FBS 172 Forest Genetics

LECTURE 1
Cell Cycle and Chromosomes

The Chromosome
● composed of DNA, carrying the hereditary
information (gene)
● Flow of biological information
○ DNA → RNA → Proteins

The Cell Cycle

● A series of events which includes the
growth, replication, and division of
eukaryotic cells.
● Two Phases:
○ Interphase (Preparatory Phase)
○ M Phase (Mitosis/Meiosis Phase)
● Cell Division in Plants
1. Mitosis occurs in
somatic/vegetative cells
2. Meiosis occurs in gametic
(reproductive) cells

Cell Theory
1. All living things are composed of cells.
2. All cells arise from pre-existing cells
through cell division
3. Cells contain hereditary material, which is
passed on to daughter cells during cell
division division.
4. The chemical composition of all cells is
quite similar.
5. The metabolic processes associated with
life occur within cells.

Why does cell division occur?

● Cell division occurs so that multicellular
organisms can maintain a stable state,
basically for growth, reproduction, and
repair.
● In unicellular organisms cell division
occurs for the production of new
organisms.

jnbernardo@up.edu.ph
 FBS 172 Forest Genetics

Chromosomes
● molecule of DNA
● DNA of nucleus complicatedly organized
● highest order: chromosomes
● only microscopically visible during cell
divisions
● one chromosome: two chromatid joint at
the centromere
○ - meta- acro-, tele-centric
chromosomes

Chromosome numbers and polyploidy (C# -

Meiosis
Species-specific trait)
● sexual reproduction
● HIGHER ORGANISM may be
○ two gametes fuse to a zygote
○ diploid: only two homologous
○ chromosomes of zygote =
chromosomes occur in each
chromosomes of both gametes
somatic cell
● A reduction of chromosome number
○ polyploid: more than 2
necessary during formation of gametes (to
homologous chromosomes in
avoid a doubling of chromosome numbers
each somatic cell
in each generation!)
● genome: complete set of non-homologous
● reduction of chromosome numbers
chromosomes
○ diploid: two homologous
chromosomes
Chromosome counting
○ gamete: haploid; one of the two
● basic number x: number of
homologous chromosomes only
non-homologous chromosomes (# of
○ chiasmata (prophase 1):
chromosome)
recombination of genes on one
● gametic number n: chromosome number
chromosome due to crossing over
of gametes

jnbernardo@up.edu.ph
 FBS 172 Forest Genetics

● somatic number 2n: chromosome numbers ● often associated with apomixis (asexual
of all somatic cells propagation through seeds)
○ diploid: 2n=2x(n=x) : ● approx. 50% of all plants are polyploid
corresponding gametic number of ○ grasses (75%)
diploid! ○ bamboo (48-74 chromosomes)
○ tetraploid:2n=4x(n=2x): four
homologous chromosomes can Examples of chromosome numbers of Tropical
be found in each nucleus of a Forest Plants
tetraploid organism
○ [triploid: 2n=3x(n=???)] often 1. Chromosome numbers of Pinatae\
sterile a. conifers: particularly big
chromosomes
● Easy to observe and to
count
b. Few polyploids
● but: Fitzroya
c. little polymorphism within families
● but: Podocarpus

Changes of chromosome numbers

● may affect the basic number or the
number of genomes

1. Aneuploidy: change of basic number x

caused by chromosome mutations
2. Euploidy: change of number of genomes
3. Autopolyploidy - same set of
chromosomes repeated several times
4. Allopolyploidy - several different
chromosome sets
a. hybridization; formation of
non-reduced gametes
b. hybridization between closely
related species - highly but not
completely sterile; contribute to
the evolution of new species

