22.

8 CHARACTERISATION OF RADIOACTIVE WASTE

The phenomena of radiation existed in outer space much before earth was
discovered and as such many radioactive constituents are present in earth, bodyO
human and nature. Becquerel (1896) and Marie Curie (1898) first discovered tns
radioactivity. Roentgen simultaneously discovered X-rays. As more than 3
Rado ent
499

persons including Madam Curie died of radioactive exposure blood disease.

dto
Itled atomic explosion in 1945 and erection of nuclear causing
power station (1930).
AlIthe activities led to generation of enormous
creating problems of disposal. Of the total electricamount
of
generation radioactive
being 1750 waste.
x109
wattsfrom one nuclear sources is 800 ×10 watts and it is estimatedIto be 100,000
Mega curie. The radioactive waste is generated. Of this 900 metrictonnes will be
actinide waste which includes 12,000 mega curie of a-activity. Pu is most active
element in waste. The management involves four steps viz. waste treatrment:
interium storage; transportation and disposal operation. The soil acts as sink.
leading to repository degradation. Thenthere is geosphere. biosphere transport of
waste and final consideration of biosphere consequences.

0) Migration in Lithosphere
It is positive on ong storage of the waste, the radioactive waste on storage in
repositories or waste storage area is likely to escape in the environment releasing
airborn contamination. Also surface contamination gives way to lithosphere through
container for
water which percolates to porous rocks. Pit impervious rocks acts as
migration occurres
Jong-term storage but their concentration is very dilute. The
actinide ions
through fissures of soil. The study revealed that displacement of
concentration of other cations
from binding sites on rock matrix by quite large
and increasingly easier displacement by more
highly charged ions. Radioactivity
held by stony materials leading tothe slow rate of migration. A small
of actinides species. This shows while considering
fraction migrates rapidly than bulk of the
constructs waste depository which is isolated
chemical and geological media, one
instrusion of water.
from environment in spite of major
Radioactive Waste
(ii) Characteristics of Waste is characterised at low
waste is nuclear fuel cycle.
The main source of contaminated waste. Qualitywise first two are identical
curie/
level, high-level, or actinideconcentration of activity. Low-level waste has 1
In contents but
different in
Burying in soil is disposal method for it,
microcurrents/ft). fuel, present in
It of activity (-30 originates from reprocessing of spent reactorgenerates heat.
Duthigh-level waste to 1000 curie/gallon of activity and it
more than 710
liquid form. It has 100 contaminated or actinide waste has
Iransuranium elements
nanocuries/gm of actinide nuclides.
Waste place
(0) Source of Radioactive mining,refining, enrichment
parts of nuclear cycle e.g.,
reprocessing. Mining produces mainlyis
It is produced in all
reactor and operation and While making yellowcake
fuel fabrication,
underground mining is preferred. give'milltailings'. It affects
dust and radon, so produced during refiningtoproducessmallactive nuclide
is
injurious dust it to UF, during enrichment
(U;0)
our lungs. U;Og conversion further processing produces active waste.
are made and
effluents. UF, on effluents. The rods
are washed throughin activityis lost in
Laser enrichment is best as no
500 Environmental Pollution Monitoring and Control
cladded with zirconium leading to loss of U, Th, Pa in waste water.
Maximum
waste is produced by reactor operations. Spent fuel contains active elements. The
spent fuel is not reprocessed but disposed off. However, U238, U235. Pu is extracted
in reprocessing plant from spent reactor fuel (Table 22.5). Washings have 10000
gallon of activity. Fuel cladding made of zirconium is contaminated and
generatesfor
solid active waste. In absence of reprocessing. liquid waste is stored in tanks
disposal sometime. But capacity of tank gets full in 5 to 9 yrs demanding closer oe
reactor. Nuclear reactor is to be shut after 30to 35 years for decontamination
decommissioning. However, fromthe point of safety. Dresdent reactor in Chicago
was decontaminated at 75% of construction cost in 25 years.
Table 22.5 Radionuclides in spent reactor fuel

