SCIENCE

S.Y. ‘23 - 24 | Alice Miranda DEPARTMENTAL EXAM

each cell in the human body has 23

pairs of chromosomes (46 total). Half
1.0 HEREDITY & VARIATION come from the mother, the other half
come from the father. Two of the
chromosomes (X: Women Y: Men)
● Heredity, also called inheritance
determine your sex
or biological inheritance, is the
●
passing on of traits from
parents to their offspring; either
through asexual reproduction or
sexual reproduction, the
offspring cells or organisms
acquire the genetic information
of their parents.
● Variation is the observation of
different characters among
individuals in a particular
species. Variation refer to the
differences shown by the
individuals of the same species
and also by the offspring of the
same parents. Variation is
important because it
contributes to the evolution and
forms the basis of heredity. ●
● Inheritance depicts the pathway
1.2 PARTS OF THE CHROMOSOMES
of the genetic traits and its
expression from one to another ● Centromere or Kinetochore: It is the
generation. primary constriction at the center to
● which the chromatids or spindle fibers
are attached. Its function is to enable
1.1 CHROMOSOMES movement of the chromosome during
the anaphase stage of cell division.
● Chromatid: A chromatid is each half of
● The word chromosomes comes from the chromosome joined. Each
the Greek words “chroma” or color and chromatid contains DNA and Both
“soma” or body. Chromosomes are chromatids are attached to each other
found in all eukaryotes. They are made by the centromere.
from chromatin or material consisting ● Chromatin: It is a complex of DNA and
of DNA and associated with proteins. proteins that forms chromosomes
● Genes are sections of DNA that contain within the nucleus of the eukaryotic
the set of instructions to produce one cells
specific molecule in your body, usually a ● Secondary constriction: It is generally
protein. present for the nucleolar organization.
● The main function of chromosomes is ● Telomere: Telomere is the terminal
to carry the DNA and transfer the region of each side of the chromosome.
genetic information from parents to Each chromosome has 2.
offspring. ● Chromonema: It is a threadlike coiled
● Chromosomes come in pairs. Normally, filamentous structure along which

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S.Y. ‘23 - 24 | Alice Miranda DEPARTMENTAL EXAM

chromomeres are arranged.

Chromonema controls the size of the
chromosome and it acts as a site of
gene bearing.
● Chromomeres: These are the bead-like
structures present on threads or
chromonema. These are arranged in a
row along the length of chromonema.
The number of chromosomes is
●
constant and it is responsible for
●
carrying the genes during cell division
to the next generation. 1.4 HOMOLOGOUS CHROMOSOMES
● Matrix: Pellicle is the membrane
surrounding each of the chromosomes. ● Homologous chromosomes are made
Matrix is the jelly-like substance present up of chromosome pairs of
inside pellicle. It is formed of approximately the same length,
non-genetic materials. centromere position and staining
● pattern, for genes with same
corresponding loci.
1.3 TYPES OF CHROMOSOMES ● The egg and the sperm cell, collectively
called gametes contain the haploid
● Chromosomes can be classified into
number (N) of chromosomes.
two kinds:
● The number of chromosomes present in
● Autosomes – those that carries the
the body cells is called the diploid
characteristics or traits
number (2N).
● Sex chromosomes(gonosomes) – those
that determine the gender of the 1.5 KARYOTYPE
offsprings.
● Chromosomes are classified into four ● A karyotype is an actual picture of the
types based on the position of the chromosomes from one cell that has
centromere. been stained and magnified 1000x. The
● Telocentric Chromosome – in chromosomes are studied and analyzed
telocentric chromosomes, the by specially trained cytogenetic
centromere is located at the proximal technologists. The study of
end (tip) of the chromosome chromosomes is called cytogenetics.
● Metacentric Chromosome – is a 1.6
chromosome whose centromere is
NON-MENDELIAN INHERITANCE
centrally located. ● Non-Mendelian inheritance is any
● Submetacentric Chromosome – is a pattern of inheritance in which traits do
chromosome whose centromere is near not segregate in accordance with
the middle. Mendel’s laws. These laws describe
● Acrocentric Chromosome – is a the inheritance of traits linked to single
chromosome in which the centromere is genes on chromosomes in the nucleus.
very close to one end.
1.7 NM FORMS OF INHERITANCE

● Incomplete dominance
- both alleles of a gene at a locus
are partially expressed, often

