Background Review - AFM - 21V31 - 39 - Emerging Thermal Technology Enabled Augmented Reality - PSLee

Review
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Emerging Thermal Technology Enabled Augmented Reality

Kaushik Parida, Hyunwoo Bark, and Pooi See Lee*
information into the user’s environment.
In the past decade, remarkable progress has been made in the domain of For instance, augmented visual informa-
augmented reality/virtual reality (AR/VR). The need for realistic and immersive tion can be overlaid onto a patient while
augmentation has propelled the development of haptics interfaces-enabled performing surgery, projected onto a car
AR/VR. The haptics interfaces facilitate direct interaction and manipulation window to navigate while driving, and can
also be utilized to provide real-time instruc-
with both real and virtual objects, thus augmenting the perception and
tions to manufacturers in smart factories.[4]
experiences of the users. The level of augmentation can be significantly This technology has significantly improved
improved by thermal stimulation or sensing, which facilitates a higher degree the efficiency, productivity, consistency, and
of object identification and discrimination. This review discusses the thermal safety of operations in various industries.
technology-enabled augmented reality and summarizes the recent progress For instance, a doctor can learn virtual sur-
gery by interacting with augmented tools
in the development of different thermal technology such as thermal haptics
and virtual organ.[5] Several commercial
including thermo-resistive heater and Peltier devices, thermal sensors including AR/VR products are creating a significant
resistive, pyroelectric, and thermoelectric sensors, which can be utilized to impact on various domains.
improve the realism of augmentation. The fundamental mechanism, design Since the breakthrough in display
strategies, and the rational guidelines for the adoption of these technologies technologies with the advent of the head-
in AR/VR is explicitly discussed. The conclusion provides an outlook on the mounted 3D displays,[6] remarkable pro-
gress has been made in the domain of
existing challenges and outlines the future roadmap for the realization of next-
AR/VR. These displays create a virtual,
generation thermo-haptics enabled augmented reality. computer-generated environment to aug-
ment the perception and experiences of the
1. Introduction users. Although these display technologies provide a certain level
of virtual experiences, the demand for more realistic and prac-
The concept of creating a virtual reality was introduced half a tical augmentation propelled the development of haptics inter-
century ago,[1] the recent development of computer graphics, faces. Utilizing haptics interfaces, the user can directly interact
portable and wearable electronic devices, and human–machine with real and virtual objects. The user can experience the sen-
interface has catapulted the re-emergence of this technology. For sation of touching a virtual object by mechanical and thermal
instance, recent examples of augmented reality/virtual reality stimulations, and the motion of the hand in real space can be
(AR/VR) is the immense popularity of a “Google Glass” (to aug- projected in virtual space by sensing the movements and thermal
ment maps, picture, and video calls onto a pair of eyeglasses) and properties. The thermal stimulation/sensing is one of the most
“Pokemon Go” (a virtual reality-based mobile game).[2] Although crucial components of the haptics interface. It facilitates the
gaming and entertainment industries were the early adopters identification and discrimination of objects, reinforces emotional
of AR/VR, this technology is being rapidly adopted by several stimulations and augmentations, and facilitates the translation of
industries including healthcare, manufacturing, education, any real object into a touch interface, thus significantly improves
logistics, marketing, transportation, and several others.[3] One of the level of simulated-reality.
the key applications of AR/VR technology is the incorporation of Herein, this review highlights the latest progress in the
domain of thermal technology-enabled augmented reality. We
first introduce and explicitly discuss the AR/VR technology
Dr. K. Parida, Dr. H. Bark, Prof. P. S. Lee and the utilization of haptics interfaces to improve the inter-
School of Materials Science and Engineering
Nanyang Technological University action of the user with the augmented domain. Subsequently,
50 Nanyang Avenue, Singapore 639798, Singapore we summarize the recent progress in the development of var-
E-mail: pslee@ntu.edu.sg ious thermal technologies. Furthermore, we explicitly discuss
The ORCID identification number(s) for the author(s) of this article the technology related to thermal haptics including thermo-
can be found under https://doi.org/10.1002/adfm.202007952. resistive heater (TRH) and Peltier devices, and thermal sensors
© 2021 The Authors. Advanced Functional Materials published by Wiley- including resistive, pyroelectric, and thermoelectric with par-
VCH GmbH. This is an open access article under the terms of the Crea- ticular attention on the strategies to improve the stimulations
tive Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivs License, which and sensing performance. Specifically, we outline the rational
permits use and distribution in any medium, provided the original work
is properly cited, the use is non-commercial and no modifications or
guidelines for the adoption of these technologies which can
adaptations are made. potentially revolutionize and redefine the ways humans per-
The copyright line for this article was changed on 25 June 2021 after ceive and interact with the real and augmented domain. Lastly,
original online publication. we concluded this article by outlining the key challenges and
delineate the key future direction for the progress of thermo-
DOI: 10.1002/adfm.202007952 haptics based augmented reality.
Adv. Funct. Mater. 2021, 31, 2007952 2007952 (1 of 27) © 2021 The Authors. Advanced Functional Materials published by Wiley-VCH GmbH
www.advancedsciencenews.com www.afm-journal.de
2. Augmented Reality/Virtual Reality objects. The incorporation of haptics and sensors can facilitate
these interactions to improve the realism of augmentation.
Virtual reality (VR) renders a virtual environment by creating
computer-generated graphics.[7] Particularly, it augments and
extends the user’s vision by rendering virtual objects and 2.1. Haptics Technology Enabled Augmented Reality
information on top of the existing background vision. However,
the environment created by VR is predominantly computer-gen- Touch is a language we all instinctively understand. Apart
erated, thus it offers limited interaction with the virtual objects. from vision, touch is the most crucial channel of communica-
The user cannot feel or touch the virtual objects. A few of the pop- tion which helps humans to interact, explore, and understand
ular commercially available VR products are Oculus Rift, Play- the world. It complements our visual impulses and provides
Station VR, Google Cardboard, etc. Typically, these VR headsets a holistic perception of the surrounding environment. The
work in combination with a computer or mobile phone which sense of touch facilitates a deeper level of understanding of the
performs the backend processing. Unlike VR, where the virtual human–machine interactions, which cannot be accomplished
environment is completely simulated, in augmented reality (AR) by visual or olfactory stimulations. Touch is intimately associ-
the user can manipulate and interact with both the augmented ated with communicating human emotions. Haptic interfaces
and real environments.[8] It is the combination of the computer- provide information on the object shape, stiffness, texture, and
generated digital elements and the physical world, where the elasticity thus enabling a deeper level of object identification
virtual elements are projected or over-laid or inserted onto a real and discrimination which is not possible in visual communica-
object/background utilizing next-generation haptics and sensing tions.[9] In contrast to the visual aided AR technology, haptics-
technologies. In the advanced form of AR (also known as mixed based AR is a two-way communication medium, where sensing
reality or merged reality), virtual or digital objects are anchored and stimulation occur simultaneously (Figure 2a). These sen-
and interacted with the real world, thus facilitating a higher sations occur via direct interaction with the human skin.[10]
degree of interaction with the virtual object. The different kinds Haptics technology can be broadly categorized into tactile and
of augmentation are schematic illustrated in Figure 1. kinesthetic. Humans use both tactile and kinesthetic sensations
One of the most cardinal components of the AR/VR system to acquire feedback and interact with the environment. The
is the “interaction” between different “entities” present in both tactile or cutaneous stimulation refers to the “sense of touch”
the real and virtual environments. Traditionally, most of these which is facilitated by simulating receptors present in human
interactions between the user and the augmented environment skin.[1] The tactile senses can perceive four different kinds of
are touchscreen-based, utilizing multi-touch gestures such as stimulations; mechanical, thermal, electrical, and chemical. Kin-
sliding and pinching. However, such user interfaces have sev- esthetic or proprioceptive stimulation refers to the awareness of
eral limitations, including the inability to select and identify movement, velocity, force, and position, which are facilitated by
points in 3D space or directly overlay virtual objects (such as simulating receptors present in human tendons and muscles.
sliders or buttons) onto real objects. For the development of the Although haptics enabled AR is in its infancy stage com-
next-generation AR/VR interface, there is a need to realize a pared to that of the visual and olfactory technologies, extensive
novel interactive platform, to interact with both real and virtual efforts have been made to develop mechanical haptics interfaces
Figure 1. Schematic illustration of virtual reality, augmented reality, and mixed reality.
Figure 2. Haptics and thermal technology enabled augmented reality. a) Digital photo of the application of AR in prosthetics, where an epidermal
haptics-based AR interface is attached to the upper arm to stimulate mechanical sensation. Reproduced with permission.[12] Copyright 2018, Nature
Publishing Group. b) Schematic illustration of the haptics gloves utilizing a triboelectric sensor and piezoelectric actuator. Digital photo of the gloves-
based haptics and its projection in virtual domain facilitating real-time haptics feedback. Reproduced with permission.[19] Copyright 2020, AAAS.
c) Schematic illustration of social media application of haptics-based AR interface, where a grandmother wearing a haptics-based device to feel the
touch of a girl (right). Illustration of the “virtual touch process” utilizing the haptic interface (left). Reproduced with permission.[12] Copyright 2018,
Nature Publishing Group. d) Digital photo of translating a real object into a touch interface for augmentation by identifying the residual heat. Repro-
duced with permission.[33b] Copyright 2014, IEEE.
utilizing electrotactile stimulations and actuators. Electrotactile piezoelectric and triboelectric nanogenerators can be utilized to
stimulations are based on the collection of an array of elec- realize energy-efficient and self-powered haptics interfaces.[20]
trodes that induce sensory substitution to the human body.[11] A complete haptic interface for AR comprises relays, control
Actuators impart mechanical forces to human skin by uti- systems, connecting wires, and power banks. Thus, most of the
lizing various mechanisms, such as electrical motors, dielec- current haptic interfaces are bulky, consume a lot of power, and
tric actuators, magnetic actuation, and inverse-piezoelectric suffer from a restricted degree of freedom.[11b,21] To address this
devices.[12] For instance, Konyo et al. used a vibratory stimulator issue, Roger et al. developed a lightweight and battery-free epi-
to create the sensation of pressure, roughness, and friction.[13] dermal VR haptic interface (Figure 2a,c).[12] It is composed of soft
Lopes et al.[14] utilized wearable electrotactile muscle stimula- actuators that are wirelessly powered and controlled. Near-field
tors to augment the experience of physical impact and heavy communication (NFC) protocols were deployed for the battery-
objects. Vibrational haptics embedded in wearable clothes free operations of the haptics interface. Different NFC antennas
(named as Synesthesia Suit) can also create an immersive expe- were used for data communications and delivery of energy, thus
rience.[15] Handheld controllers such as “NormalTouch and Tex- reducing the interference. The individual electrical components
tureTouch” were used to simulate the experience of touching are connected via conducting elements with strategic structural
a 3D shape object.[16] Haptics can also be utilized to simulate designs to dissipate the stress when subjected to deformations.
information at a localized point of interaction in the absence Thus, making it functional when subjected to various defor-
of visual stimulations. For example, refreshable tactile braille mations. This also facilitated the comfortable and conformal
display for visually challenged people.[17] Fujinawa et al. simu- integration onto human skin without creating any discomfort.
lated the sensation of weight by creating an illusion of shape Furthermore, they demonstrated that the developed haptics
utilizing haptics.[18] In addition to hand-held or wearable hap- can be utilized in various AR applications such as interactive
tics, objects, or props from the physical world can provide gaming, social media interactions, and prosthetic feedback.
tactile stimulations.[18] This prop-based haptics are utilized to The somatosensory system present in human skin is a com-
create substitutional reality. Chen et al. utilized prop-based hap- plex system, with different kinds of sensors, which help human
tics to simulate the structure of environments and force feed- to interact with the external environment. Thus, to improve the
back.[1] To realize energy-efficient haptics feedback, Lee et al. interactions and immersivity of the augmented environment, it
demonstrated wearable smart gloves with triboelectric bending is essential to recreate multiple tactile sensations. Multi-modal
and sliding sensors, and piezoelectric mechanical actuators.[19] haptic interfaces utilize combinations of different kinds of feed-
The sensors facilitated the detection of multidimensional hand back mechanisms such as tactile, force, position, and thermal
gestures in virtual space and the actuators provided the haptics to facilitate a completely immersive experience, both in the real
feedback (Figure 2b). Mechanical energy harvesters such as and augmented domain. Recently, various multi-modal haptic
interfaces are demonstrated which provides different kinds Traveller” wearable thermal haptics were utilized to augment
of tactile sensations such as texture or shape,[16] vibration,[22] ambient temperature and create a realistic wind sensation.[36]
friction,[23] hardness and softness,[24] pressure,[23] and tem- Most of the existing commercial thermal-based augmentation
perature.[25] One of the most crucial components to creating a technologies rely on visual displays and off-the-shelf commer-
realistic and interactive augmented environment is the thermal cial thermal haptics and sensor devices to manipulate human
sensation. perception.[33a,37] There is a huge gap between the state-of-
the-art thermal technology and the thermal devices utilized
in AR applications. Thus, it is crucial to study and understand
2.2. Thermal Technology Enabled Augmented Reality various state-of-the-art thermal technologies and outline the
guidelines for the adoption of these technologies in the AR.
The human sensory system is one of the most cardinal com- To address this gap in the literature, we have highlighted the
ponents of the human body, which assists human to survive, recent development in the domain of thermal haptics and sen-
adapt, and flourish in difficult and extreme environments. The sors. We have categorized the thermal technology-based AR
ability of the human body to sense temperature is one of the into two broader domains; thermo-haptics (direct augmentation
most critical attributes which helps it to perceive and interact facilitated by thermal stimuli), and thermo-sensing (detecting
with the external environment. Thermoception is the ability to heat flux to facilitate augmentation). Thermo-haptics is further
perceive temperature or the sensation of cold or warm. It can be subdivided into TRHs and Peltier devices. Thermo-sensing is
effectively utilized to manipulate the user’s perception by using subdivided into thermoresistive sensors, pyroelectric sensors,
various mediation and augmentation technologies.[26] Thermo- thermoelectric sensors, and thermogalvanic sensors respec-
ception is also influenced by other multiple sensory perceptions tively. Figure 3 schematic illustrated the different domains
such as the visual and olfactory.[27] For instance, in conditions of the thermal technology enabled augmented reality/virtual
such as crossmodal correspondence and synaesthesia, humans reality (AR/VR). To design thermal haptics and sensors to effec-