Importance of polyploidy
Polyploid organisms frequently develop.:
● bigger cells and leaves: breeding
(autopolyploid successful, meiosis;
chemical colchizine)
● reproductive isolation; species formation
● polyploid: more genotypes possible
○ diploid: AA, AB, BB
○ tetraploid: AAAA, AAAB, AABB,
ABBB, BBBB

jnbernardo@up.edu.ph
 FBS 172 Forest Genetics

Chromosome numbers of Dipterocarps

1. Different basic numbers (x)
● relation to phylogeny
2. Different basic numbers in some genera
● Hopea: 7, 10, 11 (express
polyploidism)
3. Polyploid species:
● Hopea nutans, Shorea ovalis:
2n=4x=28
● Other Hopea spp.: 2n=3x
4. Chromosome polymorphisms:
● Hopea odorata (triploid trees;
partially capable of producing
offspring through apomixis)
● Dipterocarpus tuberculatus

jnbernardo@up.edu.ph
 FBS 172 Forest Genetics

SUMMARY:
Chromosomes Numbers of Tropical Forest Plants Role of Environment
● limited use of cytology in taxonomy
○ Limited variation (Pinatae) PHENOTYPE 🡪 is the observable characteristics or
○ too complicated (Meliaceae) traits of an organism
● ploidy level important for further studies ● predominantly determined by the
○ e.g., gene markers; inheritance organism's GENOTYPE (allele
studies combination) for each feature
● many polyploid plants also in the tropics - However ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS
○ mainly Meliaceae; bamboos, may also influence the expression of
grasses characteristics
● polymorphisms of chromosome numbers - Hydrangeas change color
occur (effect on mating events and depending on the pH of the soil
fertility???) (acidic soil=blue flower; alkaline
○ Swietenia spp.; Hopea odorata; soil=pink flower)
Casuarina spp - Human skin color is determined by
● limited potential for practical applications the expression of melanin
○ PopGR, breeding and pigment, but levels can change
conservation of GR of plants depending on sun exposure

LECTURE 2A Gregor Johann Mendel

Mendel’s Inheritance
Genetics
- Branch of biology that deals with heredity
and variation of organisms; study of genes
and inheritance.
- Genetics is the foundation of forest tree
breeding and improvement
What is Forest Genetics?
- study of heredity in forest trees
- the sub-discipline of genetics concerned
with genetic variation and inheritance in
forest trees
- provides the knowledge necessary to
breed trees through traditional methods of
selection and hybridization, and also
through newer biotechnologies
● Father of Genetics
● In 1866 he published Experiments in Plant
Hybridization, (Versuche über
Pflanzen-Hybriden) in which he established
his 3 Laws of Inheritance
GENES AND TRAITS
- Genes: functional units of DNA that code
for specific traits
- Ex. Plant height; Fruit Color
- Allele: specific characteristics that vary
from individual to individual as coded by
the DNA
- Ex. Short/tall; Yellow/Green

jnbernardo@up.edu.ph
 FBS 172 Forest Genetics

- If A is dominant then a will be masked

TERMINOLOGY

True-bred (pure bred): all offspring of same variety

Hybridization: crossing of 2 different true-breds Law of Dominance
Monohybrid cross: a genetic cross involving a ● One allele masked another, one allele was
single pair of genes (one trait); parents differ by a dominant over the other in the F1
single trait. generation.
- P = Parental generation ● In a cross of parents that are pure for
- F1 = First filial generation; offspring from a contrasting traits, only one form of the trait
genetic cross. will appear in the next generation.
- F2 = Second filial generation of a genetic ● Offspring that are hybrid for a trait will
cross have only the dominant trait in the
phenotype.
Mendel’s Law of Dominance
- Alleles can be dominant or recessive
- Dominant – the allele of a gene that masks
or suppresses the expression of an
alternate allele; the trait appears in the
heterozygous condition.
- Recessive – an allele that is masked by a
dominant allele; does not appear (not seen
in the phenotype) in the heterozygous
condition, only in homozygous.

