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Late Holocene paleoenvironmental changes inferred from Manasbal Lake

sediments, Kashmir Valley, India

Article in Quaternary International · February 2019

DOI: 10.1016/j.quaint.2019.02.017

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Late Holocene paleoenvironmental changes inferred from Manasbal Lake

sediments, Kashmir Valley, India
C. Babeesha,∗, Hema Achyuthana, M.R. Resmia, Chandra Mohan Nautiyalb, Rayees Ahmad Shaha
a
Department of Geology, Anna University, Chennai, 600 025, India
b
Birbal Sahni Institute of Palaeosciences, 53, University Road, Lucknow, 226 007, India

ARTICLE INFO ABSTRACT

Keywords: Paleoclimate investigations and reconstruction using the lake sediment cores of Kashmir Valley have been rarely
Manasbal Lake attempted. The basin is influenced by Indian Summer Monsoon, Westerlies and the local katabatic winds. In the
Westerlies present study, an 80 cm undisturbed sediment core was retrieved from the Manasbal Lake situated in North
Paleoclimate western Himalaya. Sediments were dated using 14C method, and the age-depth model indicated a depositional
Weathering
history extending from ∼3345 yrs BP to the present. Grain size, major and trace elements, TOC, OM contents C/
Geochemistry
N ratio and diatom assemblages were applied to reconstruct the paleoenvironmental changes around the area.
The A-CN-K diagram displays that the weathering intensity of the Manasbal lake sediments are moderate to
highly weathered and the sediments have been derived from nearby and mixed source origin. Several wet and
cold phases were identified during ∼3300 yrs BP to ∼2500 yrs BP and ∼1800 yrs BP to ∼1300 yrs BP due to
intense precipitation reflect high lake level. These wet phases are marked by higher sand and silt content, C/N
ratio and high allochthonous input with less abundance of diatom species, clay, OM, TOC contents and high CIA
values. Consequently, low lake level and dry and cold period from ∼3345 yrs BP to ∼3300 yrs BP and
∼2500 yrs BP to ∼1800 yrs BP is observed. These inferences are corroborated with the trace elemental ratios
CIA and CWI data. Our data indicate that the Westerlies and localised katabtic winds rather than the Indian
summer monsoons played a major role in controlling the past climate around the Manasbal lake, Kashmir Valley.

1. Introduction
The Himalayan region, particularly the Western Himalaya and
Tibetan Plateau is influenced/fed by both Indian Summer Monsoon (ISM)
and the Mid-Latitude Westerlies (MLW) (Fig. 1; Benn and Owen, 1998;
Ali and Juyal, 2013: Ali et al., 2013; Sati et al., 2014; Bali et al., 2016).
Multi-proxy records have often been used to understand the late Holo-
cene climate change in several parts of the globe. In order to reconstruct
the past monsoon fluctuations, the Holocene history of the Himalayan
Lakes has been investigated by several researchers (Laat and Lelieveld,
2002; Yadav et al., 2013; Dimri, 2013; Kotlia et al., 2017). Till date, all
the well-dated Holocene paleoclimate records from the Himalayan lakes
have been reconstructed in relation to the variable intensity of the ISM.
Both the variations of the westerlies and the Asian monsoons are regarded
as the potential drivers of the climatic changes in Kashmir Valley. In
addition, other forcing factors such as the high temperature causing in-
creased evaporation, decreased effective moisture (Chen et al., 2003;
Mason et al., 2009), snowmelt (Herzschuh, 2006; Zhao et al., 2007) as
well as the regional differences in the uplift and descent of air masses
leading to the different moisture situation in the core monsoon area and
monsoon margin (Herzschuh, 2006; Zhao et al., 2007), were also pro-
posed to explain the complex patterns of climatic evolution in this area
although the area is controlled by localised katabatic winds.
Herzschuh (2006) argued that the Holocene moisture history of the
westerlies-dominated central Asia is similar to that of the region domi-
nated by the Indian and East Asian Summer Monsoons. Chen et al. (2006,
2008) suggested that the moisture variations in arid central Asia are out-
of-phase with that in the monsoon dominated regions. Several factors
such as the low-latitude summer monsoon, the mid-latitude westerly
winds and the orographic influence of the Tibetan Plateau control the
regional climate in the North-Western Himalaya (Chen et al., 2008)
particularly in Kashmir Valley. Recent work by Wulf et al. (2010) stated
that the northern slopes of the Pir-Panjal Range act as an orographic
barrier, ranging in altitude between 4000 and 6600 m is mainly re-
sponsible for the existence of entirely two different precipitation regimes
in the Kashmir valley. Moreover, the MLW and the ISM contribute to the
average annual precipitation with the north face of the orographic barrier
that receives nearly 80% of winter precipitation from the northern