associate colors to different temperatures such as red color for tively stimulate the thermal sensation, it is important to under-
warm sensation and blue color for cold sensation.[28] stand the various thermal properties of both the object and the
The difference in temperature can assist in the identification human skin.
and discrimination of different objects by facilitating innate infor-
mation, particularly about the material. For instance, Ino et al.
demonstrated that thermal cues facilitate better material iden- 2.3. Thermal Properties of Human Skin
tification by evaluating the temperature difference between the
human skin and the object in contact.[29] Material identification The human body senses the external temperature via thermo-
is further facilitated by evaluating the temperature profile and receptors embedded in the skin.[38] Skin facilitates bi-direc-
heat flux of the hand as a function of time.[30] Ho and Jones et al. tional interaction with the environment. It senses the exerted
further demonstrated that when the temperature difference thermal stimuli and provides thermal information to external
between objects is relatively larger it can facilitate better mate- sensors. Thus, it is crucial to understand the anatomy of the
rial localization and discrimination.[31] Yoo et al. established that human skin and its response to thermal stimuli, to effectively
thermal stimuli can strengthen emotions induced by mechanical design thermal haptics and sensors for AR applications. It is
stimuli.[32] For instance, to provoke a positive and happy emo- the largest organ of the human body with a weight of 5 kg and
tion, the vibrotactile-thermal stimuli should be exerted at a high- a surface area of 1.8 m2.[39] It is an excellent thermal insulator
frequency and low temperature, and to provoke a negative and (with a poor thermal conductivity of 0.37 W m−1 K−1 and poor
unpleasant emotion, the vibrotactile-thermal stimuli should be thermal diffusivity of 10−7 m2 s−1), thus it can sustain the core
exerted at a low-frequency and high temperature.[32] temperature of the human body in various environmental con-
By rendering thermal sensations onto virtual objects, the ditions. Skin (with a thickness of 2–3 mm) consists of three
realism of augmented simulation can be significantly improved. layers, the outermost epidermis, the middle dermis, and the
This has led to the development of thermography enabled aug- innermost hypodermis layer. Figure 4 illustrates the anatomy
mented touch interfaces.[33] For instance, by attaching infrared of human skin. The outermost epidermis (with a thickness of
cameras to head-mounted displays, thermal information of the 65–115 µm) acts as a protective barrier layer. The middle dermis
surrounding environment can be collected and overlaid onto the layer (with a thickness of 0.3–3 mm) houses all the cutaneous
user’s virtual view.[33a] Furthermore, residual heat from fingertip sensory receptors.[40] These cutaneous sensory receptors sense
was utilized to identify and distinguish physical contact between different kinds of external stimulations such as touch, pressure,
real objects and fingertips, thus creating a “3D position of touch” temperature, and pain.[4] The innermost hypodermis layer acts
to augment the interaction with both virtual and real objects as a protective insulating and padding layer which connects
(Figure 2d).[33b] This facilitates the translation of any real object the skin to the underlying muscle and bone.[41] The skin has
into a touch interface to interact with the virtual domain. different kinds of cutaneous sensory receptors such as mecha-
Thermal haptic has been adopted in various commercial noreceptors (responds to mechanical stimulation), thermo-
technologies and industrial applications. For example, the expe- receptors (responds to thermal stimulation), and nociceptors
rience of scuba diving was augmented utilizing Peltier devices (responds to the sensation of pain).
and motion-platforms.[34] Products such as “Thermovr” utilizes The responsivity of skin to mechanical and thermal stimuli
Peltier devices to create the sensation of heating and cooling.[35] varies across various locations of the human body. For instance,
In commercial products such as “Ambiotherm” and “Season the tip of fingers has a high density of mechanoreceptors
Figure 3. Schematic diagram showing the thermal technology-enabled augmented reality/virtual reality (AR/VR). Thermo-haptics side: from the top to
bottom, (1) Reproduced with permission.[81] Copyright 2020, Wiley-VCH. (2) Reproduced with permission.[100] Copyright 2019, Springer Nature. (3) Repro-
duced with permission.[55] Copyright 2017, American Chemical Society. (4) Reproduced with permission.[67] Copyright 2020, RSC. Thermo-sensors side:
from the top to bottom, (5) Reproduced with permission.[105a] Copyright 2013, Nature Publishing Group. (6) Reproduced with permission.[109c]Copyright
2015, American Chemical Society. (7) Reproduced with permission.[134b] Copyright 2012, American Chemical Society. (8) Reproduced with permis-
sion.[169] Copyright 2016, Royal Society Chemistry. (9) Reproduced with permission.[163] Copyright 2016, Wiley-VCH.
compared to thermoreceptors, thus they are more sensitive to the specific threshold beyond which humans perceive external
mechanical stimuli compared to that of thermal stimuli.[42] The thermal stimuli depends on the location of stimulation and the
thermal sensitivity and the density of thermal receptors vary type of stimulation (such as cold or warm). The response speed
drastically (approximately two orders of magnitude) across dif- of the cold receptors is higher compare to that of the warm
ferent locations of the human body. For example, the mouth receptors. This is owing to the high conduction velocity of the
is highly thermal sensitive, however, the tip of the limbs has afferent fibers of the cold receptors (typically in the range of
relatively poor thermal sensitivity.[42] There are two different 10–20 m s−1) compared to that of the warm receptors (typically
sub-modalities of thermoreceptors; warm and cold recep- in the range of 1–2 m s−1).[44]
tors. These receptors operate in different thermal ranges.[43] The receptive field (it is the area of the receptor that can
The temperature range from 30 to 36 °C is considered as the trigger a neural response when externally stimulated) of ther-
neutral thermal zone, where the human skin does not observe moreceptors is close to 1 mm in diameter.[45] At the low inten-
any thermal sensation as both the thermoreceptors discharge sity of thermal stimulation, the thermoreceptors show good
simultaneously. The warm receptors are triggered when the spatial summation. However, as the magnitude of the stimuli
temperature of the skin increases beyond the neutral thermal increases, the degree of spatial summations of warm recep-
zone (typically operate in the range of 36–50 °C). The cold tors decreases.[46] Thus, the contact area and the duration of
receptors are triggered when the temperature of the skin stimulation of thermal haptics should be designed considering
decreases beyond the neutral thermal zone (typically operate the receptive field and the spatial and temporal properties of
below 30 °C). The density of thermoreceptors varies across dif- the site of thermal stimuli. Unlike the excellent localization of
ferent parts of the human body, particularly the density of cold mechanoreceptors, the thermoreceptors suffer from poor locali-
receptors is higher compared to that of warm receptors, thus zation.[47] This can lead to poor judgment of users to locate the
human skin is more sensitive to the sensation of cold than that specific site of thermal stimulation.[48] Simultaneous thermal
of warmth.[42] Moreover, cold receptors are closer to the surface and mechanical stimulation can significantly improve the local-
of human skin (at a depth of 0.15–0.17 mm) compared to that ization. Thus, multi-modal haptic interfaces should be designed
of warm receptors (located at a depth of 0.3–0.6 mm). Thus, for more realistic augmentation. When the temperature of the
Figure 4. Schematic of the skin anatomy with cutaneous sensory receptors.
human skin exceeds above 45 °C or falls below 15 °C, it acti- it is a prerequisite to achieving an operating temperature up
vates the nocioceptors, which induce the sensation of pain.[49] to 45 °C. In addition, low operating voltage (voltage exerted to
Thus, wearable thermal haptics for AR should operate in the achieve the steady-state temperature) is desirable to ensure the
temperature range from 15 to 45 °C. Furthermore, it is para- safety of the human body. Other important attributes include
mount not to change the core temperatures of the human good mechanical, electrical, and thermal stability, and spatial
body below 33 °C and above 41 °C, which can lead to the loss uniformity accompanied by stretchability, lightweight, nontox-
of human consciousness and is detrimental to the human icity, and conformal integration onto complex geometries such
body.[50] Other factors such as the location of stimulation, the as the human body. Moreover, to realize an energy-efficient
magnitude, and the rate of change of thermal activation should heater, it is essential to realize fast response time (time required
be considered while designing thermal haptics and sensor for to reach 90% of the steady-state temperature) and low operating
AR.[51] These fundamental understandings of the thermal inter- voltage. In this section, we outline the recent progress in the
action between thermoreceptors and external objects will pro- field of thermo-resistive heaters.
vide a framework for designing thermal haptics and sensor to To facilitate effective thermal stimulations, it is essential
stimulate and receive information from the human skin. to ensure conformal integration with human skin. Extensive
efforts have been made to realize soft, stretchable, lightweight,
and wearable TRHs. Deformable heaters can be realized by
3. Thermo-Haptics embedding conducting fillers into an elastomeric matrix. For
instance, deformable TRH was realized by dispersing silver
3.1. Thermo-Resistive Heaters nanowires (AgNWs) in styrene–butadiene–styrene (SBS) elas-
tomer matrix (Figure 5a).[52c] Owing to the high conductivity
Recently, extensive efforts have been made to develop TRHs, of AgNWs, there was a rapid increase in the temperature to
due to their broad application in different domains such as 40 °C upon applying a small voltage of 1 V. AgNW is one of the
healthcare management, thermotherapeutic applications, most preferred materials for deformable TRHs owing to their
thermal heating of displays, personalized heating systems, superior conductivity and percolation network. To date, several
and defrosting in cold climates.[52] The mechanism of TRH is works have been reported utilizing a plethora of different nano-
based on Joule’s law, where the amount of heat generated in a materials embedded in various elastomeric matrices. A few of
conducting material is equal to I2R per unit of time, where I is the noteworthy examples are highlighted in Table 1. Moreover,
the electrical current through the conductor and R is the resist- various novel structural patterns, such as fractal,[52c] wrin-
ance of the conductor. The thermal heat stimulated by the TRH kled,[53] and knitted,[54] structure have been adopted to realize
depends on the equilibrium between heat loss and the Joule’s deformable TRHs. For example, a mesh-like kirigami struc-
effect. Traditionally, ceramic-based metal-oxides were used as ture of conducting aluminum paper was utilized to realize a
conductors for TRHs. However, due to the fragile nature, and stretchable heater with good shape recoverability (Figure 5b).[55]
sophisticated processing conditions, several emerging nanoma- Furthermore, mesh structured stretchable fabric with AgNW
terials are preferred, such as metallic nanomaterials, carbon- heater achieved excellent conformability onto curvilinear
based nanomaterials, and conducting polymer. To effectively use joints.[52c] To further improve the wearability and comfortable
TRHs to create thermal stimulations for AR/VR applications, integration onto the human skin, fabric-based TRHs were
Figure 5. Thermo-resistive heaters. Digital photo of silver nanowires (AgNWs) based TRH worn on the wrist of the human hand (top). The inset is
SEM images of the TRH. Infrared image of the wrist during heating (bottom). Reproduced with permission.[52c] Copyright 2015, American Chemical
Society. b) Digital photo of the stretchable kirigami shaped TRH worn on the human wrist; (scale bar = 20 mm) (top). Infrared image of the wrist
during heating (operating voltage = 2.5 V) (bottom). Reproduced with permission.[55] Copyright 2017, American Chemical Society. c) Digital photo
of the wearable, breathable, and washable cotton fabrics with metal nanowires (NWs) based TRH gloves (top). Infrared image of the wearable TRH
during heating (bottom). Reproduced with permission.[57] Copyright 2014, American Chemical Society. d) Variation of the temperature of the liquid
metal-based TRH as a function of time when subjected to different deformations. e) Digital photo of the wearable thermal heater attached to kneepad
and the corresponding IR thermal images under different deformation. Reproduced with permission.[60] Copyright 2019, Wiley-VCH. f) Digital photo
of the patterned copper nanowire (CuNW) embedded in polyurethane acrylate (PUA) matrix-based thermo-resistive heater (TRH) (scale bar = 5 mm).
The inset digital images showing the deformability of the TRH (scale bar = 1 mm). g) Material discrimination between wood and copper by evaluating
the heat flux. h) Stimulating holding a cup filled with hot water. Reproduced with permission.[67] Copyright 2020, RSC.
Table 1. Summary of the state-of-the-art deformable thermal heater and cooler.
Thermo-resistive heater Rs [Ω sq−1] Operating voltage [V] to Temperature range [oC] Stretchability [%] Ref.
achieve 50 oC
Metallic based materials
AgNW in PDMS Matrix 30 2.8 20–150 60 [59]
AgNW on PEN substrate 33 5 25–55 NS [68]
CuZr Metallic glasses nanotrough 3.8 3 25–130 70 [69]
Ag grid on graphene substrate 4 <4 25–100 NS [70]
AgNW in PI matrix 25 4 25–130 NS [71]
CuNi micromesh films 16.2 3 25–225 NS [72]
AgNW in polyacrylate based polymer matrix 25 <5 20–160 Bendable BR < 1mm [52b]
AgNW with PEDOT:PSS 4 <6 20–40 NS [62]
AgNW with rGO 27 <5 25–120 NS [63]
Ligand exchanged AgNW in SBS matrix 0.8 Ω 0.75 25–57 100 [52c]
Cu nanowire based composite fiber 2.5 2 25–150 100 [73]
Liquid-metal in PDMS matrix R0 = 8.70 Ω 2 25–100 100 [60]
Carbon based materials
CNT on elastomer 2100 >10 25–268 400 [53]
Aligned MWCNT forest 172 <15 20–140 NS [74]
Graphene fibers 1.8 Ω 2.5 25–424 70 [75]
Carbonized weft-knitted fabric 1.89 1.5 20–160 70 [54]
Cotton fabrics functionalized with SWCNT NA 20 25–96 NS [58]
Doped graphene films 43 <12 20–100 4 [76]
Free standing Mxene paper 1.5 <1.5 25–140 Bendable [77]
Thermoelectric materials
Peltier device Number of couples Tambient [°C] Temperature range [°C] Applied current [A] Ref.
Bi2Te3/Sb2Te3 supperlattice (p-type) single 27 ≈−7–27 >3 [78]
Thermoelectric/glass fiber core–shell 2 27 ≈22–27 0.0035 [79]
Bi0.5Sb1.5Te3 (p-type)/Bi2Se3 (n-type)
Bi2Te3 based thermoelectric materials 72 32 ≈25–42 ≈−0.06–0.14 [80]
embedded in PDMS/AlN composite
Bi2Te3 based thermoelectric device with 16 25 ≈15–35 ≈−0.6–1.5 [81]
PDMS/Ag flake composite
NA, Not available; NS, Not stretchable; PEDOT:PSS, poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene):poly(styrenesulfonate); SBS, styrene–butadiene–styrene; MWCNT, multi-walled
carbon nanotube; PDMS, polydimethylsiloxane; WPU, waterborne polyurethane; rGO, reduced graphene oxide; AgNW, silver nanowire; PEN, poly(ethylene naphthalate);
PI, polyimide; CuNi, copper–nickel; BR, bendable radius.
developed. Zhang et al. utilized a commercial fabric coated with TRS, that can sustain its excellent conductivity even at 100%
a conductive polymer to demonstrate a flexible and breathable tensile strain.[60] Owing to the 3D conductive network of
TRH.[56] Hsu et. al. reported wearable, breathable, and wash- liquid metal in the polymeric matrix, temperature fluctua-
able cotton fabrics with metal nanowires (NWs) based TRH tion was mitigated to less than 8% (Figure 5d,e). Deformable
(Figure 5c).[57] Yarns and fabric heating mats were developed by TRHs also suffer from poor substrate adhesion, low electrical,
Ilanchezhiyan et al. by coating functionalized carbon nanotube and thermal stability.[61] Thermal stability and adhesion can
(CNT) onto cotton fibers.[58] be improved by coating conducting polymers or carbon-based
However, deformable TRHs suffer from the fluctuation materials onto the metallic nanomaterials, such as coating
of temperature when subjected to deformations, owing to poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene)-poly(styrenesulfonate)
the change in the electrical resistance.[53,59] For example, (PEDOT:PSS),[62] and graphene microsheets,[63] onto AgNW
deformable TRH fabricated with a percolated network of networks. The chemical stability was improved by using
AgNWs, showed a temperature variation by 30 °C at 30% tensile copper–nickel core–shell nanowires as electrodes, owing
strain.[59] Moreover, deformable thermo-resistive sensor (TRS) to its superior resistance to oxidation.[64] Furthermore,
fabricated utilizing wrinkled sheets of carbon nanotube, showed TRH with high resistance to oxidation and electromigra-
a temperature fluctuation of 50 °C at 100% tensile strain.[53] To tion was achieved by utilizing copper wire, alumina (Al2O3),
address this issue, Wang et al. fabricated a liquid-metal based and polyimide composite as the electrode.[65] Good spatial
niformity and s ubstrate adhesion of metallic nanowire net-