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S.Y. ‘23 - 24 | Alice Miranda DEPARTMENTAL EXAM

resulting in an intermediate or additive or similar effect on a

different phenotype. It is also single quantitative trait.
known as partial dominance. -
● Co-dominance
- two versions (alleles) of the 1.8 PUNNET SQUARE
same gene are expressed
● The Punnett square is a table in which
separately to yield different traits
all of the possible outcomes for a
in an individual.
genetic cross between two individuals
● Genetic linkage
with known genotypes are given
- two or more genes linked
● A person’s genotype is their unique
together are always inherited
sequence of DNA. More specifically,
together in the same
this term is used to refer to the two
combination for more than two
alleles a person has inherited for a
generations, whereas in
particular gene.
recombination the genetic
● The phenotype is the physical
material is exchanged between
manifestation of an organism’s allelic
different organisms which leads
combination (genotype).
to the production of offsprings
with the combination of traits.
● Multiple alleles
- Alleles are the pairs of genes 2.0
occupying a specific spot called
BIODIVERSITY AND EVOLUTION
locus on a chromosome
- Allelism refers to any of the
● was coined by Raymond F. Dasmann
several forms of a gene. These
genetic variation arise usually in 1985 and was introduced to the
through mutation and therefore science communities by Thomas E.
are responsible for hereditary Lovejoy.
variations. ● pertains to the number and variety of
● Epistasis living organisms in an area.
- Epistasis is a phenomenon in
genetics in which the effect of a
gene mutation is dependent on 2.1 TYPES OF BIODIVERSITY
the presence or absence of
mutations in one or more ● Biological diversity
● Sex-linked inheritance - pertains to the total number of
- efers to characteristics (or traits) species that exist within a
that are influenced by genes
region, as the number of
carried on the sex
chromosomes. individuals composing each
● Extranuclear inheritance species and how they interact
- the transmission of genes that with each other and the physical
occur outside the nucleus. It is environment.
found in most eukaryotes and is - species is a group of organisms
commonly known to occur in possessing a unique set of
cytoplasmic organelles such as
characteristics.
mitochondria and chloroplasts.
● Polygenic traits ● Genetic diversity
- Defined as quantitative - pertains to the variations in
inheritance, where multiple genes (genetic makeup or
independent genes have an

