHEAR FORCE AND BENDING MOMENT
DIAGRAM
6.1 Bending stress and shear flow wing
The solution methods which follow Euler's beam bending theory (σ/y=M/I=E/R)
use the bending moment values to determine the stresses developed at a particular section of
the beam due to the combination of aerodynamic and structural loads in the transverse
direction. Most engineering solution methods for structural mechanics problems (both exact
and approximate methods) use the shear force and bending moment equations to determine the
deflection and slope at a particular section of the beam. Therefore, these equations are to be
obtained as analytical expressions in terms of span wise location. The bending moment
produced here is about the longitudinal (x) axis. As both the wings are symmetric, let us
consider the starboard wing at first. There are three primary loads acting on a wing structure
in transverse direction which can cause considerable shear forces and bending moments on it.
They are as follows

• Lift force and Self-weight of the wings.

• Weight of the power plant.

6.1.1. Component of wing structure

The wings are airfoils attached to each side of the fuselage and are the main lifting
surfaces that support the airplane in flight. There are numerous wing designs, sizes, and a shape
used by the various manufacturers. Each fulfills a certain need with respect to the expected
performance for the particular airplane. Wings may be attached at the top, middle, or lower
portion of the fuselage. These designs are referred to as high, mid, and low-wing, respectively.
The number of wings can also vary. Airplanes with a single set of wings are referred to as
monoplanes, while those with two sets are called biplanes. Many high-wing airplanes have
external braces, or wing struts, which transmit the flight and landing loads through the struts
to the main fuselage structure. Since the wing struts are usually attached approximately
halfway out on the wing, this type of wing structure is called semi-cantilever. A few high-wing

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and most low-wing airplanes have a full cantilever wing designed to carry the loads without
external struts. The principal structural parts of the wing are spars, ribs, and stringers.

These are reinforced by trusses, I-beams, tubing, or other devices, including the skin.
The wing ribs determine the shape and thickness of the wing (airfoil). Attached to the rear, or
trailing, edges of the wings are two types of control surfaces referred to as ailerons and flaps.
Ailerons extend from about the midpoint of each wing outward toward the tip and move in
opposite directions create aerodynamic forces that cause the airplane to roll. Flaps extend
outward from the fuselage to near the midpoint of each wing. The flaps are normally flush with
the wing surface during cruising flight. When extended, the flaps move simultaneously
downward to increase the lifting force of the wing for takeoffs and landings.

6.1.2. Forces

Some of the forces acting on a wing spar are:

• Upward bending loads resulting from the wing lift force that supports the fuselage in
flight. These forces are often offset by carrying fuel in the wings or employing wing-
tip-mounted fuel tanks; the Cessna 310 is an example of this design feature.
• Downward bending loads while stationary on the ground due to the weight of the
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 structure, fuel carried in the wings, and wing-mounted engines if used.
• Drag loads dependent on airspeed and inertia. Rolling inertia loads.
• Chord wise twisting loads due to aerodynamic effects at high airspeeds often
associated with washout, and the use of ailerons resulting in control reversal. Further
twisting loads are induced by changes of thrust settings to under wing-mounted
engines.

6.5. Shear force and bending moment:

We know that,
W = dV/dy;
V = dM/dy;

For a half wing,

Ww = 0.05*w0
= 0.05*22338.8*9.81
Ww = 10957.18N

Ww =0∫b/2ky2dy
10957.18= k*131.5
K = 4.108

Engine Weight:
Wengine = 1732.92*9.81
Wengine = 17000.9N

Net Load Distribution:

W = lift – weight (engine, landing gear, etc)
W = 76018.79 – 4561.12y – 17000.9 for 0 < y < 9
W = 76018.79 - 4561.12y for 9 < y < 18
Engine placed 3m from the root of the wing so, for the first equation engine weight
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also included for our configuration landing gear is not placed under the wing if the landing
gear is present landing gear weight also included.

Shear force along the semi span:

W = dV/dy;

V = 0∫yW dy

V = 59017.89y – 4561.12y2 for 0 < y < 9

V = 76018.79y – 4561.12y2 for 9 < y < 18

Bending moment along the semi span:

V = dM/dy;

M = 0∫yV dy

M = 21508.94y2 – 2280.56y3 for 0 < y < 9

M = 38009.39y2 – 2280.56y3 for 9 < y < 18

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SEMI SPAN
LENGTH (Y) SHEAR FORCE BENDING MOMENT

0 0 0

1 54456.77 27228.38

2 99791.03 99791.28

3 136003.59 204005.34

4 185899.24 287118.6267

5 231233.77 375507.1067

6 276568.03 463895.5867

7 321902.83 552284.0667

8 367237.36 640672.5467

9 457235.37 1416232.355

10 485793.59 1520379

11 514351.81 1624525.645

12 542910.03 1728672.29

13 571468.25 1832818.935

14 543224.13 1936965.58

15 523425.21 2041112.225

16 503626.29 2145258.87

17 483827.37 2249405.515

18 464028.45 2353552.16

Table 6.1 Calculation of Shear force and Bending Moment

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 Fig-6.1 Shear force variation along wing span

Fig-6.2 Bending moment variation along wing span

Result:
Thus, the preliminary design calculation of aircraft wing has been done and the graphs
are plotted.

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 7.GUST V-N DIAGRAM
Gusts are vertical draughts of air; they could be upwards or downwards they impose
additional vertical load factors in an aircraft.

Gust load factor, n, is defined as ratio of the lift of an aircraft penetrated in a gust to
the aircraft weight. It represents the aircraft normal overload or acceleration encountering a
gust and can be expressed as

Where L is the aircraft lift under a specific gust load, W is the aircraft weight, Δn is the
acceleration increment due to gust and for most cases, Δn = n − 1. The maximum value of
Δn is termed as the gust load formula and will be involved in the next subsection.

dα
U V

20.1 130 8.78

15.4 180.51 4.876
7.62 270.76 1.61
-7.62 270.76 -1.61
-15.4 180.51 -4.876
-20.1 130 -8.78

Table 7.1

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 For reference two NACA 6-digit are taken and the readings will be plotted foe different
angle of attack which obtained in the above tabulation.

dα Average CLα

8.78 1.335

4.876 1.05

1.61 0.59

-1.61 -0.81

-4.876 -0.83

-8.78 -1.315

Table 7.2

Fig-7.1 Load factor vs Aircraft velocity

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 Fig-7.2 Gust v-n diagram

Result:
Thus, the gust v-n diagram design calculation of aircraft wing has been done and the
graphs are plotted.