u For example, if the user is experiencing VR in a virtual space
works were achieved by incorporating clay platelets.[66] These such as snow mountain, the ambient temperature can be con-
problems need to be resolved for the practical deployment of trolled by the Peltier device rapidly. Analogously, the Peltier
TRH for AR/VR applications. device can simulate hot sensations in virtual space, such as
Although TRHs have been used for many applications, very when the user holds an object with a higher temperature like
few reports have utilized TRHs for AR/VR applications. Pio- a cup of hot water. In this perspective, the high conversion
neering work on utilizing TRH for AR/VR was demonstrated efficiency of the thermoelectric device and shape deformable
by Ko’s group.[67] They demonstrated a deformable thermal- thermoelectric device is required. The thermoelectric perfor-
haptic device utilizing patterned copper nanowire embedded in mance of n- and p-type thermoelectric materials is determined
the polyurethane acrylate matrix as the TRH to stimulate the by the figure of merit (ZT) of semiconductors, expressed by
localized change in temperature (Figure 5f).[67] The TRH can Equation (1) and the coefficient of performance (COP) is deter-
facilitate material discrimination (between wood and copper) mined by Equation (2).[84]
owing to the different thermal conductivity of different mate-
rials (Figure 5g). Moreover, it is a pixel-based thermal-haptics S 2σ
where each pixel can be independently controlled to stimulate ZT = T (1)
κ
the required heat flux. Particularly, they augmented the stimu-
lation of touching a cup filled with hot water (Figure 5h). Due  TH 
QC TC  1 + ZTAvg − T 
to the incorporation of a closed-loop feedback system, accurate COP = = C
(2)
simulation of temperature was realized. The feedback system Q E (TH − TC ) (
1 + ZTAvg + 1 )
was facilitated by utilizing the metallic nanowires as both the
heater and the thermal sensor. Due to the serpentine structure,
the resistive heater showed stable performance under high Where σ, S, T, and κ are electrical conductivity, Seebeck coef-
deformations, thus demonstrating a stretchable thermal-haptics ficient (thermopower), absolute temperature, and thermal con-
device for AR/VR applications. Thermal stimulations should be ductivity, respectively and QC, QE, TC, TH, and ZTAvg are cooling
provided in the range of 15–45 °C to activate the cold and warm energy, electrical energy consumption, absolute temperature at
receptors present on the human skin (explicitly explained in the cold side, absolute temperature at the hot side, and figure of
Section 2.3). However, the TRH can only provide the sensation merit at an average absolute temperature between cold and hot
of heat, thus, to improve the realism of augmentation, there is side, respectively.
a need to develop thermo-haptics to stimulate both the hot and Since the 1960s, bismuth telluride (Bi2Te3) has been exten-
cold sensation. sively explored as the thermoelectric material owing to its
excellent thermoelectric performance (typically within 573 K
[200 °C]) and high ZT value (a maximum ZT of 0.8 at 330 K).[85]
3.2. Peltier Devices However, based on the conversion efficiency, this traditional
thermoelectric material has low COP (with ≈0.27 for ΔT = 57 K),
Peltier effect is one of the thermoelectric phenomena, and thus it consumes high electrical power (about 3.7 times higher)
useful for cooling temperature due to direct conversion from for the generation of ΔT between the hot side (330 K) and cold
electrical power into heat absorption. Compared to refrigerant- side (273 K). If the ZT value is about 1.0 at a similar tempera-
based cooling devices such as air conditioners, this device has ture, it is expected that the COP of the Peltier device can reach
several advantages, such as no moving part, zero CO2 emis- one-fourth of that of the refrigerant-based air conditioning
sion, and noise-free operations.[82] Typical Peltier device (ther- system, moreover, if the ZT value is over 2, the air conditioning
moelectric device), which is composed of the series junction system can be practical.[86] There have been active researches
of n- and p-type semiconductors. When an electrical current for high ZT materials such as BiTe, PbTe, or SiGe based alloys.
is applied, the charged carriers (electron and hole) move The highest ZT values of PbTe and SiGe-based alloys can only
from one side to the other side, and these charged carriers be obtained beyond 473 K, and the achievable ZT values were
convey the heat, resulting in releasing heat and absorption below 0.5 at near room temperature (300 K).[87] Considering the
of heat (Figure 6a).[83] Employing this phenomenon, the Pel- AR/VR application which is mostly a personalized device, the
tier device can be a promising cooling or heating device. The thermoelectric materials with higher COP near room tempera-
Peltier devices can generate heat absorption or release with ture (≈300 K) are necessary.
ultra-fast response time (within a fraction of seconds) owing In this perspective, BiTe based alloy is the peerless Pel-
to the movement of the charged carrier of n- and p-type semi- tier device element. Even though single-crystalline Bi2Te3 has
conductors when subjected to electrical potential. Moreover, a high power factor (S2σ), the high thermal conductivity of
the temperature of the cooling or heating side can be precisely single-crystal Bi2Te3 (≈2 W mK−1) prevents the ZT to be higher
controlled by tuning the amount of current. In addition, by than 1.[88] Hicks and Dresselhaus gave the theoretical estima-
controlling the polarity of current, the side of heat absorption tion of high ZT value (ZT > 1.0) in superlattice structure,[98]
and release can be reversed. For this reason, the Peltier device extensive efforts were exerted to develop nanostructured mate-
makes it possible that a VR or AR user can feel the change of rials to achieve high performing thermoelectric devices. Nano-
environment from their vision into temperature change, which structured thermoelectric materials demonstrate high ZT value
is called thermo-haptics. In this section, we outlined the recent owing to the phonon scattering at interfaces and quantum con-
progress in the field of Peltier devices. finement effect.[94,99] For instance, Venkatasubramanian et al.
Figure 6. Peltier devices. a) Schematic illustration of Peltier cooling, b) photograph of commercial Peltier device. Reproduced with permission.[100]
Copyright 2019, Springer Nature. c) Schematic illustration of thermoregulation device on human skin (left), thermoregulation performance with a
wearable Peltier device (right). Reproduced with permission.[80] Copyright 2019, AAAS. d) Photograph of skin-like cooling-heating Peltier device (left),
thermo-haptic performance in virtual space. Reproduced with permission.[81] Copyright 2020, Wiley-VCH.
reported a thermoelectric cooling device utilizing the superlat- whereas for the bulk Bi0.5Sb1.5Te3 ingot the thermal conductivity
tice structure of Bi2Te3/Sb2Te3 (p-type).[78] Owing to the phonon was 1.4 W mK−1 at 298 K. Owing to the low thermal conduc-
scattering at the interfaces in superlattice structure, a signifi- tivity of the nanoscale grain, the ZT of Bi0.5Sb1.5Te3 reached as
cantly low thermal conductivity (κ) of Bi2Te3/Sb2Te3 (p-type) high as 1.2 at 298 K.
was shown at 0.22 W mK−1, whereas that of bulk BiSbTe alloy Furthermore, Kim et al. demonstrate that the generation of
was about 0.49 W mK−1. The maximum ZT value of p-type dense dislocation of grain boundary in Bi0.5Sb1.5Te3 reduces
superlattice structure was reached 2.4 at 300 K. In addition, the phonon thermal conductivity.[96] In this report, the exces-
the superlattice structure showed heating and cooling per- sive liquid phase of Te was located between Bi0.5Sb1.5Te3 grains.
formance. At ambient condition (T = 298 K), the superlattice As a result, the dislocation arrays were embedded in the grain
device showed a generation of ΔT = 32.2 K, which indicates boundaries, which are an effective part for scattering phonon
the temperature of the hot side was 298 K, and that of the transport, thus reducing the thermal conductivity of the mate-
cold side was 265.8 K, whereas the bulk device showed a gen- rial from 1.4 to 0.7 W mK−1 at room temperature. The max-
eration of ΔT = 18.4 K. Moreover, grain boundary engineering imum ZT value was reached to 1.86 at 320 K, and this material
can also enhance the ZT value. Poudel et al. reported that the generated ΔT = 81 K for 300 K of hot side temperature.
nanostructured Bi0.5Sb1.5Te3 is an effective way to enhance the High ZT materials (ZT > 2) may provide several advantages
ZT value.[94] When the thermoelectric leg was prepared by hot in AR/VR applications. As introduced, if the ZT value is over
pressing with nanostructured Bi0.5Sb1.5Te3, the nanograins were 2, the air conditioning or heating in the room becomes prac-
formed. These nanograins played a critical role to scatter the tical, which was normally conducted by a refrigerant-based air
phonon, thus substantially reducing the thermal conductivity. conditioning system. At this point, if the high ZT materials are
Specifically, the thermal conductivity at room temperature for utilized, rapid temperature control in AR/VR room is possible,
Bi0.5Sb1.5Te3 with nanograin was about 1.1 W mK−1 at 298 K, and the user can feel the practical climate or environment of
Table 2. Summary of Peltier elements candidates near room temperature.
Materials ZT Type Temperature Approach Ref.