Homozygous – having identical alleles (one from

each parent) for a particular characteristic
- Ex. AA or aa
Heterozygous – having two different alleles for a
particular characteristic
- Ex. Aa

jnbernardo@up.edu.ph
 FBS 172 Forest Genetics

Law of Segregation
● When gametes are formed, the pairs of
hereditary factors (genes) become
separated, so that each sex cell
(egg/sperm) receives only one

Law of Independent assortment

● “Members of one gene pair segregate
independently from other gene pairs
during gamete formation”
● Alleles for different traits are distributed to
sex cells (& offspring) independently of
one another.

jnbernardo@up.edu.ph
 FBS 172 Forest Genetics

LECTURE 2B
Genetic markers - the “Mendel-Gene”

What is a “gene”?
● A gene is a cistron
○ part of DNA coding for a
polypeptide
● A gene is a unit of heredity
○ Danish botanist, Wilhelm
Johannsen (1903)
○ Basic idea: Mendel (1866)
○ Mendel-gene: unit of genetic info
that can be transmitted to
progenies
○ Identification through inheritance
study

jnbernardo@up.edu.ph
 FBS 172 Forest Genetics

■ Observable
phenotype-controlling
genotype
■ Observation of
segregation within
progenies

Dominance relations
1. Co-dominance
● Heterozygotes are different from
both homozygotes
● No distinction is made between
recessive and dominant alleles
Traits 2. Dominance
● “genetic trait” ● Phenotype of heterozygote is
○ environmentally stable (!) indistinguishable from one
● “continuous trait”; measurement on a homozygote
metric scale ○ Dominant allele: one
○ Outcome of the interaction of allele is sufficient to
many gene loci and the express phenotype
environment : GxE (X) ○ Recessive allele:
○ e.g., height, diameter, volume, expressed only, if
biomass, growth of tree homozygous
● “discontinuous” (=discrete) trait
○ If the trait could be assigned to a
certain class!
○ e.g., survival, infection (yes-no)
○ Isozyme phenotypes

Types of gene markers

1. Morphological polymorphisms
○ Controlled by single dominant
gene locus
○ Leave forms of Fagus, Betula, Acer
(garden form)
○ Surface structure (smooth-rough)
of seeds (Mendel)
2. Color traits

jnbernardo@up.edu.ph
 FBS 172 Forest Genetics

○ Pigmentation (e.g. Purpurea 8. Inheritance study frequently successful

forms)
○ Resin color Laboratory procedures for isozyme
○ Albinism (albino seedlings i.e., electrophoresis
Rhizophora mangle) 1. Prepare homogenate
3. Secondary products 2. Transfer to media (e.g., starch)
○ Complex metabolic pathways: 3. Electrophoresis
controlled by only one or few gene 4. Horizontal slicing of starch gels
loci 5. Biochemical staining
○ Terpenes 6. Interpretation of isozyme phenotypes
■ For some conifers
important; dominant Important DNA markers
markers ● RFLP (Restriction Fragment Length
■ Polymorphic loci is low!, Polymorphism)
heterozygosity can not be ● PCR-based technique; analysis of in vitro
measured due to amplified DNA
dominance of certain ○ PCR-RFLPs : cpDNA
alleles (inheritance ○ RAPDs (Random Amplified
study?) polymorphic DNA)
4. Isozymes (biochemical gene markers) ○ Microsatellites/SSR (Short
○ Enzymes catalyzing identical Sequence Repeats)
biochemical reactions in the ○ AFLPs (Amplified fragment length
metabolism polymorphisms)
○ Genes coding for isoenzymes are ● (sequencing)
the most important markers to
study the genetic system of TF Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphism
plants (RFLP)
5. DNA markers (molecular gene markers) ● “digestion” by restriction enzymes
○ DNA is cut into pieces according
Isozymes to short sequence
● Since early 70th for forest trees ● Electrophoresis
● Since mid 80th for tropical forest trees ● “southern blot”,i.e. transfer of DNA to a
● One gene-one polypeptide membrane
● Isozymes=isoenzymes: enzymes with ● “hybridization” of single-stranded DNA
identical function with a (radioactively labeled) probe
● Biochemical staining after electrophoretic ● visualization
separation
The principle of PCR
Properties of Isozymes ● Replication of short (< 3000 bps) DNA
1. Often (i.e., not always) environmentally sequences with a thermostable enzyme
constant ● “primers”: starting point
2. Observation in different ontogenetic ● Exponential amplification of fragments
stages (endosperm, embryo, cotyledons, ● In “thermocycler”
leaves, buds) ○ Anneling (e.g. 40C)
3. Only small amounts of tissue necessary ○ Amplification (approx.72 C)
4. Usually (i.e., not always) co-dominance ○ Denaturation (approx. 92 C)
5. Usually (i.e., not always) large variation in
forest trees PCR Technique
6. Many enzymes/samples can be analyzed - most important molecular gene marker are
simultaneously based on PCR
7. Laboratory work quite simple