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 8.LOAD ESTIMATION ON FUSELAGE
Fuselage contributes very little to lift and produces more drag but it is an important
structural member/component. It is the connecting member to all load producing components
such as wing, horizontal tail, vertical tail, landing gear etc. and thus redistributes the load. It
also serves the purpose of housing or accommodating practically all the equipment’s,
accessories and systems in addition to carrying the payload. Because of large amount of
equipment inside the fuselage, it is necessary to provide sufficient number of cutouts in the
fuselage for access and inspection purposes. These cutouts and discontinuities result in
fuselage design being more complicated, less precise and often less efficient in design. As a
common member to which other components are attached, thereby transmitting the loads,
fuselage can be considered as a long hollow beam. The reactions produced by the wing, tail or
landing gear may be considered as concentrated loads at the respective attachment points. The
balancing reactions are provided by the inertia forces contributed by the weight of the fuselage
structure and the various components inside the fuselage. These reaction forces are distributed
all along the length of the fuselage, though need not be uniformly. Unlike the wing, which is
subjected to mainly unsymmetrical load, the fuselage is much simpler for structural analysis
due to its symmetrical cross-section and symmetrical loading.
The main load in the case of fuselage is the shear load because the load acting on the
wing is transferred to the fuselage skin in the form of shear only. The structural design of both
wing and fuselage begins with shear force and bending moment diagrams for the respective
members.
To find out the loads and their distribution, consider the different cases. The main
components of the fuselage loading diagram are:
➢ Weight of fuselage
➢ Engine weight
➢ Weight of horizontal and vertical stabilizers
➢ Tail lift
➢ Weight of crew, Payload and landing gear

35 | P a g e
 ➢ Systems, equipment, accessories

Symmetric flight condition, steady and level flight: (Downward forces negative) Values
for the different component weights are obtained from aerodynamic design calculations.

Condition Full Payload and Full Fuel

S.No Component Distance from reference line (m) Mass (lb) Weight (N) Moment (Nm)

1 Crew 2.356 1234.97 5495.63 12947.72

Nose Landing
2 5.206 992.73 4417.68 22998.47
Gear
3 Payload bay 1 9.5 12460.51 55449.27 526768.15

4 Fixed Equipment 14.44 1191.28 5301.22 76549.67

5 Fuselage Mass 17.708 8934.64 39759.17 704055.52

Main Landing
6 17.746 2481.84 11044.21 195990.65
Gear Assembly 1

Main Landing
7 23.56 2481.84 11044.21 260201.73
Gear Assembly 2
8 Payload bay 2 23.75 13994.5 62275.70 1479047.99
Horizontal
9 35.53 2382.57 10602.44 376704.95
stabilizer

10 Vertical Stabilizer 37.126 1389.83 6184.761 229615.43

TOTAL 189998.32 1680619.97 3884880.25

CG from Nose (m) 18.36177334

Table 8.1 Loads acting on fuselage

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8.1. Load distribution on an aircraft fuselage:

Load distribution improves the distribution of workloads across multiple computing

resources, such as computers, a computer cluster, network links, central processing units, or
disk drives. Load balancing aims to optimize resource use, maximize throughput, minimize
response time, and avoid overload of any single resource.

Using multiple components with load balancing instead of a single component may
increase reliability and availability through redundancy. Load balancing usually involves
dedicated software or hardware, such as a multilayer switch or a Domain Name System server
process.

Load balancing differs from channel bonding in that load balancing divides traffic
between network interfaces on a network socket basis, while channel bonding implies a
division of traffic between physical interfaces at a lower level, either per packet or basis with
a protocol like shortest path bridging.

Load Distribution
250000

200000

150000

100000

50000

0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
-50000

-100000

Semi Span

Fig-8.1 Load variation along fuselage length

37 | P a g e
8.2. Bending stress and shear flow in fuselage:
Fuselage contributes very little to lift and produces more drag but it is an important
structural member/component. It is the connecting member to all load producing components
such as wing, horizontal tail, vertical tail, landing gear etc. and thus redistributes the load. It
also serves the purpose of housing or accommodating practically all equipment, accessories
and systems in addition to carrying the payload. Because of large amount of equipment inside
the fuselage, it is necessary to provide sufficient number of cutouts in the fuselage for access
and inspection purposes. These cutouts and discontinuities result in fuselage design being more
complicated, less precise and often less efficient in design. As a common member to which
other components are attached, there by transmitting the loads, fuselage can be considered as
a long hollow beam.

The actions produced by the wing, tail or landing gear may be considered as
concentrated loads at the respective attachment points. The balancing re actions is provided by
the inertia forces contributed by the weight of the fuselage structure and the various
components inside the fuselage. These reaction forces are distributed all along the length of
the fuselage, though need not be uniformly. Unlike the wing, which is subjected to mainly
unsymmetrical load, the fuselage is much simpler for structural analysis due to its symmetrical
cross-section and symmetrical loading. The main load in the case of fuselage is the shear load
because the load acting on the wing is transferred to the fuselage skin in the form of shear only.

The structural design of both wing and fuselage begins with shear force and bending
moment diagrams for the respective members. The maximum bending stress produced in each
of them is checked to be less than the yield stress of the material chosen for the respective
member.

38 | P a g e
Sl.No Distance Load(N) Shear Force(N) Bending Moment (Nm)

1 0 0 0 0

2 2.356 -5495.639698 -5495.639698 -12947.72713

3 5.206 -4417.686436 -9913.326135 -51608.77586

4 9.5 -55449.27947 -65362.6056 -620944.7532

5 14.44 -5301.223723 -70663.82933 -1020385.695

6 17.708 -39759.17793 -110423.0073 -1955370.612

7 17.746 -11044.21609 -121467.2233 -2155557.345

8 18.361773 211574.3498 90107.12642 1654526.632

9 23.56 -11044.21609 79062.91033 1862722.167

10 23.75 -62275.70187 16787.20846 398696.2009

11 35.53 -10602.44745 6184.761011 219744.5587

12 37.126 -6184.761011 0 0

150000
Shear Force Distribution

100000

50000

0
0 10 20 30 40
-50000

-100000

-150000
Aircraft Length

Fig-8.2 Shear force variation along fuselage length

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 Bending Moment Distribution
2500000
2000000
1500000
1000000
500000
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
-500000
-1000000
-1500000
-2000000
-2500000
Aircraft Length

Fig-8.3 Bending moment variation along fuselage length

40 | P a g e
Result:

Thus, the preliminary design calculation of aircraft fuselage has been done and the
graphs are plotted.