Isotope Half-life years Emissions Isotope Half-life (yrs) Emissions

5.26 e, (He) Sml562 87
U34 2,47,000
28.10 92 He
900,000 () Pu238 86 He
366 e () 438 e
244 17.6
200,000 Cmg6 He
Pm l47 2.62 ey () H 12.3
6] e

22.9 STORAGE AND DISPOSAL OF RADIOACTIVE WASTE

Waste constitutes a big hazard and hence is disposed off loosely in environment.
It has life of 10,000years, thus safe disposal is an art and engineering challange.
Now we consider different modes of disposal.
() Storage of Waste
This is not permanent solution to enclose in container but it is temporary relief
and postponement of main problem. US-EPA expects liquid waste to be solidified
by calcination, vitrification or synthetic crystalline ceramic form. The calcination
is process of evaporation while vitrification is mixing it with borosilicate to form
glass. Borosilicate glass conceals several active elements. Crystalline ceramic is
alternative involving encapsulation of activity, but it undergoes transmutation and
develops cracks. Disposal of spent reactor fuel is critical. Waste cannister do not
last longer than 1000 years. Reprocessing will not reduce volume, but it has no
special merit from disposal plan.
(ii) Disposal Technologies
Apart from geological isolation, seabead disposal, space disposal and ice disposal
are few alternatives. In large concrete air or water cooled valut, spent fuel is stol
for 100 years (Table 22.6). Away from reacto, storage is also possible if good
transportation is there. Geological isolation involves disposal of radioactive wasi
deep down within earth's crust. It is good as site of impervious rock is located o
disposal. Only ground water should not comne in contact with it. The depthshould
 ROOOC0tive Waste and
Environment 501
morethan 1500 ft. Sr and
of CsS are lost in soil by
be
problem
the instrusion hydrogeological
must be system, erosion, sesmicity,disintegration.
carefully the tectonic However,
human
surtace(i.e., 5
to 8 miles deep). examined. Super deep holes are 4000instability.
ft. below
Waste due to its heat content
The disposal media is granite, basalt, shale, tuff. The melts the rocks.
geological isolation needs serious technical
The effects uncertainty
of
ock
caused by repository and consideration.
burial of thermal hot waste as it isupon the host
not properly
Cicag ynderstood. The possible chemical
is
ground
water. The response of
reactions
notreliable. The seismic activity like
are not known to us.
is
waste cannister for emplacement
geologicalsurrounding and the possibility of
Stability of soil
earthquake unpredictable. It affects
in definite
cannister
thoroughly evaluated, as corrosion may destroy cannisters. retrievability are not
Salt disposal has also
limitations. The overall behaviour of brine found in cavities need
investigations. The brine attacks cannister made out of glass, alloy, ceramics.further
Noble
metals are attacked. The carbon steel is safe cannisier material for fabrication.
The effect of thermal loading on salt needs further investigations. This may cause
4
acturing and leakage. The exact mechanism responsible to initiate subsidence
2 frock layers need further study. Plasticity of salt will create problems. It is essential
determine optimum waste form and its effect on repository quality.
Table 22.6 Radionuclides in fuel with long half-life
Years Isotope Half-life Emission Effecton Radioactivity
(Range) (Years) of human health Curielmeto
ment. radiation
of (th) particles
ange. curieltonne
activity
Any part of the body 219
Cs' 22 ys 11900
<10 Sb125 2.7 hs Kidney
51
Intestine, digestion problem 8610
elef 52 ys B.Y
Co Entire portion of body ache
fied H 12 ys B
Liver, lymphatic gland 655
Lon
<20 Pu 13 ys 102
Intestine, kidney
Cm 17 ys He Y 13.2
Bones, marrow
Sr 28 ys B. Y
and 20.6
Csl37 B.Y Entire part of body
< 100 30 ys 38.6
55 Kidney, bones
Am241 458 ys Hes, Y Bone marrow
485
95
Pu240
9.4
6580 ys He Y 170
Kidney, bones
< 1000 Am243 7950 ys He Y Bones, intestine 1.9
95
247 ys Hez Y 1.9
Intestine
0.2
<100,000 Z 900 ys Entire body 0.050
Cs;135
55
2060 ys Thyroid gland
J129 17,000 ys B.Y
53
 Environmental Pollution Monitoring and
502
It is interesting to stock of existence of nuclear reactors all over the world.
Control
Table 22.7 list different countries with the kind of reactors. It will be noted that all
developed countries like UK, USA, Canada, France, Japan, Russia each have
more than 3040 nuclear reactors with large capacity of 35-70,000 MW as on
1990. Although lndia has five reactors. It is constructing few more in different