jnbernardo@up.edu.ph

● Isolation of DNA from living or dead tissue
● Dilusion of DNA
● PCR with different types of primers
● Electrophoretic separation
products
○ Standard gels
○ Capillary electrophoresis
● Visualization of banding pattern
● Radioactive labeling
○ Fluorescent dyes
○ Silver staining
○ Ethidium bromide
jnbernardo@up.edu.ph
FBS 172 Forest Genetics
of PCR
Inheritance studies
● Objective: Identification of a unit of
heredity,
○ i.e., a “Mendel-gene”
● Also necessary for molecular (DNA) and
biochemical (isozyme) gene markers
● Observation of phenotypic variation in
progenies
● Conventional: segregation within full-sib
progenies
● Trees: difficult to cross—alternate methods
○ Short span of receptivity and
pollen viability
○ Irregular and asynchronous
flowering
○ Often trees are high and only
upper branches are flowering
Controlled pollination
● Two homozygous parents: no segregation
● At least one heterozygous parent:
○ Segregation in progenies
○ Expected segregation ratio
depends on
■ No. of controlling gene
loci
■ Genotypes of parent
plants
■ Dominance-recessivity of
alleles
Segregation in the endosperm of conifers
● The endosperm (macrogametophyte) of
gymnosperms is haploid
● The endosperm is usually big and can be
easily separated from the embryo
● Regular segregation is expected in
endosperm, if the seed tree was
heterozygous
● Not feasible for triploid endosperm of
angiosperms
 FBS 172 Forest Genetics

● Phenotypes of both biochemical LECTURE 3A

(isoenzymes) and molecular traits (eg.,
RAPDs) are observable in endosperms.
Segregation within progenies after open-
pollination
● Observation of single-tree progenies (seed
tree is known, pollen trees are not known)
● Possible only for heterozygous seed trees
● Particularly useful for tropical forest trees
● No controlled pollination required
● Combination with investigation of mating
system or gene flow through pollen
possible
Pedigree analysis
- Alternative method of inheritance study
- Mainly for species producing few
progenies
- Observation of phenotypes over several
generations
- Not useful for (tropical) forest trees
The role of gene markers in population genetics
● Most important tool for the investigation of
genetic systems
○ Also for tropical forest trees
○ Applications in breeding and
conservation
○ Examples:
■ Identification of clones
and hybrids
■ Measurement of genetic
variation within and
among populations
■ Investigation of the
reproduction system
(incl.mating, gene flow)
■ Observation of selective
effects of environmental
change and forest
management
■ Identification of ‘QTL”
(Quantitative Trait Loci)
DNA Structure and Function
DNA Structure and Function
Watson and Crick Propose the Double Helix
- The 3-dimensional double helix structure
of DNA, correctly elucidated by James
Watson and Francis Crick. Complementary
bases are held together as a pair by
hydrogen bonds.
DNA Structure Elucidation
Four scientists are generally recognised as
having contributed to the elucidation of DNA
structure
● Rosalind Franklin and Maurice Wilkins used
X ray diffraction techniques to identify key
properties of the DNA molecule
● Wilkins shared this data (without Franklin’s
permission) with two other scientists,
James Watson and Francis Crick
● Watson and Crick used this data to help
construct an accurate model of DNA
structure (as a double helix)
● In 1962, Watson, Crick and Wilkins were
awarded the Nobel prize (Franklin’s critical
efforts were not recognised
Discovery of DNA Structure and Function: Watson
and Crick
● Watson and Crick were not the discoverers
of DNA , but rather the first scientists to
formulate an accurate description of this
molecule's complex, double helical
structure .
● Moreover, Watson and Crick's work was
directly dependent on the research of
numerous scientists before them, including
Friedrich Miescher, Phoebus Levene and
Erwin Chargaff
Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)
● DNA is a material basis of heredity
○ biological macromolecule for the
storage of genetic information
● universal for all bacteria, higher organisms
● DNA can be found in:
○ Nucleus (biparental
○ Plastids (uniparental
■ Mitochondria : maternal