41 | P a g e
 9.DETAILED DESIGN OF AN AIRCRAFT
WING
9.1. Specific Roles of Wing Structure:

The specified structural roles of the wing (or main plane) are:

➢ To transmit:
• wing lift to the root via the main span wise beam
• Inertia loads from the power plants, undercarriage, etc., to the main beam.
• Aerodynamic loads generated on the aero foil, control surfaces & flaps to the main
beam.
➢ To react against:
• Landing loads at attachment points
• Loads from pylons/stores
• Wing drag and thrust loads
➢ To provide:
• Fuel tank age space
• Torsional rigidity to satisfy stiffness and aero-elastic requirements.
• To fulfill these specific roles, a wing layout will conventionally compromise:
• Span wise members (known as spars or booms)
• Chord wise members(ribs)
• A covering skins
• Stringers

9.2. Basic Functions of Wing Structural Members

The structural functions of each of these types of members may be considered

independently as:

42 | P a g e
SPARS

➢ Form the main span wise beam

➢ Transmit bending and torsional loads
➢ Produce a closed-cell structure to provide resistance to torsion, shear and tension
loads.

In particular:

➢ Webs – resist shear and torsional loads and help to stabilize the skin.
➢ Flanges - resist the compressive loads caused by wing bending.

SKIN

➢ To form impermeable aerodynamics surface

➢ Transmit aerodynamic forces to ribs & stringers
➢ Resist shear torsion loads (with spar webs).
➢ React axial bending loads (with stringers).

STRINGERS

➢ Increase skin panel buckling strength by dividing into smaller length sections.
➢ React axial bending loads.
RIBS
➢ Maintain the aerodynamic shape.
➢ Act along with the skin to resist the distributed aerodynamic pressure loads.
➢ Distribute concentrated loads into the structure & redistribute stress around any
discontinuities.
➢ Increase the column buckling strength of the stringers through end restraint.
➢ Increase the skin panel buckling strength.

9.3. Spar Definition

The maximum bending moment from previous section was found to be as

27392613.23 Nm. Therefore, we define 2 Spars with front spar at 17% of chord, and rear spar

43 | P a g e
 at 65% of chord. The position of the two spars from the leading edge of the root chord can be

found out as follows:

Fig-9.1 Design of spars and stringers

Where,
➢ hf - height of front spar (to be found out from aero foil selection)
➢ hr - height of rear spar
FOS = 1.5
M=Mmaz*FOS
𝑀𝑓 + 𝑀𝑟 = 𝑀(𝑚𝑎𝑥)

The yield tensile stress σy for Al Alloy (Al 7075) is 455.053962 MPa. The area of the flanges
is determined using the relation.

𝜎𝑦 = 𝑀 / 𝐴Z

Where,
➢ M is bending moment taken up by each spar,
➢ A is the flange area of each spar,
➢ z is the centroid distance of the area = h/2.
From above equations the value of Af and Ar are found out.
44 | P a g e
 M max 27392613 Nm
Material is Al 7075
FOS 1.5 -
σy 455053962 N/m2

M total 41088920 Nm Ar 0.217839828 m2

Mf/Mr 1.82294 -
Af 0.294119247 m2

Mf+Mr 41088920 Nm
Table 9.2 Area of front and rear spar
Mf 26533554 Nm

Mr 14555365 Nm

Table 9.1 Moment on Front and Rear Spar

9.4. Assumptions:
T sections are chosen for top and bottom flanges of front and rear spars. Both the
flanges are connected by a vertical stiffener through spot welding and the thickness to width
ratio of web is found to be 3.9591. Also, from “Analysis and design of flight vehicle structures
by BRUHN”, the flange to web width ratio of the T section is 1.8.

𝑡𝑓 / 𝑡𝑤 = 1

𝑡𝑤 / 𝑏𝑤 = 3.9591

𝑏𝑓 / 𝑏𝑤 = 1.8

By equating all the three values of the ratio in area of the section equation, the dimensions of
the spar can be found.

45 | P a g e
 Component Rear Front
bw 0.4330103 0.503143
Bf 0.1968676 0.228753
tf = tw 0.1093709 0.127085
Centroid
x 0.0984338 0.114377
y 0.325876 0.378657

Table 9.3 Dimension of front and rear spar

Fig-9.2 Spars with Dimension

9.5. Torque diagrams

Torque, moment, or moment of force is the tendency of a force to rotate an object about
an axis, fulcrum, or pivot. Just as a force is a push or a pull, a torque can be thought of as a
twist to an object. Mathematically, torque is defined as the cross product of the vector by which
the force's application point is offset relative to the fixed suspension point (distance vector)

46 | P a g e
and the force vector, which tends to produce rotation.

Torque is a measure of the turning force on an object such as a bolt or a flywheel. For
example, pushing or pulling the handle of a wrench connected to a nut or bolt produces a torque
(turning force) that loosens or tightens the nut or bolt.

The symbol for torque is typically, the lowercase Greek letter When it is called moment
of force, it is commonly denoted by M.

Fig-9.3 Torque and power curve

9.5.1. Torque forces

The magnitude of torque depends on three quantities: the force applied, the length of
the lever arm connecting the axis to the point of force application, and the angle between the
force vector and the lever arm. In symbols: Where,
• r is the position vector (a vector from the origin of the coordinate system defined to
the point where the force is applied), F is the force vector
• x denotes the cross product, is the angle between the force vector and the lever arm
vector
If clockwise bending moments are taken as negative, then a negative bending
moment within an element will cause "sagging", and a positive moment will cause "hogging".
47 | P a g e
It is therefore clear that a point of zero bending moment within abeam is a point of contra
flexure that is the point of transition from hogging to sagging or vice versa.
Moments and torques are measured as a force multiplied by a distance so they have as
unit newton -meters (N-m), or pound-foot or foot-pound (ft-lb). The concept of bending
moment is very important in engineering (particularly in civil and mechanical engineering)
and physics.