parts of country.
all over the world
Table 22.7 Reactors with capacity
S. Name of the Capital
Total reactors Capacity of
(J990) reactor (MW)
No. country
Reojo Galio 2 1020
1. Argentina 4 1632
2. Bulgaria 6 3474
Belgium Anteweip
Reo de Janiro 1 626
4. Brazil 16 9521
5. Canada Ottawa
Paris 41 32,993
6. France
4 2310
7. Finland
Frankfurt 19 16,133
8.W. Germany DR 2882
Berlin 5
9. E. Germany FR 1194
10. Czechoslovakia Prague 3
2 820
11. Hungary Budapesi
12. Italy Millan 3 1194 (1273)
13. India Delhi 1020
14. Japan Tokyo 21.751
15. Korea (South) Sou 1790
16. Netherland Amsterdam 2 508
17. Pakistan Islamabad 125 (600)
18. Spain Madrid 4690
19. Switzerland Zurich 2882
20. Sweden Copen Hagen 10 7355
21. South Africa Pretoria 1 921
22. United States of Washington 85 68,867
America
23. USSR (undivided) Moscow 46 22,997
24. United Kingdom London 37 9564
25. Yugoslavia 632

The Table 22.7 list countries which posses nuclear reactor with their optimum
capacity. It will be seen that America, France, Japan and Russian all super P
have 85, 41, 31 and 46 reactors Bangladeshhus
respectively. The less developed reactors.
no reactor, Pakistan boast of any one reactors while India posses five ofticial
Much depends upon capacity varying from 68000 to 22000 MW. This iscountries
information. One does not know any additional capacity is procured by
without the knowledge of IAEAin Vienna.
(ii) Space Disposal earthit
Outer space is ideal garbage dumping site, but due to possible hazards on vertical
appears to be dubious proposition. Waste if placed in orbital transfer in
Radioactive Waste and
Environment 503
spacecraft and ejected to Venus, or Moon or Sun. But it needs
eject it in outer sphere force beyond very high energY to
ozone layer. It isfurther depleted and UVgravitation of the earth. The worst being
The cost will be prohibitive. If the radiation enters in the earth's atmosphere.
spacecraft fails to lift and returns with
radioactivity will be spread all over upper stratosphere of earth.
waste to ejection site is also big problem, but Transportation of
this mode of disposal. NASA very much interested in
is