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genotype) between distinct
species.
● Ecosystem diversity
- pertains to the variation of
ecosystems: forests, savannas,
grasslands, deserts, wetlands
and ponds, among others and
the various types of habitats
found within each type.
2.2 BIODIVERSITY LOSS
● one of the pressing issues of our time.
Scientist can determine that biodiversity
is being lost if there is a continuous
decrease or extinction of species, loss
of specific habitat and loss in the genetic
variations within a species.
● Extinction of species
- Species extinction is the
number one cause of
biodiversity loss.
● Extinction
- means the last individual
belonging to a particular species
is gone forever.
- - may be brought about by
natural causes and man-made
(anthropogenic) activities
● Loss of specific habitats
- Habitat is the place where
organisms live. It provides the
necessary elements of life.
● Loss of genetic variation within a
species
- Genetic variation plays an
important role in the survival
and ability of the species to
adapt to changing
environments.
2.3 MAN-MADE CAUSES OF
EXTINCTION
DEPARTMENTAL EXAM
● Habitat destruction
- This pertains to the conversion,
fragmentation and simplification
of any potential natural habitats.
Habitat destruction is
considered as the number one
cause of mass species
extinctions caused by human
activity.
● Commercial hunting/harvesting and
hunting for sports
- Commercial hunting and
harvesting happen due to
various socio-economic factors
and man’s insatiable greed for
profit and material things.
● Introduction of alien, exotic or
nonnative species
- The introduction of exotic plant
and animal species can upset
the ecological balance in the
given locality.
● Pollution caused by human activities
can take many forms
- The introduction of pest and
predator control can cause the
local extinction events
● Eutrophication
- is the over fertilization of freshwater
that leads to oxygen depletion.
● Other causes like superstition
– ignorance or misconceived ideas that
the organisms are very dangerous and
can bring bad luck.
2.4 IMPACTS OF EXTINCTION
● Living things depend on each other in so
many ways. They also depend on their
environment where they can find all the
resources that will keep them alive and
functioning. Natural processes as well
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as the activities of living things most
often change the environment. Some
changes are detrimental to some
species but beneficial to other species.
Thus, it can be said that there exists an
intricate system of connections among
living organisms and their environments.
2.5 THE DOMINO/RIFFLE EFFECT
● Scientists discovered that the removal of
one species can further change the
relative composition or the relative
abundance of other species in a
community. They call this phenomenon
“domino effect” or “riffle effect”. The
domino or riffle effect can happen if the
species that have been removed in
the area are keystone species.
● keystone species
- is one whose presence and activities
strongly affect other species in the
community.
2.6 ADAPTATIONS
● refers to the process of adjusting
behavior, physiology or structure to
become more suited to an
environment.
1.7 TYPES OF ADAPTATIONS
● Structural adaptation
- Physical features of an
organism that helps it to survive
● Behavioral adaptation
- any activity that is instinctive or
which an organism has learned
or has become conditioned of
doing for protection to the
environmental change.
● Physiological adaptation
- internal systems or body
processes in the organism’s
body that responds to physical
DEPARTMENTAL EXAM
threat to the organism from its
environment or predators.
● Coadaptation
- Process by which two or more
species, genes or phenotypic
traits undergo adaptation as a
pair or group
1.1 SOURCES OF ADAPTIVE TRAITS
● sexual reproduction.
- Sexual reproduction introduces
new traits as the offspring inherit
the parents’ genes.
● genetic changes or mutations.
- usually occur because a gene
changes by accident and this
change developed over many
generations.
1.0 PHOTOSYNTHESIS
● The process by which plants use
sunlight, water and carbon dioxide to
create oxygen and energy in the form of
sugar.
● Photosynthesis takes place in
chloroplasts.
● The upper and lower epidermis are
composed of thin, transparent and
closely packed cells that allow light to
pass through. The palisade and spongy
tissue collectively called the mesophyll
tissue is considered the photosynthetic
tissue since the cells composing this
layer contain numerous chloroplasts.
● Photosystems are aggregates of
pigments and proteins organized within
the chloroplasts. They are the structural
and functional units that function for
harnessing solar energy. It consists of a
series of electron carriers that forms the
electron transport chain and reaction
center. A reaction center is a specific
type of chlorophyll molecule surrounded
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by antenna complexes. These antenna
complexes are composed of
carotenoids pigments and other
accessory pigments and that can gather
and absorb light energy and convey it to
the reaction center.
● There are two types of photosystems
involved in harnessing energy:
photosystem I and photosystem II. The
number indicate the order in which the
photosystems were discovered. In
photosystem I the reaction center is a
type of chlorophyll a known as
phytochrome 700 that can absorb
photons with a wavelength of 700nm. In
phtosystem II, the reaction center
isanother type of chlorophyll a known as
phytochrome 680 that can absorb
photons with wavelength of 680nm.
● ●
1.1 STOMATA
● Gases enter and leave the spaces in
between the leaf tissues via small
openings called stomata. The size of
the stomata is regulated by the two
kidney-shaped cells called guard cells.
The veins that transverse the leaf blade
contain the vascular tissues consisting
of the xylem and phloem. They xylem
tissue transports water and minerals
coming from the roots and the phloem
tissue transport food, the product of the
photosynthetic process to various plant
parts where it is needed
1. RAW MATERIALS
2
● Carbon dioxide – The reservoir of
carbon dioxide is the atmosphere. The
carbon part in the carbon dioxide is
important in the synthesis of sugar.
DEPARTMENTAL EXAM
When in the leaf, carbon dioxide
dissolves in water and is stored in the
leaf in the form of carbonic acid.
● Water – is obtained from the soil. As
water enters the leaf, it is
photo-chemically split into hydrogen ion
and hydroxyl ion. Water is the source of
electrons and ions needed in the
synthesis of high energy molecules.
1.3 OTHER FACTORS INVOLVED
● .Accessory pigments chlorophyll b, c, d,
and e, xanthophylls and carotenoids
absorbs energy that chlorophyll a
cannot absorb.