Bi2Te3 0.32 n-type 300 K Single crystal [88]
Bi2Te3 1.1 n-type 340 K Nanocrystalline (nanoparticle synthesis) [89]
Bi2Te2.7Se0.3 1.15 n-type 340 K Ingot grown (Cu nanoparticle decoration) [90]
Bi2(Te0.94Se0.06)3 1.59 n-type 298 K Ingot grown (Te and I doping) [91]
Bi2Te2.7Se0.3 0.8 n-type 400 K Nanocrystalline (ball-milling) [92]
Bi2Te2.7Se0.3 1.14 n-type 323 K Nanocrystalline (ball-milling and InSb nanoparticle doping) [93]
Bi0.5Sb1.5Te3 1.2 p-type 298 K Nanocrystalline (ball-milling) [94]
Bi0.4Sb1.6Te3 1.8 p-type 316 K Nanocrystalline (ball-milling) [95]
Bi0.5Sb1.5Te3 1.86 p-type 320 K Dense dislocation in grain boundary [96]
Bi0.5Sb1.5Te3 1.07 p-type 350 K Nanocrystalline (ball-milling and TeO2 nanoparticle doping) [97]
(Bi0.25Sb0.75)2Te3 1.88 p-type 298 K Ingot grown (excess Te-doping) [91]
Bi2Te3/Sb2Te3 2.4 p-type 300 K Superlattice [78]
the virtual space. The candidates of Peltier elements for cooling that of pure PDMS was 0.22 W mK−1. The higher thermal con-
or heating performance near room temperature are summa- ductivity of PDMS/AlN composite provided effective heat dissi-
rized in Table 2. pation at the thermal interface layer. Besides, this Peltier device
The structural design and form factor of the Peltier device with the elastomer substrate composed of 72 p–n couples of
is one of the key considerations for designing thermo-haptics Bi2Te3 based materials showed stable resistance (ΔR/R0 < 1%)
for AR/VR applications. Currently, most of the commercial- under bending (R ≈ 20 mm), which indicates the device is
ized Peltier devices are sandwiched structure composed with deformable. This device showed promising result for control-
alumina substrate/series connection of n-, and p-type thermo- ling the sustainable body temperature with the generation of
electric materials/alumina substrate, as shown in Figure 6b. In ΔT ≈ 10 K. Adopting the proportional-integral-derivative (PID)
practice, alumina substrate-based Peltier device with small size control system when the skin temperature was below or above
(25.4 × 25.4 × 3.2 mm, length × width × height) showed cooling the target temperature, the temperature regulation was con-
performance on the human wrist.[100] In addition, to increase ducted by the Peltier device (Figure 6c). This result provides a
the temperature gradient range, the metal-based bulk heat sink hint on how to use the device for the experience in virtual space
is installed on the top side of the alumina substrate-based Pel- with a different climate. For instance, if there is digital infor-
tier device for heat dissipation. However, these rigid devices mation about sensible temperature as a function of climate or
fail to facilitate effective conformal integration onto human specific situation, the wearable Peltier device can control the
skin. This has propelled the need to develop shape deformable body temperature immediately. One of the possible scenarios of
or wearable Peltier devices. As discussed earlier, since the alu- the utilization of this device is firefighting training. If there is a
mina substrates are attached to the commercial Peltier device, scene of a fire in a virtual space, the user can feel the source of
this part is the most challenging part for a deformable device. the fire. And, if an AR/VR user holds an object, the mechanical
For this reason, the replacement of the substrate from a rigid actuator only provided the sense of touch of the object. If the
type substrate into soft materials has been studied. Especially, object has a high or low temperature, it was hard to feel the
since the bulk heat sink is limited physically in the AR/VR temperature of the object. To provide the temperature sensa-
application due to the miniaturization or weight issues, the uti- tion to the user, there was a trial for thermo-haptics with alu-
lization of soft materials, which have the ability of heat dissipa- mina substrate-based commercial Peltier device with 10.97 ×
tion, is required. Besides, considering the curvilinear nature of 8.79 × 2.16 mm (length × width × height).[102] In this case, since
the human body, the thermally conductive and soft material is the rigid type Peltier device was attached to the finger part of the
suitable for conformal contact to human skin and delivery of glove, it is hard to deliver the thermal sensation to the full area
thermal stimuli. For this reason, the device configuration using of the hand of the user. To address the issue, Lee et al. designed
soft materials is important for the thermal-haptic application. a skin-like wearable Peltier device for thermo-haptics.[81] In this
Recently, the polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS)/metal filler com- research, the device was fabricated with Bi2Te3 based p- and
posite showed the potential for the application. For example, n-type materials, and PDMS/Ag flake composite based sub-
Hong et al. developed an elastomeric substrate-based wearable state. The different point of the above case is that the size of the
thermoelectric device for body temperature regulation.[80,101] device was focused on the human finger. Similar to PDMS/AlN
In this study, the design and size of the device were similar to composite, owing to the Ag flake fillers in the PDMS matrix,
the commercial Peltier device (50 × 50 × 6 mm, length × width thermal conduction can be delivered. Moreover, the soft forms
× height), but the hot side and cold side junction of the ther- of PDMS are practical for conformal contact between the device
moelectric device were embedded in PDMS/aluminum nitride and human fingers. Employing the device, the actual thermo-
(AlN) composite elastomer. In this case, the thermal conduc- haptic performance was showed. Considering human thermal
tivity of the PDMS/AlN composite was 0.77 W mK−1, whereas sensation, the cooling and heating performance of the Peltier
device should be operational in a temperature range from 288 creating discomfort to the users.[106] These emerging thermal
to 318 K, preventing the damage of the human skin.[103] To sat- sensors are predominately based on three different mecha-
isfy the basis, the temperature of the device was controlled by nisms, such as thermoresistive, pyroelectric, and thermoelec-
the electrical current. The surface temperature was elevated tric. In this part of the review, we highlight the recent progress
from 298 to 308 K, applying 0.6 A in heating mode, whereas, in the domain of thermal sensors. Thermal sensors being one
that was decreased from 298 to 288 K, applying 1.5 A. Besides, of the most critical components of the AR/VR system, should
since the device is designed as a wearable device, the stability possess the following properties; fast response time, real-time
under mechanical force is an important part. Due to the ser- continuous monitoring with high accuracy and sensitivity, a
pentine Cu electrode and PDMS elastomer, the device was temperature-sensing range of 15–50 °C, good thermal and envi-
operated under a mechanical force such as strain or bending. ronmental stability.[107]
With the prototype of the wearable Peltier glove, reconstruc-
tion of thermal feeling in virtual space was tested. The infor-
mation on the time-dependent temperature change, when the 4.1. Thermoresistive Based Thermal Sensors
user was holding a cold or hot object in real life, was collected,
and the artificial thermal feeling was delivered in virtual space, TRS or thermistor is one of the most widely used thermal sen-
employing the PID control system (Figure 6d). If the tempera- sors owing to its simple configuration, and easy manufactur-
ture information of an object is stored into data information, ability. The operation of these thermal sensors is based on the
the user can feel the temperature of the object, even the user fluctuation of the resistance of the material when subjected
has never touched the object. to thermal perturbations. When these materials are subjected
With the exception of stored temperature information of the to thermal perturbations it changes the thermal vibrations of
object as digital information, there is a way to sense the tem- the lattices which in turn change the scattering of the electron
perature of the object. Guiaini et al. introduced a concept of waves, thus altering the resistance. Moreover, thermal activa-
thermal rendering in telepresence with the Peltier device.[104] tion also causes thermal expansion which further increases the
In the research, two commercial Peltier devices were connected resistance.[108] Based on the temperature coefficient of resist-
to the data processing unit. And then, a real material such as an ance (TCR), the TRS can be categorized into positive tempera-
aluminum bar was located on one of the devices. At this point, ture coefficient (when the resistance of the device increases
the ΔT between the materials located side, and the other side with the increase in the temperature), and negative tempera-
of the device was generated. This generated ΔT is a source for ture coefficient (when the resistance of the device decreases
electrical power generation. This electrical power can be tem- with the increase in the temperature).[109]
perature information, and through the data processing unit, Certain AR application requires continuous monitoring of
the current is applied in the other Peltier device. Touching the the human body temperature. Thus, there is a need to develop
device, the temperature information of the remote object is a wearable and epidermal thermal sensor that is lightweight,
delivered by telepresence. This technology can be employed in flexible, stretchable, and biocompatible for continuous moni-
a harsh condition site where a human is unable to work. For toring of human body temperature.[110] Several deformable
example, if a researcher wants to survey the plateau of lava, TRS have been developed adopting various thermo-resistive
the researcher can feel the temperature of the object in the site materials such as metallic materials (such as gold, platinum,
with VR remote drone or robot without visiting the site. nickel, copper, and silver),[111] liquid metals,[112] metal oxide
The above cases employed cuboid shape of p-, and n-type particles,[109d] polymer composite,[113] conducting polymers
thermoelectric material, and followed a similar assembly struc- (such as PEDOT:PSS and polyaniline [PANI]),[114] carbon-based
ture of the commercialized Peltier device. Zhang et al. reported materials (CNT, carbon nanofiber, graphene, and graphene
fiber-type thermoelectric materials, which are core (Bi0.5Sb1.5Te3 oxide),[108,109c,114a,115] crystalline semiconducting molecules
or Bi2Se3)–shell (borosilicate glass) structure.[79] Peltier device (pentacene),[116] silk,[115a] and ionic materials.[117]
showed the temperature gradient (ΔT ≈ 5 K) from the hot side Metal and metal oxides have been extensively utilized to
to the cold side by applying about 3.5 mA current in the device. develop TRS owing to its excellent thermal expansion coef-
Since the fiber type materials are useful for knitting, and the ficient. For example, Roger et al. developed a wearable con-
fiber is deformable, the fabric type of Peltier device can be fabri- formal TRS utilizing a thin serpentine feature of gold on an
cated for a wearable device and applied in various shape objects. elastomeric substrate (Figure 7a).[105a] The serpentine inter-
connects significantly reduce the temperature fluctuation
under high deformations. However, due to the low thermal
4. Thermal Sensor response of the TRS, the sensing range of metallic based
TRS is relatively at the high-temperature range, thus there
Traditionally, thermometers and infrared thermography are uti- is a need for materials sensitive at a lower temperature for
lized to measure the temperature, however, these devices are its deployment in AR/VR applications. The requirement is
bulky, suffers from sluggish equilibration time, fails to continu- to develop a highly sensitive TRS to sense a relatively small
ously monitor the temperature, not compatible with human– temperature fluctuation, particularly in the low-tempera-
machine interfacing, thus, these are not suitable for AR/VR ture range. Ko et al. reported a nickel oxide-based TRS fab-
applications.[105] Recently, there has been tremendous progress ricated by monolithic laser reductive sintering process, with
in the development of wearable thermal sensors, that can con- the highest reported sensitivity compared to other TRS.[118]
tinuously monitor the localized change in temperature without The superior performance can be attributed to the low heat
Figure 7. Thermoresistive based thermal sensors. a) Digital photo of the thermo-resistive sensor (TRS) array based on the serpentine gold electrode
attached to the human skin, normal condition (top left), under deformed condition (top right), magnified optical images of the TRS sensor array
(bottom). Reproduced with permission.[105a] Copyright 2013, Nature Publishing Group. b) Schematic illustration of the TRS utilizing crumpled graphene
as the sensing element (top left). SEM image of TRS showing the junction between silver nanowire (current collector) and graphene (sensing ele-
ment) (top right). Digital photo of the TRS when relaxed (bottom left). Digital photo of the TRS under deformations (bottom right). Reproduced with
permission.[109c] Copyright 2015, American Chemical Society. c) The change in the resistance of deformable CNT based TRS attached to prosthetic hand
at measured at different hand postures. Digital photo of the deformable CNT based TRS attached to the prosthetic hand (inset). Reproduced with per-
mission.[120] Copyright 2016, Wiley-VCH. d) Schematic illustration of the physical cross linking including reversible ion cross linking and entanglement
(right). Digital photo and schematic diagram of the ionic conductor based thermal sensors (middle). Responsivity as a function of time of the ionic
TRS while touching a cup filled with hot water (left), digital photo of the ionic TRS attached to the hot cup (inset). Reproduced with permission.[121]
Copyright 2019, Wiley-VCH. e) Digital photo of the thin-film transistors based thermo-resistive sensor (TRS) attached to the human skin, the TRS
under relaxed state (left), TRS under deformations by bending the wrist (right). The temperature as a function of time when the sensor is subjected
to various deformations (bottom). Digital photo of the TRS attached to the knuckle of the prosthetic hand (inset) . Reproduced with permission.[126]
Copyright 2018, Nature Publishing Group.
budget activation mechanism owing to the laser-induced rapid is an important criterion for AR/VR applications. Our group
thermal annealing and the monolithic contact between the reported a deformable based TRS utilizing crumpled gra-
sensing material and the current collector. The use of laser phene as the sensing element and interpenetrating AgNWs
direct writing enabled maskless and fast patterning, thus as of current collectors (Figure 7b).[109c] The lithographic filtra-
eliminating the complex fabrication steps. Sensitivity is one of tion method was utilized to fabricate the crumpled graphene
the most critical criteria of the TRS. However, the inadequate channel. The TRS can withstand a strain of 50% and its sensi-
sensitivity and low signal-to-noise ratio of metallic based TRS tivity increases with the increase in strain due to the creation
facilitated the development of carbon and polymeric based of a high conduction barrier at larger deformations. Graphene
materials with better sensitivity and signal-to-noise ratio. For nanowalls based thermal sensor also demonstrated excel-
instance, a mixture of PEDOT:PSS, and CNT has been uti- lent sensitivity of 108.6 Ω °C−1 in the temperature interval of
lized to fabricate TRS with superior sensitivity (0.61% °C−1) 35–45 °C, owing to its superior TCR of 0.214 °C−1 and supple-
compared to that of platinum-based TRS.[109b,113b] However, mented by the huge expansion coefficient of the PDMS based
polymer-composite based thermal sensors suffer from poor polymeric matrix.[108] Furthermore, soft self-healing thermal
cyclic stability. To circumvent this limitation Someya et al. sensors were developed utilizing single-wall carbon nano-
reported an acrylate-based copolymer reinforced with graphite tubes as the temperature sensing element and self-healing
fillers with concentration-dependent phase-changing proper- polymers with excellent mechanical adaptability owing to rich
ties (semicrystalline to amorphous) in response to thermal hydrogen bonding (Figure 7c).[120] Most of the thermal sen-
activation.[119] The change in the concentration resulted in six sors are fabricated utilizing electronically conducting mate-
orders of magnitude change in the resistivity thus demon- rials, thus they lack transparency, extreme stretchability, and
strating superior sensitivity (0.1), fast response time (100 ms), healability. To address this issue, our group reported a TRS
and excellent thermal stability (up to 1800 cycles). Response utilizing a thermally stable hydrogel-based ionic conductor
time is qualitatively defined as the time duration between the (Figure 7d).[121] Since, the first demonstration of ionic conduc-
thermal stimulation and the time required by the TRS to gen- tors as a current collector in actuators by Keplinger et al.,[122]
erate a stable output signal. Quantitively it is the time required ionic materials has been extensively utilized as current col-
to reach 90% of the temperature rise.[105] The response time lector in various electronic devices.[123] In our work, thermally
Table 3. Summary of the state-of-the-art thermal sensor.
Sensing material Sensitivity Range of temperature measured [°C] Ref.