(iv) Ice Disposal

The disposal at Greenland or Antartica in north or south pole of the earth in deep
ice bed is considered as another alternative. There is geographical isolation. AIl
hot radioactive waste is best cooled by ice. The melt down concepts used to bury
cannister at 1 mile distance and allow it to travel downwards by melting in 5 to 10
yrs. Anchored cables are used for retrievability of cannister in aperiod of 200 to
400 years and it reaches bottom in 30,000 years however ice surge is bad.
(v) Partitioningand Transmutation
This involves separation of radioactive species and transmutation into short lived
nuclide by neutron capture or the neutron induced fission. The short lived species
willfinally disintegrate and disappear. Transmutation should need less energy.
remove long-term live isotopes; rate being faster than natural decay andelimination
of long lived nuclides. Transmutation is possible through nuclear explosion, charged
particle accelerator, fusion reactors, and fission reactor but process will be very
prohibitive due to expenses.
(vi) Offshore Disposal of Waste by Drilled Emplacement
carried to platform
This needed a concrete semisubmersible platform. In sea waste is latter
cannister and lowered into
and loaded. Then it is transferred from flask to
malfunctioning like dropped
seabed and guided to previously drilled hole. The m²/yrs
strings of cannister isdangerous. A platform disposes off as much as 400
needed if waste has small diameter. Cost
of waste. Some restrictions are however cost of disposal
would be about 0.3 times the cost of generation
of disposal 22.6
insignificant. The process is reliable for various reactors (Tables
Is
and 22.8).
OF RADIOACTIVE WASTE AND MANAGEMENT
22.10 HAZARDS
consider magnitude and dimensions of hazards in the management
One must first
of radioactive waste.
() Toxicity Consideration needed
ingestion hazard index". This is the volume of water
This isknown from
as drinking water. Thus, total ingestion hazard index
Tor dilution tillits suitability 22.10) e.g., Sr or Csl" need 950 trillion cubic
(Table reactor
In storage is very-high
dilution: as they contain 5700metric tonnes of
spent
meter of water for
 Environmental Pollution Monitoring and Control
504

cubic water for dilution. No one dilutes waste water.

fuel, needing 2800 trillion
know ingestion hazard index.
Waste
(ii) Risk in Storage and Disposalof reliable. Risk analysis is comnla.
waste hazardous index is not
The assessment of risk hazards put one cannot
and difficult
evolve full proof One setsfor
task. system and lower limits of
upper
such assessment. We consider here the repository

consequences. Repository failure may be due to the catastroni

failure and its human induced error. Sucheruption
catastropic
tragedies, noncatastropic mild tragedies on
impact or volcanic or seismic bu.
release waste occurs due to meteorite intrusion causes non-casterotrophic
less for such risk. Ground water
chances are
biosphere, where cumulative effect over period of years is serious
releases in failure is possible in sabotage
Human induced error occurs anytime. Repository extraction affects repository
petroleum
by terrorist, war or mining operation. The and strike cannister which is hazardous
course
or storage. Ground water changes its
Waste
(i) Failure of Technology for Management of
failure of management
Ground water leaching and transport of Te leads to great
poSsess a
technology, but geological isolation is risk free. Temporary storage
repository failure poses little
risk. Early repository failure poses also risk but late geological disposition is
or no risk to the human population. From that angle effect
considered safe mode. Physical consequences are added to psychological
considered
to know the risk. As it stands offshore drilling or geological methods are
to be most acceptable for disposal.
22.11 CLASSICAL METHODS FOR MANAGEMENT OF WASTE
Whatever ispossible in theory it is not possible if it is be implemented in actual
practise. In the excitement of the discovery of atombomb and its peaceful and
defence uses, everybody totally forgot problem of disposal of high-level waste,
leading to catastrophe in world. Then waste is neutralised and dumped in storage
tanks. Material of construction of tank is challenged which had 10 to 25 years life
only. On the whole carelessness is most predominentely observed. Many states in
USA objected for pencil sites in their state. Waste containing 10 nanocurie
a-activity is considered as local level waste. Solid low-level waste is buried at
assigned site. Soil serves as an effective barrier for radioactivity. To overcome
past neglect, national waste terminal storage programme is devised and eftorts
were made to streamline the process (Tables 22.7 and 22.8).
22.12 SUCCESSFUL PROGRAMME OF DISPOSAL
We consider several aspects as discussed below for disposal.
(i) Dimensions
From nuclear reactor spent reactor fuel is stored in the storage tank. Now they are
stored in specified pools at one point. Quantum is very large and is growing day
 Radioactive Waste and Environment 505

by day several spent fuel assemblies are growingaround nuclear reactors although
good amount of electricity is also generated.
(ii) Hazards
Pu causes lung cancer. Small amount of radioactivity escaped in environment
causes damage of health. It accumulates in animals, plants and enter human body
through food chain (Tables 22.9 to 22.11).
(iii) Successful Disposal Mode
Though several technologies have been developed for safe disposal none of them
are full proof. Solidification andemplacement is one method. The disposal in
space and specially on sun but is not fissible is ideal.
(iv) Past Practice
No one in past was interested in safe disposal of radioactive waste including federal
agencies. So, at several places radioactivity leakage is detected.
(v) Current Programme
Though present practice of disposals is good it is not full proof and much less
attention is given on priority basis. Temporary measures are adequate and reliable
but permanent long-term solution is yet to be arrived at. A problem is not only
technical but has ramification to political and social problems.