Corresponding author.
∗

E-mail addresses: bbshivakripa@gmail.com (C. Babeesh), hachyuthan@yahoo.com (H. Achyuthan), resmiarun.mr@gmail.com (M.R. Resmi),
cmnautiyal@yahoo.co.uk (C.M. Nautiyal), shahrayees04@gmail.com (R.A. Shah).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2019.02.017
Received 6 January 2018; Received in revised form 26 January 2019; Accepted 14 February 2019
1040-6182/ © 2019 Elsevier Ltd and INQUA. All rights reserved.

Please cite this article as: C. Babeesh, et al., Quaternary International, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2019.02.017
C. Babeesh, et al.
Fig. 1. Large-scale topographical map of Indian subcontinent with dominant seasonal hemispherical airflows. Modified after Mishra (2014); Prasad and Enzel (2006);
Resmi and Achyuthan (2018).
westerlies, while the southern face receives most of its precipitation from
the Indian Summer Monsoon (Fig. 1).
A prolonged dry phase has been identified in the ISM dominated
central and NE India (Anoop et al., 2013; Prasad et al., 2014) and North
east monsoon dominated South India during the late Holocene (Resmi
et al., 2017; Resmi and Achyuthan, 2018). But, contribution from the
westerlies and snowmelt indicate an increase in wetter condition during
6000 yr BP to 5000 yr BP, 4400 yr BP to 3800 yr BP and 3250 yr BP to
1950 yr BP (Chen et al., 2008; Schwarz et al., 2017) and the NW Hima-
layan region receives greater rainfall due to westerlies post ∼1800 years
(Sanwal et al., 2013). From the above review, it is noted that westerlies
bring in more precipitation to the region than the ISM. Hence, till date, no
attempt has been made to delineate the impact and the variability of the
westerlies and the ISM in the region, particularly with reference to re-
constructing the late Holocene climate shifts using lake sediment cores.
There are a number of lacunae that need to be filled in order to under-
stand the causes for the late Holocene climate shifts. Hence, in this study
an attempt has been made to restructure the late Holocene paleoclimate
shifts using Manasbal Lake sediment core. This lake was the most suitable
site to work as the lake is an enclosed basin, carries freshwater and there
is no visible outlet thus allowing the lake to be a major depocenter,
Moreover, in the Kashmir valley, fresh water lakes are suitable sites and
have archived climate events that can be applied to rebuild the late
Holocene paleoclimate variations since the high-altitude regions respond
well to the modest environmental changes and are also less influenced by
anthropogenic activity (Herzschuh et al., 2009; Leipe et al., 2014). Here,
we present a robust geochemical data of the lake sediments retrieved
2
Quaternary International xxx (xxxx) xxx–xxx
from the Western Himalayan region, and also emphasize the potential of
geochemical element records for indicating the chemical weathering in-
tensity of the lake catchment area during the late Holocene that can be
possibly related to variations in the climatic conditions. Diatoms, a
powerful bio-indicator which respond rapidly to environmental change
has been also applied to study paleoenvironmental variations in the lake
sediments. Hence, our study is aimed at reconstructing paleoenvironment
since the late Holocene using sedimentological, geochemical, diatom
proxies from a sediment core raised from the Manasbal Lake, Kashmir
Valley. We also compare our reconstructed paleoclimate records with the
other nearby lake records for a better understanding of the history of
paleoclimatic change that prevailed in this region.
2. Study area
Manasbal Lake (34°14′50.94″ N Latitude and 74°40′17.12″ E
Longitude) is located at an elevation of 1583 m.a.s.l, in Ganderbal dis-
trict, and is about 30 Kms northwest of Srinagar city (Fig. 2). The lake is
oblong in shape and extends in the northeast-southwest direction with a
maximum length and a breadth of 3.5 km and 1.5 km respectively and the
deepest part of the lake is nearly 13m in depth with fresh water fed by
groundwater, natural springs and precipitation. The lake catchment
covers nearly 22 km2 in area and has been reported to be warm, mono-
mictic lake in the valley (Hutchinson, 1957). The lake is bounded by hills
with flat areas at lower elevations. The most elevated point in the
catchment is north-eastern part where the area ascends to a height of
C. Babeesh, et al. Quaternary International xxx (xxxx) xxx–xxx