Electron carriers and enzymes are
chemical substances that are also
contained in the chloroplast. Electron
carriers are substances that can readily
accept and release high energy
electrons. Enzymes are substances that
catalyze specific chemical reactions to
happen.
● Light energy – powers the entire
photosynthetic reaction. It comes from
the sun in discrete packets called
photons. As the photon of light is
absorbed by the chloroplasts, the
electrons in the chlorophyll molecule
become “excited”.
● The chloroplasts are the actual sites of
the photosynthetic process. Chlorophyll
a absorbs energy from the violet, blue
and red and orange wavelengths
efficiently.
1.4 REACTIONS
● Photosynthesis occurs in two stages:
the light or photo reaction and the dark
or synthetic reaction. The light reaction
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takes place in the grana, while the dark
reaction takes place in the stroma of the
chloroplasts.
● Cyclic Light Reaction – involves
photosystem I where the reaction center
is P700. When a photon of light reaches
P700, it becomes excited releasing a
high energy electron. The high energy
electron is received by the primary
electron acceptor and then passes it
along a series of electron carriers. The
energy that is released from the high
energy electron as it passes on along
the electron transport chain leads to the
formation of Adenosine Triphosphate
(ATP), a high energy molecule. In the
cyclic light reaction, energy is
transformed into molecules of ATP, a
high energy compound.
● Non-cyclic Light Reaction involves both
photosystems I and II. The reaction
takes place in P680. The high energy
electron cascades along a series of
electron carriers leading to the
formation of ATP. Since P680 still
misses an electron, it remains positively
charged. This positive charge causes
the water molecules to split, forming
hydrogen ion, hydroxyl ion, two electrons
and oxygen. The hydrogen ion and an
electron bind with Nicotinamide Adenine
Dinucleotide Phosphate ion (NADP), an
unstable chemical substance found in
the chloroplast forming the stable
compound Nicotinamide Adenine
Dinucleotide Phosphate (NADPH)
anaother high energy substance like
ATP. The other hydrogen and hydroxyl
ions recombine to form oxygen and
water vapor that exit the stomata and
are released in the atmosphere as
by-products. Thus, the overall products
of the non-cyclic light reaction are ATP,
NADPH, oxygen and water.
● Dark or Synthesis Reaction of
photosynthesis is the stage where
carbon dioxide that enters the leaf is
converted to sugar. This reaction is also
known as carbon fixation or Calvin cycle
DEPARTMENTAL EXAM
in honor of Prof. Melvin Calvin who
discovered the process. In the
chloroplast is a place called stroma
where a chemical substance called
ribulose bisphosphate (RuBP5) is found,
which is a 5-carbon sugar referred to as
a carbon dioxide acceptor. RuBP5
chemically combines with carbon
dioxide to form RuBP6. RuBP6 splits
enzymatically forming two molecules of
phosphoglycerate (PGA). PGA plus
hydrogen ion from NADPH and a
phosphate group from ATP becomes
phosphoglyceraldehyde (PGAL) which is
the key material in the synthesis of
glucose.
● Photosynthesis is an anabolic pathway
that traps light energy and transforms
this energy into molecules of ATP and
NADPH that are used in the production
of glucose.
2.0 CELLULAR RESPIRATION
● process wherein the cell breaks down
glucose and transforms its stored energy
into usable form
● The main role of cellular respiration is the
release of energy stored in glucose
molecule to produce ATP. Oxygen gas
reacts with glucose molecule, thereby
enabling the release of energy stored in
it.
2.1 MITOCHONDRIA
● – the site of Cellular Respiration
● The ATP factory is located inside the
cells, specifically the mitochondria. This
is the reason why mitochondria are
described as the powerhouse of the cell.
Mitochondria are membrane-bound
organelles distributed within the
cytoplasm of eukaryotic cells. A
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mitochondrion is enclosed by a double
membrane-an outer membrane that
encloses the entire structure and an
inner membrane that is intricately folded
forming shelf-like cristae enclosing a
fluid filled matrix. The matrix within the
cristae contains the necessary enzymes
required to produce ATP.
2.2 CHEMICAL REACTIONS OF
AEROBIC CELLULAR
RESPIRATIONS
● Glycolysis – means the splitting
of sugar (glyco means sugar
and lysis means breaking or
splitting). This stage takes
place in the cytoplasm and can
occur with or without oxygen.
● With the help of the different
body enzymes a molecule of
glucose is broken down into two
molecules of pyruvate or
pyruvic acid, a three carbon
sugar. This process produces 4
ATP molecules. However,
energy is also needed to bring
about glycolysis so the overall
net gain of this reaction is 2
ATP. The process yields 2
molecules of energy-rich NADH.
At the end of glycolysis, only 10
percent of the energy of glucose
is released. The pyruvic acid
now enters the mitochondrion
for further chemical grooming
to yield more ATP molecules.
● The Krebs Cycle – named in
honor of Hans Krebs, also
known as the Citric Acid cycle.
The Krebs cycle takes place in
the matrix of the mitochondria
and requires the presence of
oxygen. Before the start of the
DEPARTMENTAL EXAM
Krebs cycle, pyruvic acid formed
during glycolysis has to undergo
first a sort of chemical
grooming. In this preparation
stage, pyruvic acid is chemically
changed to acetyl coA. This
happens when pyruvic acid or
pyruvate loses an atom of
carbon and two atoms of
oxygen through the action of an
enzyme called coenzyme A.
Pryruvic acid is changed into a
two carbon molecule called
acetyl, which will chemically join
with coA forming acetyl coA.
Acetyl coA enters the citric acid
cycle. In the actual Krebs cycle,
the 2-carbon acetyl coA
combines with oxaloacetic acid.
The chemical union of these
two molecules forms a
six-carbon compound called
citric acid.
● Citric acid is further broken
down into different kinds of
organic acid generating
molecules of carbon, oxygen
and high energy electrons. The
gradual degradation continues
until finally the product is the
original four carbon oxaloacetic
acid that will start the cycle
again. The energy is used in
converting NAD to nicotinamide
dinucleotide (NADH) and FAD to
flavin adenine dinucleotide
(FADH). These molecules
carrying high energy electrons
plays a role in the electron
transport chain. In two turns of
the Krebs cycle the total
products are 2 ATP, 6 NADH, 2
FADH and 4 molecules of
carbon that chemically combine
with oxygen to form carbon
dioxide.
● Electron Transport Chain -
NADH and FADH formed during
the citric cycle donate their high
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S.Y. ‘23 - 24 | Alice Miranda DEPARTMENTAL EXAM