Fig-9.4 Torque diagrams

4.6. Buckling analysis:

Two major causes which cause the sudden failure of a mechanical component are:
Material failure and structural instability, which is often called buckling. For material
failures yield stress is considered as the design criteria for ductile materials and the ultimate
stress for brittle materials. Buckling refers to the loss of stability of a component and is usually
independent of material strength. The load at which buckling occurs will depend upon the
stiffness of a component, and is independent of strength of the material. When a structure
whose length is larger than either of its other two dimensions, is subjected to axial compressive
stress, due to its size its axial displacement is going to be very small compared to its lateral
48 | P a g e
deflection this phenomenon is called Buckling. Buckling is a tendency of slender compression
members to bow out, which causes bending. When the combined bending stress and
compressive stress exceeds the buckling capacity failure occurs. Buckling effects all
compression members, such as columns, truss bars, bracing, etc. Buckling bends, a column
progressively.
When the aircraft is in flight, top portion will be under low pressure compared to
bottom portion. This causes the aircraft to lift upward. As a result of this wing will bend upward
causing the bottom skin under tension and top skin under compression. The wings are
prevented from folding over the fuselage by the resisting strength of the wing structure. The
bending action creates a tensile stress on the bottom of the wings and a compressive stress on
the top of the wings. As the top skin of the wing is subjected to compression stress it may
experience buckling at certain load value, and may lead to failure. In this project buckling
analysis of the wing is carried out. The main objective of the work is to carry out the buckling
analysis of the wing upper skin subjected to compression with FEM approach and verification
through analytical approach.

Fig-9.5 Buckling of wing

49 | P a g e
Result
Thus, the detail design calculation of aircraft wing has been done and the values are
tabulated.

50 | P a g e
 10.DETAIL DESIGN OF AN AIRCRAFT
FUSELAGE
The fundamental purpose of the fuselage structure is to provide an envelope to support
the payload, crew, equipment, systems and (possibly) the power-plant. Furthermore, it must
react against the in-flight maneuver, pressurization and gust loads; also, the landing gear and
possibly any power-plant loads. It must be also be able to transmit control and trimming loads
from the stability and control surfaces throughout the rest of the structure.

Fuselage contributes very little to lift and produces more drag but it is an important
structural member/component. It is the connecting member to all load producing components
such as wing, horizontal tail, vertical tail, landing gear etc. and thus redistributes the load. It
also serves the purpose of housing or accommodating practically all equipment, accessories
and systems in addition to carrying the payload. Because of large amount of equipment inside
the fuselage, it is necessary to provide sufficient number of cutouts in the fuselage for access
and inspection purposes. These cutouts and discontinuities result in fuselage design being more
complicated, less precise and often less efficient in design.
As a common member to which other components are attached, thereby transmitting
the loads, fuselage can be considered as a long hollow beam. The reactions produced by the
wing, tail or landing gear may be considered as concentrated loads at the respective attachment
points. The balancing reactions are provided by the inertia forces contributed by the weight
of the fuselage structure and the various components inside the fuselage. These reaction forces
are distributed all along the length of the fuselage, though need not be uniformly. Unlike the
wing, which is subjected to mainly unsymmetrical load, the fuselage is much simpler for
structural analysis due to its symmetrical cross-section and symmetrical loading. The main
load in the case of fuselage is the shear load because the load acting on the wing is transferred
to the fuselage skin in the form of shear only. The structural design of both wing and fuselage
begins with shear force and bending moment diagrams for the respective members. The
maximum bending stress produced in each of them is checked to be less than the yield stress
of the material chosen for the respective member.
51 | P a g e
10.1. Fuselage Layout Concepts
There are two main categories of layout concept in common use,

➢ Mass boom and longeron layout

➢ Semi-monocoque layout

10.1.1. Mass Boom & Longeron layout

This is fundamentally very similar to the mass-boom wing-box concept discussed in

previous section. It is used when the overall structural loading is relatively low or when there
are extensive cut-outs in the shell. The concept comprises four or more continuous heavy
booms (longeron), reacting against any direct stresses caused by applied vertical and lateral
bending loads. Frames or solid section

Fig-10.1 Monocoque construction

10.1.2. Semi-Monocoque layout

The semi-monocoque is the most often used construction for modern, high-
performance aircraft. Semi-monocoque literally means half a single shell. Here, internal
braces as well as the skin itself carry the stress. The vertical structural members are referred
to as bulkheads, frames, and formers. The heavier vertical members are located at intervals to
allow for concentrated loads. These members are also found at points where fittings are used
to attach other units, such as the wings and stabilizers.

52 | P a g e
 Fig-10.2 Semi monocoque construction

Primary bending loads are taken by the longerons, which usually extend across several
points of support. The longerons are supplemented by other longitudinal members known as
stringers. Stringers are more numerous and lightweight than The stringers are smaller and
lighter than longerons and serve as fill-ins. They have some rigidity but are chiefly used for
giving shape and for attachment of skin.

10.2. Design of fuselage component-stringer

The circumference of the fuselage is 6.15752 m. To find the area of one stringer,
number of stringers per quadrant is assumed to be 2. i.e., the total number of stringers in the
fuselage is 4. The stringers are equally spaced around the circumference of the fuselage.

10.2.1. Stringer Spacing

The stringers are symmetrically spaced on the fuselage with the spacing calculate as
shown below,

Circumference of the fuselage = π * d = 17.2787m

Total number of stringers = 4

Therefore, the stringers are spaced at the interval of = 17.287 / 4 m = 4.3196 m

53 | P a g e
10.2.2. Stringer area calculation

The stress induced in each stringer is calculated with the area keeping constant in the
stress term. Then the maximum stress (i.e., one which has larger numerator) is equated with
the yield strength of the material. From this area of one stringer is calculated.

The direct stress in each stringer produced by bending moments 𝑀𝑥 and 𝑀𝑦 is

given by the equation:

σ = (Mx / Ixx) * z + (Mz / Izz) * x (N/m2)

Where,

Mx = 8351406.69 Nm

Mz = (1 / 2 ρV2 St at Ψ) x
ρ is density =1.225 kg/m3

V is cruise velocity=257.711 m/s

St is the tail area=52 m2
at is the slope of the lift curve=0.031412/deg

Ψ is the angle of yaw for asymmetric flight

Ψ = 0.7 nmax + 457.2 / VD

Ψ = 3.23 deg

x is the distance between the aircraft c.g position and horizontal tail c.g position
x = 17.16823 m

Then,

Mz = 3684659.344 Nm

Ixx = Iyy= Astinger D2

Where Astinger is the stringer area, D is the diameter of the fuselage = 5.5 m
Mx and My reach their maximum only from the stringer 1 to 4. Thus, the stresses are high
only on this stringer. Calculating stress for stringers 1 to 4.