Fig. 2. (A) DEM map of the Kashmir Valley and (B) Location map of the Manasbal Lake.

around 3107 m.a.s.l. and small streams from the surrounding hills drain
into the lake depositing sediment particulates.
The Kashmir Valley holds a complete stratigraphic record of the rocks
of all ages ranging from the Archean to the Holocene. The valley reveals
geomorphological characteristics of an intermontane, oval shaped basin
formed by the uplift of the Pir-Panjal Range that occurred during the Plio-
Pleistocene age resting on a nearly horizontal Nappe sheet (Wadia, 1976).
Wadia (1931) suggested the thrust-bounded basin, as 'Kashmir Nappe
Zone' comprising the Palaeozoic-Mesozoic rocks and marine sediments,
with Precambrian basement thrust that occur along a regional structural
plane viz., Panjal Thrust (Dar et al., 2014a, b). The 'Kashmir Nappe' forms
two major axes of orogenic change along the Pir-Panjal and the Great

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C. Babeesh, et al. Quaternary International xxx (xxxx) xxx–xxx

Fig. 3. (A) Geological cross section across the Kashmir Himalaya, showing Kashmir Nappe Zone (after Wadia, 1976). (B) Geological map of Kashmir Himalaya (after
Thakur and Rawat 1992).

Himalayan Ranges (Dar et al., 2014a, Fig. 3A). The lithology of the area is
represented by the Triassic limestone, overlain by agglomeratic folded
slates and Panjal traps, subsequently overlain by the Quaternary Karewa
deposits, and finally draped by the Holocene alluvium. Triassic limestone
is represented by a thick series of compact blue limestone, slates, and
dolomites (Krishnan, 1968; Wadia, 1975; Sarah et al., 2011, Babeesh
et al., 2017a, b). The Karewa deposits are the lacustrine deposits of the
Plio-Pleistocene age and are fine silty clays with sandy unit resting over
the boulder gravel (Bhatt, 1989, Fig. 3B). The alluvium is represented by
boulders, pebbles, and buff-coloured sand, silt, and partly crushed