jnbernardo@up.edu.ph
 FBS 172 Forest Genetics

■ Chloroplasts
● Angiosperms
usually maternal
● Gymnosperms
(conifers!)
usually paternal
(pollen)

DNA of the nucleus
● DNA content can be measured in base
pairs since it is a double stranded molecule
● higher organisms: 108 to 1011 base pairs
(total size)
● Plants: particularly variable genome size
○ conifers: large
● repetitive sequences (102 to 108)
● many sequences without known function
Note: genome of complex organism is not
necessarily larger than simple organisms
DNA of Plastids
● Chloroplast DNA: cpDNA
○ approx. 120,000-200,000 bps
○ completely sequenced for several
plants
■ Pinus thunbergii
● Mitochondrial DNA: mtDNA
○ approx. 16,000 bps (human)
○ sequenced for human, some
animals
Nucleic acids
● Nucleic acids are the genetic material of
the cell and are composed of recurring
monomeric units called nucleotides
● Each nucleotide is comprised of three
principal components:
○ 5-carbon pentose sugar
(pentagon)
○ Phosphate group (circle)
○ Nitrogenous base (rectangle)
● Both the phosphate group and nitrogenous
base are attached to the central pentose
sugar
○ The nitrogenous base is attached
to the 1’ - carbon atom (right point)
○ The phosphate base is attached to
the 5’ - carbon atom (left point)

jnbernardo@up.edu.ph
 FBS 172 Forest Genetics

Replication
● DNA is usually a double helix
● only pairs A-T and C-G can oppose each
other (hydrogen bonds)
● DNA replication is semi-conservative
● The results of replication are two identical
copies from one “parent” chain

DNA function: release of genetic information

● Transcription: copy of DNA parts (cistron;
functional gene) to mRNA
○ m for messenger
○ RNA: similar to DNA, but U instead
of T
● mRNA leaves nucleus
○ attach to ribosomes (protein
synthesis)
● Translation: mRNA sequence translated to
amino acid sequence
○ genetic code: triplets (three bases
one amino acid)

The genetic code

- Genetic code "translates" the information
of one triplet into one amino acid. Out of
the four bases, 64 (=43) different triplets,
i.e. sequences of three neighbouring
nucleotides can be formed
- GC: universal for almost all organisms, i.e.
the same triplets code for certain amino
acids in bacteria, animals, and plants.

Translation Analogy
1. A cell is like a restaurant - differentiated
cell types are like restaurants specialising
in different cuisines
2. The DNA is the set of instructions for the
cell like a cookbook - is the set of
instructions for a restaurant