(vi) Basic Requirements

politically acceptable and
The main requirements is fissible programme, which isdifferent parameters lead to
socially appreciated. An exhaustive investigations of Reliable technology of
technically sound programme for short lived radionuclide. transuranic elements.
isotopes e.g.,
disposal is available but not for long lived technical requirement
Geological disposal is considered as reliable method, where
Doutput. The repository development
are satisfied on priority basis through Rand currently
by step process. The conceived pilot plant project
proceeds through step
discarded. The alternative process of disposal is throughly examined. The public
is
support is most essential.
HUMAN PROBLEM OF INTRUSION
22.13 MANAGEMENT AND or an institutional
stored or buried waste
arises due to human intrusion into
This
collective human eror in planning and execution of disposaltechnology.
intrusion.
failure i.e., attention causes human problem of
negligent
The more careless and institutional control on disposal facility; because the
Therefore, there should be The drilling of waste repository causes
vulnerable by man.
surface waste storage is
isolated site of disposal does circumvent these
contamination. As selection of institution is equally critical. A wrong
implementing
problems. Secondly, role hydrology faulty repository construction, wrong
geology and
site, unfavourableencapsulation leakage of
and emplacement programme leads to
solidification or
 506 Environmental Pollution Monitoring and
Control
radioactivity. Undue haste of implementation is also unfavourbale. Furt
increasing proliferation of surface storage facility leads to problems related to
F
her
health of human being unless good methodology is developed for disposal it is
futile to expand the generation of energy from nuclear reactors. Extensive invol-
development facilitates conteO
vement of the public in repository sitting and world betweentheeidea of
the institutional failure. Aconflict exist allover
of nuclear energy and disposal of nuclear waste. This can be avoided;f promotion
waste management organisation is set-up at world level. independent
22.14 WASTE MANAGEMENT PROGRAMME IN WORLD
It is worthwhile considering programme of disposal in difterent parts of world.
The reactors available in major countries of the world, are shown in Table 227 l
shows reactors with capacity (MW)existing in Europe.
Table 22.8 Radioactivity in materials of construction
Country Material Activity Country Material Activity
(bg/kg) (bg/kg)
America CaSiO, 2140 Germany Sandgrave 34
America U308 4625 Germany Cement 45
England Gypsum 29 Germany Bricks 126
England Granite 120 Germany Flyash 341
Finland Wood o 1.1 Sweden Alumshale 496

Table 22.9 Radioactive series

S.NO
1. Isotopes U'’ Th23 Pa’ U' 92 Th'’
90 Ra’ Rn P84
Pb2’ B'’ p214
84 Pb ’ BË2I0 84’ PL206.
83’ Po210 8

2. Half-life 4.47 24 ds 1.1 mt 24500 8000 1600 3.8 ds 3 mts

(Li) billions 27 mts 20mts 1.6 x ys ys 1.6 x
22 ys 5 ds 138 ds 10-4 10-4
stable
3 Radiation He e, e He He He He
type He e, He; e e, He;

Let us now consider existing programme of radioactive disposal of waste.