Thermo-resistive Sensor
SWCNT in self-healing polymer NA 20–80 [120]
R-GO nanosheets in PU 0.09 °C−1 30–80 [114a]
Polystyrene-based ionomer and −0.004 K−1 20–40 [109a]
MWCNT nanocomposite
R-GO field-effect transistor 6.7 nS K−1 30–80 [124]
GNWs in PDMS matrix 0.214 °C−1 35–45 [108]
Graphite and acrylate copolymers NA 37–58 [119]
Silicon nanoribbon NA 37–58 [110a]
Ultra-thin gold serpentine electrode on NA 23–31 [105a]
elastomeric substrate
Silver with pentacene NA 15–70 [142]
Nickel microparticle 0.3 V °C−1 35–4 [113c]
Pyroelectric Sensor
P(VDF-TrFE) materials 4.38 V°C−1 25–60 [139]
Nanocomposite of P(VDF-TrFE)/BaTiO3 NA 35–40 [141]
Thermo-electric Sensor
Bi2Te3 based thermoelectric device (127 couples) 161 mV °C−1 10–90 [143]
PEDOT:PSS coated on fabric ≈15.8–18.5 µV °C−1 27–117 [144]
PEDOT:PSS (p-type)/Ag nanoparticle (n-type) ≈10 µV °C−1 25–100 [145]
printed on kitted textile (1 couple)
PEDOT:PSS coated on microstructure 35.5 µV °C−1 0–100 [146]
polyurethane frame
Polyaniline (PANI)/MWCNT composite 45.5 µV °C−1 23.3–37.8 [147]
NA, Not available; SWCNT, single-walled carbon nanotubes; rGO, reduced graphene oxide; GNWs, graphene nanowalls, MWCNT, multi-walled carbon nanotube; PDMS,
polydimethylsiloxane; P(VDF-TrFE), poly(vinylidenefluoride-trifluoroethylene); PU, polyurethane; BaTiO3, barium titanate.
stable hydrogel consists of 3-sulfopropyl methacrylate potas- of few milli-Kelvin) and high precision thermal sensing (with
sium salt (SPMA) and methyl methacrylate (MMA) monomers low aberration less than 0.1 °C) can be achieved by tuning the
was demonstrated as the ionic conductor. The ionic chains of activation energy of the charge carriers of the semiconducting
SPMA provide the required ionic conductivity and the MMA channel.[119]
imparts mechanical strength. The resulting hydrogel showed Although significant progress has been made in the domain
extremely high conductivity of 6.7 × 10−4 Scm−1, superior of TRS, still a few daunting challenges need to be resolved
stretchability of 2636%, recovered 98.3% of its mechanical for accurate measurement of temperature for AR/VR applica-
strength after self-healing, and thermally stable up to 100 °C. tions. Most of the resistive thermal sensors are influenced by
The TRS measured the performance from 30 to 90 °C and the resistive-strain dependence effect which caused cross-sensi-
showed no significant degradation of performance up to a ten- tivities. The resistance of these thermal sensors can be altered
sile strain of 200% and after complete mechanical bifurcation. when subjected to twisting, stretching, or flexing.[109c,109d] For
Another promising thermal responsive device is thermal- wearable and a stretchable thermal sensor, it is extremely chal-
sensitive field-effect transistors (FETs) owing to their superior lenging to circumvent the influence of mechanical deforma-
sensitivity, low signal to noise ratio, and easy compatibility tions on the thermal sensing behavior. Efforts have been made
with signal amplification circuits.[110b,114a,124] By incorporating to decouple the thermal and the strain effects by adopting var-
thermo-responsive materials as a gate-dielectric layer, or semi- ious strategies such as by utilizing multiple sensors simultane-
conducting channel or electrodes, FETs based thermal sensors ously and processing the generated signals, and by adopting
can be realized. The transfer characteristics of the transistor novel structural engineering to minimize the effect from
under thermal activation can indicate temperature sensing mechanical deformations.[125] To circumvent the effect of strain
behavior. For instance, Trung et al. demonstrated that TFT-based on the thermal sensor, several structural engineering strategies
thermal sensors have high sensitivity (1.34% °C−1) compared to have been adopted such as serpentine interconnects between
that of thermo-resistive sensors (0.9% °C−1).[114a] Reduced gra- rigid thermal sensors induces a very low strain of less than
phene oxide nanosheets were utilized as the thermal-sensitive 0.02% on the thermal sensing material when subjected to a
material and polyurethane elastomeric matrix was used as the tensile strain of 10%.[105a] Thus, causing a minimal temperature
deformable substrate. Extreme low detection limit (in the range fluctuation of less than 50 mK at a high tensile strain. Thus,
embedding rigid thermal sensors in a deformable matrix with Pyroelectricity is the generation of voltage in certain mate-
metallic interconnects can reduce the strain dependence effect. rials when subjected to thermal perturbations owing to the
Zhu et al. fabricated a CNT-based thin-film transistor (TFT) internal spontaneous polarization (Ps). In ionically bonded
with differential voltage readout circuits which can circumvent ceramic materials, the pyroelectric effect stems from the non-
the strain-induced resistance fluctuation (Figure 7e). Specifi- centrosymmetric crystal structure, and in the case of crystalline
cally, the device showed no fluctuation in the temperature range polymers, the aligned molecular chains create the polarization.
of 15–55 °C when subjected to a tensile strain of up to 60%.[126] When these materials are subjected to temperature fluctua-
Sorted semiconducting SWCNTs were used as the channel tions, it causes a temporal change of polarization, thus creating
while the unsorted SWCNTs (a mixture of both metallic and an internal potential difference across the material. Particularly,
semiconducting) were used as electrodes for source and drain. when the temperature is increased, it decreases the intensity of
When subjected to thermal activation, the charge transport polarization, thus inducing a surface charge, resulting in a flow
properties of the semiconducting layer changes. The use of of current across the external circuit.[131a,132] The pyroelectric
the elastomeric styrene–ethylene–butylene–styrene substrate effect is defined by Equation (3), where i is the current gener-
provides the desired soft and stretchable operations. Addition- ated when the device is subjected to a thermal gradient, p is the
ally, biocompatible and biodegradable TRS which can work for intrinsic pyroelectric coefficient of the material, A is the active
a specific time period and then degrade can provide additional surface area of pyroelectric material in contact with the current
functionality to epidermal TRS used in AR/VR applications. collector, and t is the time of thermal activation.
Salvatore et al. reported stretchable and biodegradable TRS
based on deformable materials such as magnesium, silicon dT
dioxide and nitride, and Ecoflex.[127] The TRS can be crumpled, i = pA (3)
dt
folded, and stretched up to 10% without significant degradation
in the sensing performance. A plethora of different materials exhibits pyroelectric
Several impediments such as dependence of skin temperature behavior, ranging from polymers to ceramics. Polymeric
on environmental conditions and evaporation of sweat should pyroelectric materials such as polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF)
be taken into account while designing the thermal sensor for and its copolymer poly(vinylidene fluoride-trifluoroethylene)
AR applications.[128] While measuring the body temperature the (P(VDF-TrFE)) have been extensively explored to realize
location should be carefully taken into account as it can fluctuate deformable and biocompatible pyroelectric and piezoelectric
over different locations. The stress caused by multiple heating– devices.[133] Ceramic based pyroelectric materials have supe-
cooling cycles can lead to phase transition and degradation of rior pyroelectric coefficient compared to that of the polymeric
morphology which can reduce the stability. Thermal or Johnson based materials, thus several ceramic materials such as lead
noise is one of the unwanted phenomenon present in TRS which zirconate titanate (PZT), barium titanate (BaTiO₃, BTO), zinc
depends on the resistance, temperature, and bandwidth. Metallic oxide (ZnO), potassium niobite (KNbO3), bismuth ferrite
material has low thermal noise compared to carbon and pol- (BiFeO3, BFO), and 1,4-diazabicyclo[2.2.2]octane perrhenate
ymer-based materials. As the Johnson noise increases with the (dabcoHReO4) have been extensively used in pyroelectric
increase in the resistance value, the initial resistance of the TRS devices.[134]
material should be taken into consideration while selecting the Thermal sensors fabricated utilizing pyroelectric materials
material for TRS. Thus, these challenges need to be addressed can be broadly categorized into capacitive and TFT based sen-
for the effective utilization of TRS in AR/VR. sors. In the capacitive based PTS, the pyroelectric material is
sandwiched between two current collectors, and in the TFT
based PTS, the pyroelectric material is utilized as the insu-
4.2. Pyroelectric Based Thermal Sensors lating gate dielectric. The capacitive based PTS is the most
common type of thermal sensor due to its simple structure and
One of the limitations of thermal sensors utilized in AR appli- easy operation. Tuukkanen et al. reported a transparent and
cations is the enormous consumption of energy. The use of flexible touch panel to sense temperature and force, utilizing
energy storage devices such as supercapacitors and batteries a ferroelectric PVDF film with graphene and CNT electrodes
can circumvent the limitation to a certain extent, however, these (Figure 8a).[135] The generated signals depend on the temper-
devices demand periodic replacement and maintenance. More- ature difference between the touch panel and the finger. The
over, it is cumbersome to directly power these thermal sensors obtained touch panel can operate underwater and in humid
utilizing connecting cables, which will restrict the freedom of conditions without significant fluctuations. Thus, these tech-
movement and wireless operations. Although low power con- nologies can be utilized for futuristic underwater augmenta-
sumption mechanisms can extend the operational lifetime, a tion. Xue et al. demonstrated a pyroelectric breathing sensor
more enduring and long-lasting solution is needed.[129] Thus, it utilizing PVDF.[136] Biocompatible electrospun nanofibers of
is essential to realize a self-powered thermal sensor for its contin- PVDF/graphene oxide(GO) was also utilized for pyroelectric
uous and sustainable operations.[130] The pyroelectric mechanism breathing sensors for health diagnosis and monitoring.[137] The
can be utilized to realize self-powered sensors that are sensitive biocompatibility of PVDF was further utilized to monitor the
to thermal perturbations, such as, heat sensors, thermal imaging, temperature of biological materials present in a microchannel
gas analyzers, infrared (IR) sensors, pollution monitors, and fire system, with ultra-fast responsivity (within 200 ms).[138] Zi et al.
alarms.[131] In this section, we outlined the recent progress in the reported a hybrid device which can simultaneously measure
field of pyroelectric thermal sensors (PTSs). piezoelectric, triboelectric, and pyroelectric effect utilizing
Figure 8. Pyroelectric based thermal sensors. a) Digital image of the thermal sensor with CNT electrode (top left) and graphene electrode (top right);
The corresponding output signal as a function of time measured at 50 °C (bottom). Reproduced with permission.[135] Copyright 2014, Wiley-VCH.
b) Schematic illustration of the PZT microwire thermal sensor device (top left); Digital image of the finger-touch recognition by touching the thermal
sensor (top right); The variation of the voltage output as a function of the change in temperature indicating the excellent linearity (bottom right); The
corresponding voltage output when the sensor is touched by the finger (bottom left). Reproduced with permission.[134b] Copyright 2012, American
Chemical Society. c) Modified schematic illustration of the organic field-effect transistor with P(VDF-TrFE) as the gate dielectric (top); The corre-
sponding output signal as a function of time when subjected to thermal perturbation (bottom left); The corresponding output signal as a function of
temperature (bottom right). Reproduced with permission.[139] Copyright 2009, Wiley-VCH. d) Modified schematic illustration of the field-effect transistor
with polymer nanocomposite as the gate dielectric and organic semiconductor of pentacene as the channel (left); Simultaneous measurement of both
the exerted tensile strain and temperature (right). Reproduced with permission.[141] Copyright 2013, Wiley-VCH.
PVDF.[135] The excellent pyroelectric coefficient of PVDF the change in temperature and voltage output (as indicated
(−1.80 nC cm−2 K−1) obtained in this work resulted in an excel- in Equation (3)) resulted in excellent linearity of the gener-
lent low detection limit of 0.09 °C. ated signal, thus facilitating effective calibration of the device.
In addition to polymeric materials, ceramic-based PTSs are PZT-based pyroelectric devices have higher output perfor-
also demonstrated. Yang et al. fabricated a ceramic-based PTS mance, however, the toxicity of lead prevents the utilization of
for detecting temperature at fingertips, utilizing PZT microwire these materials for wearable or epidermal applications.[134a–134e]
(Figure 8b).[134b] Due to the superior pyroelectric coefficient of Particularly, the presence of lead oxide makes it highly toxic.
PZT, the sensor has an extremely low detection limit of 0.4 K These materials require high-temperature processing such as
at room temperature. Thus, they demonstrated finger touch calcination and sintering, which causes volatilization of these
recognition by measuring the surface temperature of the fin- materials thus causing environmental toxicity and pollution.
gertip. This kind of technology can be utilized for touch-based The alternative is the development of lead-free materials for
haptics utilizing thermal effects. Additionally, owing to the fast pyroelectric based thermal sensors. Moreover, capacitive based
dipole moment under thermal activation, the sensor showed sensors require additional electronic circuits to process the
a quick response time of 0.9 s. The direct correlation between generated signals, thus the FET based PTS is preferred for
thermal sensing applications. Tien et al. demonstrated an ΔV at the junction between two different conductors or semi-
organic thin-film transistor (OTFT) as a thermal sensor, uti- conductors.[148] This generated voltage can be converted into
lizing pyroelectric material (P(VDF-TrFE)) as the insulating temperature, which is widely used recently. For this reason, a