jnbernardo@up.edu.ph
 FBS 172 Forest Genetics

3. A single DNA instruction is a gene this is
akin to a single recipe in a cookbook
4. Transcription is the process of making an
RNA copy of a gene RNA polymerase is like
a photocopy machine
5. The mRNA transcript (i.e. photocopied
recipe) is transported to the ribosome
which functions as the cook
6. The ribosome reads the mRNA one codon
at a time as a cook would read the recipe
one step at a time
7. Each codon corresponds to an amino acid
just like each step in a recipe refers to a
specific ingredient
8. The amino acids are brought to the
ribosome by tRNA these tRNA molecules
are like kitchen hands
9. The ribosome joins the amino acids
together to make a polypeptide just like a
cook mixes ingredients to make food
- “Information flow, exchange and storage,”
arguably the basis for all modern genetics
and genomics research
- “central dogma” of molecular biology
- Francis Crick: first described the central
dogma as “the detailed residue-by-residue
transfer of sequential information. It states
that such information cannot be
transferred from protein to either protein
or nucleic acid” (Crick, 1970)
- The canonical interpretation of the central
dogma is that genetic information (DNA) is
used to generate transient messenger
molecules (RNA) that are themselves used
to direct synthesis of particular protein
products and that the proteins are
responsible for most cellular functions

LECTURE 3B
Central Dogma

Central Dogma Concept

- model used to describe and study the
relationship between genes and protein
products.
- describes the flow of genetic information
from DNA to RNA to protein.

Introduction
I. Five core concepts necessary for biological
literacy
A. Evolution;
B. structure and function;
C. information flow, exchange, and
storage;
D. pathways and transformations of
energy and matter; &
E. systems.

jnbernardo@up.edu.ph
 FBS 172 Forest Genetics

Primer Synthesis
● Primer synthesis marks the beginning of
the actual synthesis of the new DNA
molecule.
● Primers are short stretches of nucleotides
(about 10 to 12 bases in length)
synthesized by an RNA polymerase
enzyme called primase.
○ required because DNA
polymerases, the enzymes
responsible for the actual addition
of nucleotides to the new DNA
strand, can only add
deoxyribonucleotides to the 3'-OH - Replication is the process by which the
group of an existing chain and original DNA is used as a template for the
cannot begin synthesis de novo. production of a new complementary DNA
● Primase can add ribonucleotides de novo. strand. It begins in the nucleus when an
○ Later, after elongation is enzyme helicas breaks the hydrogen
complete, the primer is removed bonds between the two strands of DNA,
and replaced with DNA unwinding the double helix DNA into two
nucleotides. single strands that serve as template for
the replication of DNA. The resulting
structure is called the replication fork.
- The leading strand is formed from its 5’ to
its 3’ strand by the enzyme DNA
polymerase 3. This enzyme adds
nucleotide units to the leading strand.
Nucleotides contain phosphate, bases,
and sugars. The other strand known as the
lagging strand is formed backward from its
3’ to its 5’. It does not form continuously
like the leading strand; instead it forms in
pieces known as Okazaki fragments. RNA
primase adds a structure known as RNA
primer, short sequence of RNA
nucleotides, complementary to a small,
initial section of the DNA strand prepared
for replication, to the lagging strand. DNA
polymerase 3 lays down a new DNA in
lagging strand. This process is repeated as
new DNA is added to the strand.
- Another type of DNA polymerase known
as DNA polymerase 1 replaces the RNA
primers in the lagging strand with DNA.
- Finally, the enzyme DNA ligase links the
Okazaki fragments, thus the lagging
strand is completely replicated.

Genes and Proteins

- Genes are a sequence of nucleotides in
DNA that code for a particular protein

jnbernardo@up.edu.ph
 FBS 172 Forest Genetics

- Proteins drive cellular processes,

determine physical characteristics, and
manifest genetic disorders by their
absence or presence
- Genetic information (DNA) is contained
within the nucleus (mostly) of a cell, which
directs protein synthesis, but protein
synthesis occurs in ribosomes located in
the cytoplasm
- How does a ribosome synthesize the
protein required if it does not have access
to DNA?
- Through an intermediate
substance known as mRNA.
- Information is faithfully copied
from DNA into mRNA by a process
called transcription.
- Ribosomes use the mRNA as a
blueprint to synthesize proteins
composed of amino acids by a
process called translation.