54 | P a g e
X=0, Z=2.75
σ1 = (Mx / Ixx) * z+(Mz / Izz) * x (N/m2)

Then,

σ1 = 759218.79 / Astinger (N⁄m2)

X=0.91667, Z=2.619

σ2= (Mx / Ixx) * z+ (Mz / Izz) x (N/m2)

X=1.8333, Z=1.8333

σ3= (Mx / Ixx) * z+ (Mz / Izz) * x (N/m2)

Then,

σ3= 729458.54 / Astinger N⁄m2

X=2.619, Z=0.91667

σ4= (Mx / Ixx) * z+ (Mz / Izz) * x (N/m2)

Then,

σ4= (572091.05 / Astinger) N⁄m2

The allowable stress in the stringer is 455.053962 MPa for Al Alloy (Al 7075).

Maximum direct stress in the stringer 2 is

σ1= (834721.85 / Astinger) N⁄m2

Therefore, the required stringer area of cross section is the given by

834721.85 / Astinger = 455.053962*106

Astinger = 0.001834336 m2

55 | P a g e
Thus one stringer area is 0.001834336 m2 . The stringer chosen is Z section.

The dimension of the stringer is obtained from the analysis and design of the flight vehicle
structure by Remer book.
tf/tw 1

tf/bf 0.04444

bf/bw 0.5

tw=tf 0.007797 m

bf 0.175457 m

bw 0.350915 m

Centroid

X 0.171559 m

Y 0.183255 m

Table 10.1 Dimension of stringers

Fig-10.2 Stringers with Dimension

56 | P a g e
10.3. Buckling analysis:
Cylindrical shells are subjected to any combination of in plane, out of plane and
shear loads during application. Due to the geometry of these structures, buckling is one of the
most important failure criteria. Buckling failure mode of a stiffened cylindrical shell can
further be subdivided into global buckling, local skin buckling and stiffener crippling. Global
buckling is collapse of the whole structure, i.e., collapse of the stiffeners and the shell as one
unit. Local skin buckling and stiffeners crippling on the other hand are localized failure modes
involving local failure of only the skin in the first case and the stiffener in the second case. A
grid stiffened cylinder will fail in any of these failure modes depending on the stiffener
configuration, skin thickness, shell winding angle and type of applied load. Several methods
have so far been developed to predict the different buckling loads and mode shapes of stiffened
cylinders. The different approaches in different literatures can broadly be classified as the
discrete method, the branched shell and plate approach and the smeared stiffeners approach.

The fibers in the stiffeners are oriented along the length of the stiffeners. Hence,
three different real constant tables were defined for the three stiffener orientations of 00, 600,
and –600.
A local cylindrical coordinate system was then defined for each element and
corresponding orthotropic properties aligned properly. The stiffeners were modeled using 20-
node, layered solid elements (SOLID 191).

57 | P a g e
 Fig-10.3 Buckling of fuselage

Result
Thus, the preliminary design calculation of aircraft fuselage has been done and the
graphs are plotted.

58 | P a g e
 11.DESIGN OF CONTROL SURFACES
11.1. High Lift Systems
A wing designed for efficient high-speed flight is often quite different from one
designed solely for take-off and landing. Take-off and landing distances are strongly
influenced by aircraft stalling speed, with lower stall speeds requiring lower acceleration or
deceleration and correspondingly shorter field lengths. It is always possible to reduce stall
speed by increasing wing area, but it is not desirable to cruise with hundreds of square feet of
extra wing area (and the associated weight and drag), area that is only needed for a few minutes.
Since the stalling speed is related to wing parameters by: It is also possible to reduce stalling
speed by reducing weight, increasing air density, or increasing wing CLmax. The latter
parameter is the most interesting. One can design a wing airfoil that compromises cruise
efficiency to obtain a good CLmax, but it is usually more efficient to include movable leading
and/or trailing edges so that one may obtain good high-speed performance while achieving a
high CLmax at take-off and landing. The primary goal of a high lift system is a high CLmax;
however, it may also be desirable to maintain low drag at take-off, or high drag on approach.
It is also necessary to do this with a system that has low weight and high reliability. This is
generally achieved by incorporating some form of trailing edge flap and perhaps a leading-
edge device such as a slat.

11.2. Flaps
Wing flaps can be found on virtually every modern airplane. The effect of adding flaps
to the trailing edge of the wing is equivalent to increasing the camber of the wing. Some flap
designs also increase the chord length of the wing. This increases the area of the wing so that
more air is diverted, thus reducing the angle of attack needed for lift. There are many types of
flaps. In the 1930s and 1940s the split flap, shown in Figure was introduced and was one of
the first types of flaps to appear in production airplanes. Splitting the last 20 percent or so of
the wing forms this type of flap. The top surface of the wing does not move while the bottom
surface lowers. The split flap is effective in improving the lift, but it creates a great deal of

59 | P a g e
form drag, as shown in the figure. The last 20 percent or so of the inboard section of the wing
is simply hinged so that it can increase the camber. The first 20 degrees of flap extension
increase the lift without greatly increasing the drag of the wing at low speeds. Many airplanes
extend their flaps to 10 or 20 degrees on takeoff in order to shorten the takeoff distance. When
the flaps are extended greater than 20 degrees, the form drag increases rapidly with little or no
increase in lift. Increasing the drag increases the descent rate, which is desirable during the
approach for landing. Thus, it is not uncommon for an airplane to land with the flaps set at 40
degrees.
Multi slotted flaps are seen on many modern passenger jets, while large airplanes use
single-slotted flaps. Until the 1990s airplane performance was the key design criterion.
Airplane companies were proud of sophisticated triple-slotted flap systems. During the 1990s
a shift toward reducing cost as a key design criterion has pushed airplane companies to
maximize the performance of single-slotted flaps. One technique that is used is to place vortex
generators on the leading edge of the single slotted flap. When the flap is retracted, the vortex
generators on the flap are hidden in the wing. Thus, the vortex generators do not penalize the
airplane in cruise but are available for takeoff and landing. The next times you fly a commercial
airplane ask for a window seat behind the wing. During the approach and landing phase of the
flight, watch the wing unfold. It is truly remarkable how the wing evolves into a high-lift wing
from its normal cruise configuration.