gate dielectric (Figure 8c).[139] When the OTFT is subjected to material that has a Seebeck coefficient can be a candidate for
thermal perturbations, a potential difference is created across the thermo-sensing device.
the gate-dielectric, owing to the change in the polarization. This In terms of materials, as earlier introduced in the Peltier
causes the accumulation of charge carriers at the interface of device part, the Bi2Te3 based thermoelectric materials show
gate-dielectric and channel, which in turn changes the source- outstanding energy harvesting performance. Generally, tra-
drain current, thus indicating the temperature. ditional thermoelectric alloys such as Bi2Te3 and PbTe based
Very few efforts have been made to develop PTSs, due to materials have ≈102 µV K−1 of absolute value S at room tempera-
the relatively low performance of these sensors under thermal ture.[94–96,149] Even the single thermoelectric material (p- or n-type
perturbations. Additionally, PTSs suffer from crosstalk induced material) has a low S value, the open-circuit voltage of the device
by mechanical deformations, as all pyroelectric materials are is tuned by increasing ΔT, and the number of p–n couples.
inherently piezoelectric.[140] Unwanted mechanical deforma- Also, the power output of the device can be controlled by them.
tions during thermal sensing can intrude on the thermal meas- Thus, the distinction of ΔV or power output makes it possible
urements. It is extremely challenging to decouple the piezo- for thermal sensing despite the low ZT value of thermoelectric
electric and pyroelectric effects. To address this issue, Tien et al. materials. For example, Wu et al. reported the fire alarm appli-
fabricated a deformable pyroelectric OFET, which can decouple cation with a thermoelectric device.[143] In this study, the ther-
the signals generated by mechanical deformations and thermal moelectric device with 127 couples of Bi2Te3 based p–n couples
perturbations (Figure 8d).[141] They utilized polymer nanocom- was exploited for detecting sudden temperature change. And,
posites of P(VDF-TrFE) and BaTiO3 as the insulating gate die- the power output of the thermoelectric device from tempera-
lectric and thermoresistive semiconducting material pentacene ture change provides the signal to the central processing unit.
as the channel. When the mechanical strain and thermal per- Based on the logic of the central processing unit, the operation
turbation are exerted simultaneously, these materials dispropor- of the fire alarm was determined. In this perspective, the power
tionately respond to different activations, thus differentiating output of the thermoelectric device is an important point for the
and decoupling the effect of strain and temperature. Addition- application. When the one side of the device was heated up to
ally, considering the intrinsic slow response of the pyroelectric 363 K, the ΔT of the device was reached to 52.9 K. In this state,
signal compared to that of the piezoelectric signals, these sig- the open-circuit voltage was about 2.97 V, whereas that without
nals can be decoupled by frequency filtering.[135] Although PTSs heating up (ΔT = 9.3 K) was about 0.48 V. Besides, the maximum
have been effectively utilized for qualitative analysis of thermal power output at ΔT = 52.9 K was reached to 428.7 mW, whereas
perturbations, significant improvement needs to be done to that at ΔT = 9.3 K was reached to 11.6 mW. This different power
realize a highly accurate, and sensitive thermal sensor. By output is a trigger to operate a fire alarm. This report suggested
adopting various strategies, the thermal sensing performance a promising application of a fire alarm system with the thermoe-
of the PTSs can be significantly improved such as, enhancing lectric device, and the report provides a hint for the convergence
the absorption of the thermal energy (by adopting various struc- of the device and the AR/VR system. For example, if this device
tural and material modifications), and improving the intrinsic is connected with the internet of things (IoT) system, the AR/VR
material parameters (by a trade-off between various properties user can notify the origin of the ignition even though the user is
such as pyroelectric coefficient, dielectric loss, dielectric con- far away from the fire.
stant, heat transfer, and specific heat). And, a wearable thermoelectric device can be a useful
thermo-sensor using human body temperature. Normally,
the wearable thermoelectric device with inorganic alloys and
4.3. Thermoelectric Based Thermal Sensor polymer substrate is used for the energy harvesting device
from the human body temperature.[150] In addition, the screen-
The thermoelectric device is based on the Seebeck effect, which printing and inkjet printing methods with BiTe based paste
is the conversion from heat energy into electrical energy. It is composite have shown the potential for the flexible and wear-
the opposite of the Peltier effect discussed in Section 3.2. When able thermoelectric energy harvesting application.[151] But,
a ΔT in the semiconducting or metallic materials was induced, this device can also provide information on the human states.
the major charged carriers (electron or hole) are diffused from Among them, the movement of the user can be distinguished
the hot side to the cold side. These diffused charge carriers gen- by thermoelectric power generation. For example, Hyland et al.
erate a voltage (ΔV), and the ΔV is determined by SΔT, where reported the performance of the wearable thermoelectric device
S indicates the Seebeck coefficient (thermopower). Exploiting as a function of airflow.[152] In this study, 25 p–n couples of
the generated voltage by a temperature gradient, energy har- Bi2Te3 based thermoelectric materials were used for the ther-
vesting application can be practical. In addition, considering moelectric power generator, and the generator was located on
that ΔV of the materials is determined by ΔT in the materials the wrist, upper arm, and chest. Generally, the thermoelec-
if the temperature of one side in materials is known, the tem- tric power output is generated by the ΔT between the human
perature of the other side can be calculated from the Seebeck body temperature (≈309 K) and ambient temperature (≈298 K)
coefficient. Thus, the Seebeck effect can be a good indicator without airflow. In this case, the power output of the device
for understanding the temperature. The most representative was reached ≈5 µW cm−2. Since the cold side of the device was
example is the thermocouple. The thermocouple employs the cooled down by airflow, when the power output was measured
Figure 9. Thermoelectric based thermal sensor. a) Photograph of wearable thermoelectric generator and power generation of the thermoelectric device
with different walking speeds. Reproduced with permission.[152] Copyright 2016, Elsevier. b) Photograph of the prosthetic hand with temperature/pres-
sure sensing array (i), temperature and pressure mapping image by hand (ii), photograph of finger type temperature/pressure sensing array (iii), and
temperature and pressure mapping image by an ice cube (iv). Reproduced with permission.[146] Copyright 2015 Springer Nature. c) Photograph of
temperature/pressure hybrid sensor and thermoelectric and piezoelectric performances with various thermal stimuli: finger touch (i), pen touch (ii),
and non-contact IR laser (iii). Reproduced with permission.[147] Copyright 2013 Royal Society of Chemistry.
with walking, the power output was increased up to ≈20 µW device. And the device was covered with a fabric package for
cm−2 as a function of walking speed. (Figure 9a) And, Kim et al. absorbing sweats. When the human sweats during activity, the
reported the wearable energy harvesting device from physi- absorbed sweat in the fabric is evaporated. This evaporation
ological activity.[153] In this report, the hybrid power generator induced higher ΔT in the device, resulting in higher power
is composed of a pyroelectric device and a thermoelectric output. In detail, when the fabric on the device was dried, the
t hermoelectric current of the device was about 1.8 µA at 4.0 m s−1 different current values as a function of pressure. This device
of the airflow (ΔT ≈3.7 K). However, when the fabric was wet, can detect the temperature and pressure distribution simulta-
the thermoelectric current of the device was increased to neously. In detail, when a hand with a flexible sensing array
2.5 µA at similar condition. These introduced cases imply that device holds another human hand or touches an ice cube, the
the thermoelectric device can be applied in athletic field with temperature and pressure mapping can be illustrated in the
AR/VR. For instance, if a sport player is on the ground, the digital image, as described in Figure 9b. Also, a sandwich-
trend of motion speed can be tracked, depending on the device structured device composted of tellurium nanorod/multi-
performance. Besides, since the sweat of the player affects the walled carbon nanotube (MWNT)/PANI composite and PVDF
performance of the device, the physical strength of the player showed promising result for temperature and pressure sensing.
can also be tracked. The change of the device performance can Zhu et al. prepared the hybrid thermo/pressure sensing device
be converted into data information and the information can be (thermoelectric/piezoelectric) with the composite.[147] In this
projected on the AR/VR device for estimation of the condition. case, since the S value of the composite was about 45.5 µV K−1,
Currently, the outperformed thermoelectric materials are this layer played a thermo-sensing role. And, the PVDF layer,
Bi2Te3 based inorganic alloys, but these materials have a high which has a piezoelectric performance, was employed for the
density, and it is hard to deform the materials. Even though the distinction of contact or non-contact as depicted in Figure 9c.
inorganic alloy-based materials have outstanding performance, When a finger contacted the sensor, both thermoelectric and
there are obstacles to applying in the wearable thermo-sensing piezoelectric performances were detected. And, when an object,
device due to high density and rigidity. For this reason, the which has a similar ambient temperature, was contacted, the
conjugated polymer, 2D transition metal chalcogenide and piezoelectric performance was shown only. At last, when the
carbon-based materials such as graphene or carbon nanotube non-contact thermal stimuli (infrared laser) were applied on
have shown the potential for thermoelectric materials with the the sensor, the thermoelectric performance was only shown.
range between 100–102 µV K−1 of absolute value S at room temp The introduced thermoelectric devices showed promising
erature.[103,107a,154] Notably, these materials showed a promising results as a temperature sensor, but there is a limitation of
performance of the thermoelectric wearable energy harvesting measuring absolute temperature with the device. Since the
device due to flexibility and deformability. For example, since thermoelectric voltage is generated by a temperature gradient
PEDOT-based conducting polymer is a solution-processable between the hot side and cold side, the absolute temperature
material, the conducting polymer can be coated on a polymer- of the hot side or cold side is required to be measured. In order
based fabric or inkjet printable on a substrate.[144,155] This to measure the absolute temperature with the thermoelectric
material can be applied thermo-sensing device. Jung et al. device, several peripherals are necessary. For instance, the real-
also reported thermal touching sensors with thermoelectric time monitoring of the absolute temperature at the opposite
devices composed of PEDOT:PSS (p-type) and Ag nanoparti- side of the sample is required. And, the central processing unit,
cles (n-type).[145] In this case, p-type and n-type materials were which can calculate the absolute temperature from thermoelec-
printed on the commercial knitted textile. Due to the stretch- tric voltage and the measured temperature, is also required.
able knitted textile, the deformable thermoelectric temperature The introduced thermo-sensing devices provide a poten-
sensor was obtained. And, preparing the five by five sensor tial for thermal display in AR/VR applications. If the user is
arrays, the thermo-sensing device was fabricated. The gen- touching an object, temperature mapping can be projected
erated voltage of the pixels where the finger touched showed on the AR/VR display. Thus, the user can recognize the tem-
more than four times higher value than that of the other pixels. perature distribution of the object. Moreover, if this thermo-
This flexible and deformable device showed a promising result sensing device and thermo-haptic device are converged, the
of the wearable temperature sensor. temperature information can be delivered to the user. As
In certain AR/VR applications, it is required to sense both introduced in the Peltier device part, if a user who controls
the temperature and pressure. For example, when the user is a remote robot is touching an object in AR/VR system, the
holding an object such as a hot cup of coffee or an ice cube, the temperature information of the object can be projected to the
hand of the user senses the temperature and pressure from the user’s display.
object. To realize multifunctional sensors, Zhang et al. devel-
oped the temperature-pressure sensor with PEDOT:PSS.[146]
In this research, the PEDOT:PSS was coated on the micro- 4.4. Thermogalvanic/Soret Based Thermal Sensor
structured polyurethane frames, and this PEDOT:PSS coated
Thermogalvanic/Soret effect is related to temperature gradient
polymer frame played a sensor role. The Seebeck coefficient of
dependent potential generation by ion diffusion. In the case of
PEDOT:PSS coated polyurethane was shown about 35.5 µV K−1
the thermogalvanic effect, the redox reaction contributes to the
at room temperature. Using the Seebeck coefficient, the surface
potential generation in the thermogalvanic cells. And, the See-
temperature of the material was calculated. For instance, when
beck coefficient of the thermogalvanic cell is also expressed as
the temperature of the bottom side was about 298 K, and the ∂E
finger touched on the material, the generated voltage was about S= , which is the temperature-dependent open-circuit poten-
∂T
0.27 mV. Based on the Seebeck coefficient (S = ΔV/ ΔT), the tem- tial generation.[156] Generally, when the temperature gradient
perature of the finger touched side was calculated as 305.7 K. between two electrodes in an aqueous solution containing redox