RNA
There are three types of RNA:
1. mRNA is the “blueprint” for building a
protein
2. rRNA is the “site” where the proteins are
made
3. tRNA is the “vehicle” delivering the proper
amino acid to the site of protein synthesis

Transcription
● Once the RNA polymerase leaves the
promoter region, a new RNA polymerase
can bind there to begin a new mRNA
transcript.
● Since prokaryotes lack a membrane bound
nucleus translation can begin even before
the mRNA dissociates. However, the
pre-mRNA from eukaryotic cells needs
some modification before it leaves the
nucleus.

Processing of mRNA transcript

● In eukaryotes, the mRNA released at the
end of transcription is called pre-mRNA.

jnbernardo@up.edu.ph
 FBS 172 Forest Genetics

● Pre-mRNA undergoes several changes

before it is exported out of the nucleus to
protect it from the cytoplasmic
environment.

Translation
● After transcription mRNA exits the nucleus
via nuclear pores and ribosomes bind to
mRNA
● Ribosomes synthesize different proteins
by reading the coding sequence on mRNA
● The mRNA is read in triplets of nucleotides
each of which encodes an amino acid

jnbernardo@up.edu.ph
 FBS 172 Forest Genetics

Transfer RNA (tRNA)

● The ribosome alone cannot synthesize the
polypeptide chain
● The correct amino acids must be delivered
to the polypeptide building site

tRNA
● three-lobed like “cloverleaf” due to base
pairing between complementary
nucleotides on different regions of each
tRNA molecule causing it to fold

jnbernardo@up.edu.ph
 FBS 172 Forest Genetics

● At the end of one lobe of tRNA, a sequence

of three bases called the anticodon
recognizes and is complementary to the
codon of the mRNA.

Wobble in the Genetic Code

● There are 64 possible codon combinations,
but the cytoplasm only holds about 35-45
different tRNAs.
● This leaves some anti-codons pairing with
more than one codon creating a more
lenient compliment in the third position.
● redundancy of amino acid codons -
“wobble position hypothesis”

jnbernardo@up.edu.ph
 FBS 172 Forest Genetics

jnbernardo@up.edu.ph
 FBS 172 Forest Genetics

● Does lead to
development of a new
species
2. Evolution is a permanent process
● possible to observe
directly by suitable
experiments

Evolution
● Main principle was recognized and
described by DARWIN (1859)
○ Biological evolution is based on
heritable variation within species
or pops.
● Changes of genetic structures of a
population at least a single gene locus
○ Only adaptive changes
○ Also non adaptive changes (by
chance)
○ Evolutionary factors
■ Mutation
■ Gene flow and migration
■ Genetic drift
■ Selection
■ Mating system
○ Evolutionary factors often overlap;
joint effects!

LECTURE 4
Populations and Evolutionary Factors

Evolution and Evolutionary Factors

- Evolution resulted in 2 30 million existing
species
- Only over long periods
recognizable? No
- Always leads to “higher”
developed species? no
- Two aspects are often neglected:
1. Most evolutionary chance occurs
within species

jnbernardo@up.edu.ph
 FBS 172 Forest Genetics

jnbernardo@up.edu.ph
 FBS 172 Forest Genetics

Evolution in the tropics

● Mainly drift
○ Limited gene flow: small
populations
○ Random fluctuations of genetic
structures
○ Speciation ( endemicity ) results
from drift effects
● Mainly selection
○ Extensive gene flow
○ Species richness evolution ->
Semi isolated subpopulations
experience different
environments (selection!)
○ Secondary evolution of
reproductive barriers result from
temporal spatial isolation

jnbernardo@up.edu.ph
 FBS 172 Forest Genetics

jnbernardo@up.edu.ph
 FBS 172 Forest Genetics

jnbernardo@up.edu.ph
 FBS 172 Forest Genetics

jnbernardo@up.edu.ph
 FBS 172 Forest Genetics

jnbernardo@up.edu.ph