energy electrons to the electron oxidative phosphorylation or

acceptors embedded in the chemiosmosis.
inner membrane of the ● Oxidative phosphorylation
mitochondrion. As NADH and generates about 32 ATP
FADH lose their electrons they molecules plus 4 molecules
are again changed to NAD and from glycolysis and two
FAD, both of which return for molecules from the Krebs cycle,
processing again to the Krebs a net total of 36 ATP molecules
cycle or citric acid cycle. The are extracted from a single
donated electrons cascade molecule of glucose. The ATP
along the series of electron molecules formed from this
acceptor proteins and more chemical reaction is equivalent
energy is released and to about 2900 kilo joules of
harvested from them. Oxygen energy that will be stored in the
functions as the final electron body cells and can be used to
acceptor. power cellular activities and the
● As NADH and FADH both lose overall activities of any living
electrons, hydrogen ions are organisms to sustain like.
released and transferred from
the mitochondrial matrix to the
intermembrane space via the
hydrogen ion pumps embedded
in the inner membrane. The
buildup of hydrogen ions in the
intermembrane space lowers
the concentration of hydrogen
ions in the mitochondrial matrix
while there is high concentration
of hydrogen ions in the
intermembrane space.
● This difference in the
concentration gradient causes
the hydrogen ions to move from
high-energy gradient to low
energy gradient. However, as
the hydrogen ions move
following the principles of
diffusion, the hydrogen ions
driven by the proton motive
force pass through the proton
channel of the ATP synthase
complexes to be in the
mitochondrial matrix. The
continuous passing through of
the hydrogen ions via the ATP
synthase complexes results in
the formation of multiple
molecules of ATP from ADP
through the process called

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S.Y. ‘23 - 24 | Alice Miranda DEPARTMENTAL EXAM

TUTORIAL

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10
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S.Y. ‘23 - 24 | Alice Miranda DEPARTMENTAL EXAM

TUTORIAL
(can remove this table if fully understood)

PAGE SETUP

● File Tab > Page Setup

- Orientation: Portrait
- Paper Size: Letter
- Page Color: White
- Margins: 1 inch on all sides

FORMAT

● Format Tab > Line & Paragraph

Spacing
- Choose “Single”
● Format Tab > Columns
- Choose two columns (middle
option)
● Format Tab > Page Numbers
- Position: Footer
- Show on first page
- Start at: 1

HEADER & FOOTER

● Double tap the Header part of the

paper.
- Start editing the subject name,
school year, professor name,
and the lesson name.
● Double tap the Footer part of the
paper.
- Start editing the course / year
level, semester # and quarter
# (if applicable), subject name,
and professor name.

CONTENT

● On the first line, put where your info is

based from (is it ppt-based,
module-based, lecture-based, etc.)
● Use the dividers provided on the
template to label the main topic and
its subtopics.
- 1.0, 2.0, 3.0 for main topics;
- 1.1, 1.2, 2.1, etc. for subtopics

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