11.3. Slots and Slats

Leading-edge devices, like flaps, are sometimes used to increase the camber of the
wing and increase the stall angle of attack. But the details are somewhat different. Other times,
the purpose of the leading-edge devices is much like that of the slot in a slotted flap. These
devices allow the high-energy air from below the wing to flow to the upper surface of the wing.
This energizes the boundary layer. Thus, the wing stalls at a higher angle of attack and the
maximum lift is increased. The simplest leading-edge device is the fixed slot shown in Figure.
This is a permanent slot near the leading edge of the wing. The high-pressure air below the
wing is drawn up through the slot and flows over the top of the wing. This energizes the
boundary on top of the wing. A permanent slot can increase the critical angle of attack
60 | P a g e
significantly.
The disadvantage of the fixed slot is that it causes increased power consumption and
drag at cruise speeds. A device similar to the slot is the fixed slat, shown in Figure 3.32. It is
added onto the wing, increasing the wings cord length as well as energizing the boundary layer.
Like the fixed slot, the fixed slat causes increased drag at cruise speeds. The solution to the
drag caused by fixed slots and slats is to design a slat that is deployed only at slow speeds and
causes little or no drag in cruise. The Handley-Page retractable slat, shown in Figure extends
to large droop angles to give the wing large leading-edge camber. In cruise the slats are
retracted and do not cause increased drag. This type of slat is often designed so that they deploy
by themselves at slow speeds and high angles of attack and return to the flush position in cruise.

Fig-11.1 Double slotted flap

11.4. Deflected Slipstream and Jet Wash

One way to increase lift at slow flight speeds is to divert the propellers slipstream or
the jet engines exhaust down. To achieve a substantial lift increase with a slipstream, the plane
must have engines mounted on the wings with large propellers that generate a slipstream over
a substantial portion of the wing. The wing must also have a multi slotted flap system to deflect
the slipstream effectively. This technique has not found significant commercial applications.
The exhaust of a turbofan-powered airplane can be diverted down to produce additional lift at

61 | P a g e
low speeds. One way to produce the diversion is to have the flaps extend down into the exhaust
when fully extended. One problem with this technique is that the flap extension into the jet
exhaust exposed it to very high temperatures, creating a significant design challenge. Another
way to divert the jet exhaust is to mount the engines on the top of the wing with the engine
exhaust crossing the top of the wing as in Figure. Flaps behind the engines use the Coanda
effect to divert the exhaust down when extended. This gives a substantial increase in lift for
takeoff and landing.
Slats operate rather differently from flaps in that they have little effect on the lift at a
given angle of attack. Rather, they extend the range of angles over which the flow remains
attached. This is shown in fig

Fig-11.2 Motion of Double slotted Flap

11.5. Leading Edge Devices

Leading edge devices such as nose flaps, Kruger flaps, and slats reduce the pressure
peak near the nose by changing the nose camber. Slots and slats permit a new boundary layer
to start on the main wing portion, eliminating the detrimental effect of the initial adverse
gradient.

11.6. Wing tips

Wing tips shape has two effects upon subsonic aerodynamic performance. The tip
shape affects the aircraft wetted area, but only to a small extent. A far more important effect is

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the influence the tip shape has upon the lateral spacing of the tip vortices. This is largely
determined by the ease with which the higher-pressure air on the bottom of the wing can escape
around the tip to the bottom of the wing
A smoothly-rounded tip easily permits the air to flow around the tip. A tip with a
sharp edge makes it more difficult, thus reducing the induced drag. Most of the new low drag
wing tips use some form of sharp edge. In fact, even a simple cut-off tip offers less drag than
a rounded-off tip, due to the sharp edges where the upper and lower surfaces end. The mostly
widely used low-drag wing tip is the Horner wingtip. This is a sharp-edged wing tip with a
upper surface continuing the upper surface of the wing. The lower surface is “undercut” and
canted approximately 30 deg to the horizontal. The lower surface may also be “under
cambered”.

Result
Thus, the balancing and maneuvering loads on tail plane, aileron and rudder was studied.

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 12.DESIGN OF WING-ROOT
ATTACHMENT

12.1. Wing root

The wing root is the part of the wing on a fixed-wing aircraft that is closest to the
fuselage. On a simple monoplane configuration, this is usually easy to identify. On parasol
wing or multiple boom aircraft, the wing may not have a clear root area.
Wing roots usually bear the highest bending forces in flight and during landing, and
they often have fairings (often named "wing fillets") to reduce interference drag between the
wing and the fuselage.
The basic idea is as follows. If the fuselage expands and contracts over the wings, as it
does for the 601 HDS, then these increases drag and reduces lift, particularly for large payloads
or high angles of attack. The negative effects can be mitigated by a fairing that simulates a
constant width fuselage. The fairings significantly improve climb rate, ceiling, and stall speed,
sink rate at low speeds, optimum glide ratio, minimum power to stay aloft, and stability of the
plane when CG is close to the rear limit. Generally, the required angle of attack in level flight
is significantly reduced at or below cruise power settings. This manifests itself by a much lower
nose, the design of the fairing is not difficult.
One draws on the fuselage the points of attachment of the fairing in a reasonable curve.
On the wing, one draws a straight line that is at 90 deg with the spar and that just touches the
fuselage at its widest point. Now one connects the line on the wing with the curve on the
fuselage, thus getting a surface. The fairing must have that surface.
For creation of the fairing, one protects the wing and fuselage with masking tape, then
establishes the fairing surface using plaster. Once the plaster is cured and dried, one lays the
fiberglass. When the resin has set, the fairing is removed, trimmed, and the fairing surface is
finished using light-weight filler. Of course, the plaster and masking tape are removed as well.
The finished fairing is riveted to sidewall and wing surface, and then painted. Overall, one
should aim for very lightweight fairings that together do not exceed 4 lbs. when painted.