Employing this phenomenon, the flexible sensing array device couple is generated, the migration of ions is occurred from the
with independent PEDOT:PSS coated polymer frame was fab- hot side to the cold side.[157] And the oxidation or reduction reac-
ricated. And, the PEDOT:PSS coated polymer frame showed tion of the redox couple is generated. Thus, electron transfer
occurred between redox couples and electrodes, resulting in introduced the polyaniline/poly(2-acylamido-2-methyl-1-pro-
a potential generation.[158] Currently, the redox couples such panesulfonic acid)/phytic acid composite for an ionic ther-
as Fe(CN)64−/Fe(CN)63−, Fe2+/Fe3+, Cu/Cu2+, and I−/I3− have moelectric device.[168] This composite is useful for proton
shown the thermogalvanic performance.[159] And the Seebeck transport due to the sulfonic acid group and additional phytic
coefficient of thermogalvanic cell with the redox couples shows acid, resulting in a high ionic Seebeck coefficient. Since proton
around the absolute value of ≈2 mV K−1,[159] which is higher transport is conducted by hopping between H2O, and diffusion
than that of solid-state semiconductor-based thermoelectric of H3O+,[167a] the humidity has affected the ionic thermoelectric
materials (≈102 µV K−1). In the case of a general thermogalvanic performance. The ionic Seebeck coefficient of the composite was
cell, since a specific shape of the container was filled with the changed from 1.3–8.1 mV K−1, with a range of humidity between
aqueous electrolyte and characterized the performance,[160] uti- 50 and 90% RH. This performance indicates that the ionic ther-
lization of wearable devices with the thermogalvanic cell was moelectric potential is variable depending on the humidity and
difficult due to packaging or large integration issues. However, temperature gradient. For instance, currently, the weather infor-
developing ionic conductive hydrogel and gel polymer electro- mation of the life is obtained from the Internet. If the device
lytes,[121,161] adjustable shape and flexible electrochemical devices is located in the house, the device can provide the information
have been practical.[162] In the case of thermogalvanic cells, of the seasonal change or temperature change near the house,
the polymer gel and redox couple composite have shown the detecting the humidity dependent ionic thermoelectric potential.
potential of the thermo-sensing device. For example, Yang et al. And, if the device is connected with an IoT device, the weather
reported a thermogalvanic performance of poly(vinyl alcohol) information can be projected to AR/VR users.
(PVA)/FeCl2/FeCl3 chloride and PVA/K4Fe(CN)6/K3Fe(CN)6 However, in the case of thermogalvanic/Soret effect-based
gel electrolyte.[163] Depending on the redox couple, the electron application, there are several considerations for the utilization
transfer direction is different. In the case of PVA/FeCl2/FeCl3, of the application. First, the safety of the redox couples and
when the external load is connected between the hot side and salts should be confirmed. As introduced above, the thermogal-
the cold side, electrons are released by an oxidation reaction vanic/Soret effect-based device is composed of the hydrogel or
with Fe2+ − e → Fe3+ at the cold side. And, the reduction reac- liquid electrolyte. When the device is utilized for the wearable
tion with Fe3+ + e → Fe2+ is occurred by the electrons at the hot device, the contact of the device may cause the wetting issue
side. This electron transfer direction is similar to p-type solid- to the human skin. At this point, whether or not the ions in
state semiconductors, and the Seebeck coefficient of the PVA/ the device are absorbed and accumulated into the human skin
FeCl2/FeCl3 was about 1.02 mV K−1. Alternatively, the Seebeck should be confirmed, and the toxicity of the redox couples
coefficient of the PVA/K4Fe(CN)6/K3Fe(CN)6 showed −1.21 mV should also be confirmed. Second, the reliability or stability
K−1. At the hot side of the PVA/K4Fe(CN)6/K3Fe(CN)6, the oxida- of the device should be ascertained. Since the ion diffusion by
tion reaction with Fe(CN)64− − e → Fe(CN)63− occurred, whereas temperature gradient occurs through the water in the hydrogel,
the reduction reaction with Fe(CN)63− + e → Fe(CN)64− occurred the evaporation of the water in the hydrogel may affect the per-
at the cold side, which played a similar role of n-type solid-state formance of the device. Thus, the thermogalvanic/Soret effect-
semiconductors. The device structure with a series connection based device may be operated in a specific condition. Last, the
of the PVA/K4Fe(CN)6/K3Fe(CN)6 and the PVA/FeCl2/FeCl3 gels slow response time of the thermogalvanic/Soret effect-based
is similar to the solid-state semiconductor-based thermoelectric device is limited in the utilization of real-time thermal sensing.
generator. Thus, this thermogalvanic energy harvesting device In practice, the time consumption to the saturated voltage of
can be exploited in the thermo-sensing application. Besides, the thermogalvanic/Soret effect-based device takes more than
since the thermogalvanic cells has PVA matrix, the mechanical several seconds.[163,168] In AR/VR application, the slow response
strength of the thermogalvanic cell was up to 0.1 MPa, and that time may limit the delivery of exact thermal information.
was stretched up to ≈450%. Since these mechanical perfor-
mances are beneficial for wearable devices, the thermogalvanic
cell can be adjustable in various shapes. 5. Conclusion and Future Outlook
In the case of the Soret effect, when the temperature gra-
dient of the electrolyte is generated, the thermal diffusion of In this review, we have highlighted the recent advances in
ion is generated.[160b,164] In electrode/electrolyte (without redox the domain of thermal technology-enabled augmented reality.
couples)/electrode system, since the diffused ions cannot pass Various AR/VR technologies and the adoption of haptics
through the external circuit, the diffused ions are accumu- interfaces to enhance the interaction with the virtual domain
lated at the electrode surface, and the surface forms an electric are explicitly discussed. We have highlighted the key techno-
double-layer capacitor.[165] Thus, the system is regarded as a logical improvement for the next-generation future AR/VR
thermally chargeable capacitor or ionic thermoelectric superca (Figure 10). Haptic technology has been adopted to provide
pacitor.[160b,165] In the case of electrolyte, sodium, or potassium a sense of touch. Since the haptic technology stimulates the
ions contained electrolytes showed the capacitive performance sensory nerves, the interaction between the user and the vir-
by the Soret effect.[165,166] Recently, proton diffusion of the ionic tual object has been possible. Thermal stimulation/sensing
thermoelectric device has been introduced. Generally, the sul- is also paramount to manipulate the perception of humans.
fonic acid group contained polymer provides proton transport It facilitates a deeper level of interaction and manipulation,
in the polymer matrix.[167] Also, the humidity promotes proton thus providing an enhanced level of augmented reality. The
transport in the polymer matrix, and the humidity also affects thermal technologies are categorized into two domains,
the ionic thermoelectric performance. For example, Akbar et al. thermo-haptics, and thermo-sensing.
Figure 10. Schematic representation highlighting the key technological improvement for the next-generation future AR/VR.
We have highlighted thermo-haptics, specifically, thermo- than inorganic based materials, the polymer composite and
resistive heaters and Peltier devices, which control the tem- conducting polymer showed promising thermo-sensing perfor-
perature of the user to provide thermal stimulations. Since the mance. In addition, due to the shape adjustable and deformable
temperature change of the device is determined by the charged properties of the polymer-based materials, the polymer-based
carrier current, the thermal stimuli can be applied to the user thermal sensor can be utilized in wearable devices. One of
immediately, and precise temperature control is possible by the the huge challenges which need to be overcome is the cross-
amount of electrical current or voltage. Thus, employing the talk during thermal sensing, owing to the various external
devices, the user can distinguish the temperature sensation unwanted perturbations. It is also important to realize thermal
and obtain a more practical experience with a virtual object by enabled devices where the human can feel both the virtual
sensing the temperature. However, we need to overcome sev- world without losing its interaction with real objects. Moreover,
eral challenges to unlock the huge potential of AR/VR. The since these thermo-sensing devices can be operated in both con-
thermo-resistive heaters can only provide a heating sensation. tact and non-contact mode, it is hard to distinguish the origin
Peltier devices can overcome this limitation by providing both of these thermal stimuli, thus multi-sensory haptics is essential
hot and cold stimulations by tuning the amount and direc- to achieve a high level of augmentation. Stability and hyster-
tion of the current. Extreme precaution should be taken while esis are two key challenges that need to be resolved before the
selecting the desired range of temperature and operating power deployment of thermal sensors for AR/VR applications.
to induce thermal stimuli without causing discomfort or elec- We envisioned that the future progress of AR/VR depends
trical lesions. Factors indicated in Section 2.3 should be taken on the development of thermal technology (Figure 11). Despite
into consideration while deciding the position of attaching the the huge progress in various thermal technologies, the conver-
thermal haptics and sensor. Peltier devices can be precisely gence of AR/VR and thermal technology is in its infancy. At pre-
controlled to be operational in the temperature range from sent, the thermal technology in AR/VR applications has shown
15 to 45 °C, to provide thermal sensation without damaging the potential for entertainment. By improving the form factor
the human skin. However, only Bi2Te3 based thermoelectric of the thermal haptics and sensors it will open doors for its uti-
material shows outstanding performance (ZT > 1) near room lization in a plethora of different AR/VR applications ranging
temperature. Thus, there is a need to explore new materials to from personalized rehabilitation, surgical training, interactive
further improve the performance of Peltier based thermo- educational training, and a deeper level of immersive enter-
heaters near room temperature. Furthermore, deformable, tainment. Additionally, the thermal haptics and sensors can
lightweight, and shape adjustable materials are required to provide new opportunities to remote-control with a mobile
realize wearable thermal stimulators. operating system. Recent progress of the manipulation of the
We also highlighted various thermo-sensing devices such flying drones with AR/VR applications has shown promising
as thermoresistive sensors, pyroelectric sensors, thermoelec- outlook of the utilization of the remote-controllable system with
tric sensors, and thermogalvanic sensors which can be effec- AR/VR. At this point, the thermal technology will complement
tively utilized as temperature sensors for AR/VR applications. the utilization. For example, the thermal rendering in telepres-
Although extensive efforts have been made to realize thermal ence provides the thermal information to the users without the
energy harvesting devices utilizing the abovementioned tech- direct contact of the object. It implies that many works can be
nologies, very limited efforts have been made to develop done without attending to the site. For example, the thermal
thermal sensors. Since these sensors convert thermal energy rendering in telepresence provides the thermal information
into electrical energy, the thermal information can be distin- to the users without the direct contact of the object. It implies
guished by the electrical signal, such as current or voltage. For that many works can be done without attending to the site,
this reason, even though polymer composite and conducting and economic activities can be sustainable during a pandemic
polymer have a lower power output or conversion efficiency situation. Thus, the manufacturing industry, geological science
Figure 11. Schematic representation highlighting the roadmap and challenges for the development of next-generation thermal enabled AR/VR.
field, aerospace industry, or public safety can benefit from the Keywords
development of thermal technology for AR/VR applications. In
actuators, augmented reality, haptics, thermal sensors, virtual reality
addition, the continuous development of the AR/VR application
will provide new management systems through the omnipres- Received: September 17, 2020
ence of information. Employing the developed AR/VR applica- Revised: December 30, 2020
tion, the smart factory system or smart city management will Published online: February 17, 2021
be practical. And, most of the available software packages for
AR/VR applications are compatible with the traditional devices
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Kaushik Parida received his master’s degree from the Indian Institute of Technology Bombay,
India. He received his Ph.D. degree under the supervision of Prof. Pooi See Lee at the School
of Materials Science and Engineering in Nanyang Technological University, Singapore. He
is currently a research fellow at Nanyang Technological University. His research focuses on
deformable electronics, piezoelectric, and triboelectric energy harvesters.
Hyunwoo Bark received his Ph.D. from the School of Advanced Materials Engineering at the
Kookmin University (Seoul, Republic of Korea) in 2018. Since joining Prof. Pooi See Lee’s group
in 2019, he is a research fellow at the School of Materials Science and Engineering, Nanyang
Technological University. (Singapore) His research focuses on organic/inorganic composites for
heat management, thermal energy conversion, and wearable electronics.
Pooi See Lee received her Ph.D. degree from National University of Singapore in 2002 in the field
of semiconductor materials. In 2004, she joined the School of Materials Science and Engineering
at Nanyang Technological University where she is currently a full professor. Her research focuses
on hybrid nanomaterials for flexible and stretchable electronics, energy harvesting and storage,
wearable technology, and human–machine interfaces.