Table 22.7indicates number of nuclear reactors allover the world.
In Europe since land is scarce e.g. in Belgium geological disposal ofgeological
wase
out of consideration while in Canada, fuel is stored in but possibility of,
disposal is bright. France has reprocessing facilities (3200 metric tonnes disposal
into solid waste like
Liquid waste is stored: but now they are converting it
borrsilicate glass. Geological disposal is being explored, in Germany, it made
bi oto
are
facility of its own but it depends upon France. In France attempts
 Radioactive Waste and Environment
507
have geological disposal facility. In
hut due to scarcity of land hey are Japan, waste stored in stainless steel tanks,
island. In Sweden, it is stored in exploring possibility of dumping it on isolated
in double walled steel tanks and stainless steel tanks. In England, waste is stored
they have plans to convert it to
and then immerse it in geological form. In Russia has small plantborosilicate
for
glass
of waste into glasS, but surface storage is
most vitrification
in 1957 killing many persons in area of prevalent. Such site had exploded
800
In India, three small reactors are ready sg miles in Kyshtym town.
and five are under the construction.
Plutonium is used to manufacture an atombomb. The expected
ioneous rock formation and the selected sedimentary deposits.repository sites is
However, brisk activity is on all over the world on fabrication of nuclear
plant in comparison to coal based plant. The former needs very small power
area (less
than 10 acres)compared to thermal power plant which needs more
space. The fly
ash problem is absent in nuclear plant. The fossil fuel is getting exhausted hence
we have to look for alternative source of the energy like solar energy, wind
energy,
coal burning but best is nuclear energy. There is one drawback namely accidents
0ccurs if it is not properly controlled and second one must have excellent disposal
of activity in the repository and its emplacement in earth or ocean (Tables 22.10
and 22.11).

Table 22.10 Ingestion hazard index of defence waste over years

S. Isotopes Initial 10 yrs 100 yrs 1000 yrs 10,000 yrs 100,000yrs
No. yrs
Curies

1. Sr 280 m 73 >x 1014 7.8x 1013 16,700

2. Cs137 310 m 1.2 × 1013 1.3x 1012 930
55

3. Pu239 30.000 6.0 x 10 6x 109 5.8 × 10 4.5 x 10 3.5 x 10

94

1.8× 109 1.8× 109 1.8x 109 1.8 x 10 1.8 x 109

4. I29
53
1.05
7.4 x 1014 8.0 x 1013 8.9 x 109 6.8 x 10 2.1 x 10
Total

reactor fuel over several years

Table 22.11 Ingestion hazard index of spent
100yrs J000 yrs 10,000yrs 100,000 yrs
S. Isotopes Initial 10 yrs
No. Curies
2.1x 1015 2.3 x 1014 5.2 x 10+
1. Sr 820
4.4 x 10!3 2.3x 1014 5100
2. Cs; 1100
5.5 x I017 2.8 x 108 2.7 x108 2x108
85,500 2.8 x 108
3. Tc 2.8 x J08 3.6 x 10 2.8 x 10l 2.2 x 100
4. Pu239 1,840,000 3.7 x 10!! 4.2 x 10° 4,2x 10
94
3.7x 10!! 4.2 x109
5. J29 250 4.2x 10 4.2 x 107
53
4.2 x 10? 4.2 x 10? 4.2 x 10"
4.9x 10? 1.9 x 10i
6. U 1700 1.9 x I0
7. Ra 226
88
2.9 x 10!! 2.2 x 10"
2.4 x 1014 3.6 x 10!!
Total 2.1 x 1015
 Environmental Pollution Monitoring and
508
Control
At this point :x .
So far we have considered ill effects of radioactive waste.
interesting to examine damage caused by X-rays(Table 22.12). We should carefully
note the number of exposure all over the world.
Table 22.12 X-ray in medicine
S.No. Country Brain and Head exp. Chest exp. Stomach exp.
per yr/l000 pery/1o0 per yr/l00
(Times) (Times) (Times)
1 Sri Lanka 0.3 13 0.11
59 640 285
2. Japan
3. Romania 37 850 116
4. Germany 108.2 334 68
5. Chile 15 46 17