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 Fig-11.1 Wing root

12.2. Wing configuration

Fixed wing airplane popularly called aero planes, airplanes, or just planes, may be built
with many wing configurations.
This page provides a breakdown of types, allowing a full description of any aircraft's
wing configuration. For example, the super marine Spitfire wing may be classified as a
conventional low wing cantilever monoplane with straight elliptical wings of moderate aspect
ratio and slight dihedral.
Sometimes the distinction between types is blurred, for example the wings of many
modern combat aircraft may be described either as cropped compound deltas with (forwards
or backwards) swept trailing edge, or as sharply tapered swept wings with large leading edge
root extensions (or LERX).
All the configurations described have flown (if only very briefly) on full-size aircraft,
except as noted. Some variants may be duplicated under more than one heading, due to their
complex nature. This is particularly so for variable geometry and combined (closed) wing
types.
Note on terminology: Most fixed-wing aircraft have left hand (port) and right hand
(starboard) wings in a symmetrical arrangement. Strictly, such a pair of wings is called a wing
plane or just plain. However, in certain situations it is common to refer to a plane as a wing, as
in "a biplane has two wings", or to refer to the whole thing as a wing, as in "a biplane wing has
two planes". Where the meaning is clear, this article follows common usage, only being more
precise where needed to avoid real ambiguity or incorrectness.

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 Fig-12.2 Types of wings

12.3. Wing plan form

13.3.1. Aspect ratio
The aspect ratio is the span divided by the mean or average chord. It is a measure of
how long and slender the wing appears when seen from above or below.
• Low aspect ratio: short and stubby wing. More efficient structurally and higher
instantaneous roll rate. They tend to be used by fighter aircraft, such as the Lockheed F-104
Star fighter, and by very high-speed aircraft (e.g. North American X-15).
• Moderate aspect ratio: general-purpose wing (e.g. the Lockheed P-80Shooting
Star).
• High aspect ratio: long and slender wing. More efficient aerodynamically, having
less induced drag. They tend to be used by high-altitude subsonic aircraft (e.g. the Lockheed
U-2), subsonic airliners (e.g. the Bombardier Dash and by high performance sailplanes (e.g.
Glaser-Dirks DG-500).

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12.3.2. Wing sweep
Wings may be swept back, or occasionally forwards, for a variety of reasons. A small
degree of sweep is sometimes used to adjust the center of lift when the wing cannot be attached
in the ideal position for some reason, such as a pilot's visibility from the cockpit. Other uses
are described below

Fig-11.3 Swept wing

• Straight: extends at right angles to the line of flight. The most structurally-efficient wing, it
is common for low-speed designs, such as the P-80Shooting Star and sailplanes.
• Swept back (aka "swept wing"): The wing sweeps rearwards from the root to the tip. In
early tailless examples, such as the Dunne aircraft, this allowed the outer wing section to act
like a conventional empennage (tail) to provide aerodynamic stability. At transonic speeds
swept wings have lower drag, but can handle badly in or near a stall and require high
stiffness to avoid aero elasticity at high speeds. Common on high-subsonic and early
supersonic designs e.g., the Hawker Hunter.
• Forward swept: the wings angles forward from the root. Benefits are similar to backwards
sweep, also it avoids the stall problems and has reduced tip losses allowing a smaller wing,
but requires even greater stiffness to avoid aero elastic flutter as on the Sukhoi Su-47. The
HFB-320Hansa Jet used forward sweep to prevent the wing spar passing through the cabin.
Small shoulder-wing aircraft may use forward sweep to maintain a correct CoG.

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12.3.3. Chord variation along span
The wing chord may be varied along the span of the wing, for both structural and
aerodynamic reasons.
• Constant chord: parallel leading & trailing edges. Simplest to make, and common
where low cost is important, e.g. in the Piper J-3 Cub but inefficient as the outer
section generates little lift while adding both weight and drag. Sometimes known as
the Hershey Bar wing in North America due to its similarity in shape to a chocolate
bar.
• Tapered: wing narrows towards the tip. Structurally and aerodynamically more
efficient than a constant chord wing, and easier to make than the elliptical type.
• Trapezoidal: a tapered wing with straight leading and trailing edges: may be wept
or swept. The straight tapered wing is one of the most common wing plan forms, as
seen on the Grumman F4F Wildcat.
• Inverse tapered: wing is widest near the tip. Structurally inefficient, leading to high
weight. Flown experimentally on the XF-91 Thunder captor in an attempt to
overcome the stall problems of swept wings.
• Compound tapered: taper reverses towards the root. Typically, braced to maintain
stiffness. Used on the Westland Lysander army cooperation aircraft to increase
visibility for the crew.
• Constant chord with tapered outer section: common variant seen for example on
many Cessna types and the English Electric Canberra.

12.3.4. Dihedral and anhedral

Angling the wings up or down span wise from root to tip can help to resolve various
design issues, such as stability and control in flight.
• Dihedral: the tips are higher than the root as on the Boeing 737, giving a shallow
'V' shape when seen from the front. Adds lateral stability.
• Anhedral: the tips are lower than the root, as on the Ilyushin Il-76; the opposite of
dihedral. Used to reduce stability where some other feature results in too much
stability.
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 Some biplanes have different degrees of dihedral/Anhedral on different wings; e.g. the
Sop with Camel had a flat upper wing and dihedral on the lower wing, while the Hariot HD-1
had dihedral on the upper wing but none on the lower.

12.3.5. Wings vs bodies

Some designs have no clear join between wing and fuselage, or body. This may be
because one or other of these is missing, or because they merge into each other,
• Flying wing: the aircraft has no distinct fuselage or horizontal tail (although fins
and pods, blisters, etc. may be present) such as on the B-2stealth bomber.
• Blended body or blended wing-body: a smooth transition occurs between wing
and fuselage, with no hard dividing line. Reduces wetted area and can also reduce
interference between airflow over the wing root and any adjacent body, in both cases
reducing drag. The Lockheed SR-71spyplane exemplifies this approach.

Result
Thus, the design of wing root attachment is studied and made.

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 13.LANDING GEAR DESIGN
13.1. Landing gear
Landing gear is the undercarriage of an aircraft or spacecraft and is used in both takeoff
and landing.
For aircraft, the landing gear supports the craft when it is not flying, allowing it to take
off, land, and taxi without damage. Wheels are typically used but skids, skis, floats or a
combination of these and other elements can be deployed depending both on the surface and
on whether the craft only operates vertically (VTOL) or is able to taxi along the surface. Faster
aircraft usually have retractable undercarriages, which folds away during flight to reduce air
resistance or drag.
For launch vehicles and spacecraft landers, the landing gear is typically designed to
support the vehicle only post-flight, and are not used for takeoff or surface movement.