Background Review - AFM - 21V31 - 39 - Emerging Thermal Technology Enabled Augmented Reality - PSLee

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Emerging Thermal Technology Enabled Augmented Reality

Figure 4. Schematic of the skin anatomy with cutaneous sensory receptors.

Table 1. Summary of the state-of-the-art deformable thermal heater and cooler.

niformity and s ubstrate adhesion of metallic nanowire net-

Table 2. Summary of Peltier elements candidates near room temperature.

Materials ZT Type Temperature Approach Ref.

Table 3. Summary of the state-of-the-art thermal sensor.

Sensing material Sensitivity Range of temperature measured [°C] Ref.

You might also like

Background Review - AFM - 21V31 - 39 - Emerging Thermal Technology Enabled Augmented Reality - PSLee

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Background Review - AFM - 21V31 - 39 - Emerging Thermal Technology Enabled Augmented Reality - PSLee

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Copyright:

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Review

Emerging Thermal Technology Enabled Augmented Reality

Figure 4. Schematic of the skin anatomy with cutaneous sensory receptors.

Table 1. Summary of the state-of-the-art deformable thermal heater and cooler.

­ niformity and s­ ubstrate adhesion of metallic nanowire net-

Table 2. Summary of Peltier elements candidates near room temperature.

Materials ZT Type Temperature Approach Ref.

Table 3. Summary of the state-of-the-art thermal sensor.

Sensing material Sensitivity Range of temperature measured [°C] Ref.

You might also like

niformity and s ubstrate adhesion of metallic nanowire net-