The technologyof X-ray has made greater strides in the field of medicine. It is
used for noble cause of diagnosing problems of health e.g. lung. It is used by
certain nations for diagnosing sex of foetus before delivery in form of Sonography.
InIndia the Sonographic applications are totally prohibited. The X-rays are also
used for brain and stomach examination. Table 22.12 shows that in Germany large
number of cases are diagonised from head and brain. While Ramania used it
extensively for study of lungs and chest (-850). Japan has used it for diagonising
diseases of stomach (285). One has to use X-ray very judiciously as pregnant and
lactating mothers should not be strictly exposed to excessive exposure to X-ray
radiation inorder to protect foetus in her body.
Apart from medical sciences, X-rays are used extensively for the elucidation
of the structure of chemical compounds.There are few variety of X-ray as X-ray
fluoroscences (XRF) and X-ray diffraction (XRD) with single or double crystal
models.
With recent tragedy at Fukoshima in estern Japan due to breaking
Tsunami, the scientist are reluctant to go in for new reactor in Japan atreactors with
Fukoshima.
In relation to developing countries, India has to make
greater strides in future
years for shortage of coal, we will have to replace all the thermal
with nuclear reactor with clean technology in near power plantS
future.
22.15 CONCLUSION
When the conflicts are brewing between two
level best efforts are made to produce nuclear neighbouring countries on global,
but for manufacture of atomic and energy not only for power generau
on life are known since long, no hydrogen bomb. Although effects of radiation
serious consideration is givento this problemtill
nuclear energy is used for generation of electricity. Several source of radiation
available however the main source remains to be nuclear
radioactivity is emitted from fewsources like TVit is notreactor. Although natue
very injurious to nea
To evaluate the effects of radiation evolve
on man, it is very much
standards of radiation. Number of standards are necessary to
evolved in terms of curie, rongten,
Radioactive Waste and Environment 509

rad however most common unit is

millirad (m rem). Nuclear energy is generated
all over the world butAmerica and France are on forefront followed by European
countries. The Asian countries includes Japan, South Korea and India in
commisioning the nuclear reactors. Nuclear fuel cycle needs special attention as
its effects on environment are quite serious. This
necessitates development of
monitoring methods for the measurement of radiation.Most commonly
for monitoring are ionisation chambers, but one must protect himself used mode
while
operating these devices.
Radioactivity waste is of prime consideration for environmental scientist and
engineers. lts action on earth, properties, sources, are thoroughly investigated.
The disposal of radioactive waste is most critical problem. The liquid waste is
dumped in storage tank and kept in isolated place for several years but new
technology is growing for disposal. It consists of disposal of activity in soil called
geological disposal or bury in seabed container by what is called as off shore
drilling operation. The space disposal in universe as well as ice disposal in
Greenland and Antarctica are also explored. The problem of transportation and
handling of waste is hazardous. The risk on storage as well as failure of technology
of disposal needs careful consideration. Classical methods are freshly examined.
The successful programmes includes consideration of safety hazards and current
practices of protection. Geological disposal involving burying at bottom of seabed
or land appears to be common disposal technology. Radioactive waste management
into
programme all over the world shows common practise of disposal taking
activity is
consideration human problems of the handling and exposure. The brisktechnology
disposal
on in different parts of the world to develop reliable
reactor fuel; ultimate results
programme. Only limitation is long tyn life for spent
not available immediately. In any case future is bright as there is a great
are
hazards as well as potential of nuclear energy for benefit of mankind.
awareness of
ADDITIONAL READING
American
Standard Methods of Waterand Waste Water Analysis, 20th Edition.
1. APHA,
Public Health Association (1999). Environment, American Chem. Society
Actinides in the
2. A.M. Friedman Ed,
Publication (1976).
Disposal of RadioactiveWaste by Drilled Emplacement,
3. M.R.C. Bury, The Ofshore Publishers (1985).
Graham and Trotman Ltd.
Waste: Politics, Technology and Risk, Ballingen Pub.
Lipschutz, Radioactive
4. R.D. Public (1980). Thermal
Co. of Harper and RowMehra, M. Satake, Environmental Radiation and
M.C. Publications, New Delhi(1989).
5. G.R. Chhatwal, Anmol
Pollution and Their Control,
Pollution Analysis, Second Edition, New Age
Environmental
6. S.M. Khopkar, Ltd.,Publishers (2012).
(P)
International