13.2. Types of landing gear

• Detachable landing gear
• Rearwards and sideways retraction
• Tandem layout
• Early shock absorption
• "Kneeling" gear
• Folding gear
• Light aircraft
• Mono wheel

13.2.1. Detachable landing gear

Some aircraft use wheels for takeoff and then jettison them soon afterwards for
improved aerodynamic streamlining without the complexity, weight and space requirements
of a retraction mechanism. In these cases, the wheels to be jettisoned are sometimes mounted
onto axles that are part of a separate "dolly" (for main wheels only) or "trolley" (for a three-
wheel set with a nose wheel) chassis. Landing is then accomplished on skids or similar other
simple devices.
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 Historical examples include the "dolly"-using Messerschmitt Me 163 rocket fighter the
Messerschmitt Me 321 Giant troop glider, and the first eight "trolley"-using prototypes of the
Arado Ar 234 jet reconnaissance bomber. The main disadvantage to using the takeoff
dolly/trolley and landing skid(s) system on German World War II aircraft intended for a sizable
number of late-war German jet and rocket-powered military aircraft designs was that aircraft
would likely be scattered all over a military airfield after they had landed from a mission, and
would be unable to taxi on their own to an appropriately hidden "dispersal" location, which
could easily leave them vulnerable to being shot up by attacking Allied fighters.

13.2.2. Rearwards and sideways retraction

Some main landing gear struts on World War II aircraft, in order to allow a singleleg
main gear to more efficiently store the wheel within either the wing or an engine nacelle,
rotated the single gear strut through a 90° angle during the
Rearwards-retraction sequence to allow the main wheel to rest "flat" above the lower
end of the main gear strut, or flush within the wing or engine nacelles, when fully retracted.
Examples are the Vought F4U Corsair, Grumman F6F Hellcat, "Messerschmitt Me 210 and
Junkers Ju 88. The Aero Commander family of twin-engine business aircraft also shares this
feature on the main gears, which retract aft into the ends of the engine nacelles. The rearward-
retracting nose wheel strut and the forward retracting nose gear strut similarly rotated 90
degrees as they retracted.

13.2.3. Tandem layout

An unusual undercarriage configuration is found on which has two main wheels in line
astern under the fuselage (called a bicycle or tandem layout) and a smaller wheel near the tip
of each wing. On second generation Harriers, the wing is extended past the outrigger wheels
to allow greater wing-mounted munition loads to be carried.
A multiple tandem layout was used on some military jet aircraft during the 1950s,
pioneered by the Martin XB-51, and later used on such aircraft as the U-2, Yakovlev Yak-25,
because it allows room for a large internal bay between the main wheels. A variation of the
multi tandem layout is also used on the B-52 Strata fortress which has four main wheel bogies
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(two forward and two aft) underneath the fuselage and a small outrigger wheel supporting each
wing-tip. This allows the landing gear to line up with the runway and thus makes crosswind
landings easier (using a technique called crab landing. The challenge of designing a tandem-
gear layout is that the aircraft has to sit (on the ground) at the optimum flight angle for landing
– when the plane is nearly in a stalled attitude just before touchdown, both fore and aft wheels
must be ready to contact the runway. Otherwise, there will be a vicious jolt as the higher wheel
falls to the runway at the stall.

13.2.4. Kneeling gear

Some early jet fighters were equipped with “kneeling” nose gear consisting of small
steerable auxiliary wheels on short struts located forward of the primary nose gear, allowing
the aircraft to be taxied tail-high with the primary nose gear retracted.
This feature was intended to enhance safety aboard aircraft carriers by redirecting the
hot exhaust blast upwards, and to reduce hangar space requirements by enabling the aircraft
to be parked with its nose underneath the tail of a similarly equipped jet. Kneeling gear was
used on the North American, but was found to be of little use operationally, and was not used
on later Navy fighters.
The nose wheel gear systems of some large cargo jets, like the Condor, kneel to assist
in loading and unloading of cargo using ramps through the forward, "tilt-up" hinged fuselage
nose while stationary on the ground.

13.2.5. Folding gear

In order to save precious space, various folding and splay able landing gear designs
have been created.

13.2.6. Light aircraft

For light aircraft a type of landing gear which is economical to produce is a simple
wooden arch laminated from ash, as used on some homebuilt aircraft. A similar arched gear is
often formed from spring steel. The Cessna Air master was among the first aircraft to use
spring steel landing gear. The main advantage of such gear is that no other shock-absorbing
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device is needed; the deflecting leaf provides the shock absorption.

13.2.7. Monowheel
To minimize drag, modern gliders most usually have a single wheel, retractable or
fixed, centered under the fuselage, which is referred to as mono wheel gear or mono wheel
landing gear. Mono wheel gear is also used on some powered aircraft, where drag reduction is
a priority, such as the Much like the Me 163 rocket fighter, some gliders from prior to the
Second World War used a take-off dolly that was jettisoned on takeoff and then landed on a
fixed skid.

Fig-12.1 Landing Gear

Result
Thus, the design of landing gear is studied and made.

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 THREE VIEW DIAGRAM
Top View

Front View

Side View

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 CONCLUSION

The preliminary and detail design of a passenger aircraft was completed with
performance parameters required for calculation. The obtained design values are not
necessarily a definite reflection of the airplane's true and conceptualized design, but the basic
outlay of development has been obtained.

The detailed design provides desired considerations of passenger aircraft. The

required ideal design changes and improvements secured an optimum performance of an
aircraft.

The challenges faced in this design project-II have various phases. The experience
plays a vital role in successful design of any aircraft in future. Future development can be
implemented for perfect aircraft design.

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 REFERENCES

1. Anderson, John D. Jr., (1999) “Aircraft Performance and Design”, McGraw-Hill, New
York

2. Anderson, John D. Jr., (2001) “Introduction to Flight”, McGraw-Hill , New York

3. Perkins, C. and Hage, R. (1949) “Airplane Performance”, Stability and Control, Wiley,
New York

4. Raymer, Daniel P. (1992) “Aircraft Design: A Conceptual Approach”, AIAA

Education series, Washington, DC

5. Taylor, J. (2004) “Jane’s All the World’s Aircraft”, Jane’s, London, UK

6. Moaz Hussain (October 2019), “Aircraft Design Project (Detailed)_ Design of 100-
Seater STOL Commuter Aircraft”, Bachelor of Engineering (Mini Project I),
DOI:10.13140/RG.2.2.35083.85284

7. Moaz Hussain (October 2019), “Design of 120 Seater Passenger Aircraft _Aircraft
Design Project-I”, Bachelor of Engineering (Mini Project II), DOI:

8. 10.13140/RG.2.2.10075.31522

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