4
C. Babeesh, et al.
Table 1
Calibrated 14C ages of selected sediment core samples with error bar of 1 sigma.
S.No. Lab ID Depth (cm) Radiocarbon Age Calibrated Age
(Yrs BP) (Yrs BP)
1 IUACD#16C441 12–14 cm 1305 ± 57 1230
2 BS-3843 36–38 cm 1760 ± 80 1688
3 BS-3844 78–80 cm 3140 ± 110 3345
conglomerates (Wadia, 1975). The topography of the study area is un-
dulating to flat with few steep slopes.
The surrounding area is covered by forests with moderate vegetation.
The climate of the area is characterised by warm summers and cold
winters (Rashid et al., 2013). The climate of Kashmir falls under the sub-
Mediterranean period with four seasons based on mean temperature and
precipitation (Bagnolus and Meher-Homji, 1959). The study area receives
an average annual precipitation of about 650 mm. Western disturbances
are mainly responsible for rainfall and snowfall from January to May,
while the Indian summer monsoon brings rains during July–August.
3. Materials and methods
Three sediment cores varying in depth from 80 to 60 cm were re-
trieved from the Manasbal Lake, Kashmir Valley in 2013 using PVC pipes
with a diameter of 7.6 cm from a floating platform. The sampling point
was located in the north-western end (34°15′1.91″N, 74°39′26.16″E) of
the lake (Fig. 2). As all the three sediment cores were similar in lithology;
however, for the present study, the longest sediment core (80 cm long)
from the collection was considered as the representative sediment core. It
was difficult to retrieve deeper sediment core beyond 80 cm. The sedi-
ment core selected for analysis was opened and lithologically described,
using the Munsell colour chart, sediment texture, structure and sediment
sorting. The sediments were sub-sampled at every 2 cm interval, and
stored for further analyses such as the estimation of sediment texture,
geochemistry (major oxides and trace elements, Organic matter content
and C/N ratio), radiocarbon dating and diatom studies.
In the present study the 14C dating of the two organic rich samples
was carried out in the radiocarbon laboratory of the Birbal Sahni Institute
of Palaeosciences (BSIP), Lucknow, and one sample by the Accelerated
mass Spetroscopy (AMS) method at the Inter University Accelerator
Centre, New Delhi. The sediments were manually cleaned, sieved, and
treated with dilute HCl to remove the carbonate component. After con-
tinuing rinsing and pH-checking, the sediment was combusted in a
Fig. 4. Age depth model for the Manasbal Lake sediment core with estimated sedimentation rates and variation of sand, silt and clay content of the lake with the
calibrated radiocarbon ages.
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constant flow of oxygen. The carbon in the organic matter of the sediment
was converted to acetylene and then to benzene using a standard catalyst
and procedures. The counting of Radiocarbon activity of the benzene was
done in a Liquid scintillation counter Quantulus 1220. Calibrated ages
(cal. yr BP) are weighted averages of 2σ ranges using Calib 6.0 (Stuiver
et al., 2010) following Stuiver and Reimer (1993) and is presented in
Table 1.
Sediment textural analysis was carried out on forty samples using the
pipette method, following Krumbein and Pettijohn (1938) to calculate
sand, silt, and clay weight percentage and to understand the distribution
of grain size and sediment grain size down depth variation. Organic
matter (OM) content of all the sediment samples was analyzed following
the loss on ignition (LOI) method developed by Loring and Rantala
(1992). Sediment samples for TOC and TN determinations were first
decarbonated using 1M hydrochloric acid, washed and freeze-dried fol-
lowing Vijayaraj and Achyuthan (2016). Total organic carbon (TOC),
total nitrogen (TN) and Carbon/Nitrogen (C/N) ratio were then de-
termined using the Thermo Scientific FLASH 2000 CHNS-O Organic
Elemental Analyzers (OEA) at the Department of Geology, Anna Uni-
versity Chennai. X-Ray fluorescence (XRF) analysis of the sediment
samples was carried out (for major and trace elements) to understand
chemical constituents and the mobility of the sediments at the Depart-
ment of Geology, Savitribai Phule Pune University, Pune, using the
XEPOS XRF Spectrometer by powder method. 4 gms of the powdered
sample < 60–64 μm were measured in triplicate for 300 seconds each
with the gas flow was at 70 voltage 38–40 kV and the analytical accuracy
of geochemical analyses was within ± 5%, while the precision was
within ± 2%. The standards used in the XRF peak calibration were the
Glass tablets FLX-SP1, at 38.0 Voltage/kV, Current/μA: 15.0 for MCA
peak calibration and FLX-SP2 along with the previous one for Global
calibration. Chemical Index of Alteration (CIA; Nesbitt and Young, 1982)
Chemical Weathering Intensity (CWI; Sun et al., 2010), were calculated
from the major oxide data to understand the intensity of weathering and
alteration of minerals in the sediments of the catchment area with re-
ference to the climate.
The diatom analysis of the sediment samples was carried out after the
protocols of (Hasle, 1978a,b) and (Round et al., 1990) with a few minor
modifications. For this procedure, 10 ml of saturated potassium per-
manganate solution was added to 0.5 gm of each sediment sample and
after proper shaking, it was left for 48 h in glass test tubes followed by the
addition of 35% Hydrochloric acid (HCl). After the HCl addition, the test
tubes containing samples were kept in a hot water bath at 90 °C for 1–2 h
until the solution turned yellow. In the third step around 2 ml of H2O2
C. Babeesh, et al. Quaternary International xxx (xxxx) xxx–xxx

was added to solution drop wise to ensure complete oxidation. The

samples were centrifuged at 2500 RPM three times for 10 min to extract
supernatant. Diatom slides were observed under 40X-100X resolution in
the Department of Zoology, University of Madras, Chennai. An average of
8–20 diatoms were observed per slide in one drop (1 drop is equal to
0.05 ml) of the 1 ml supernatant solution extracted from each sample.
Diatom specimen was identified with the help of literature following
Hasle (1978a,b); Battarbee (1986); Round et al. (1990); Ramanibai and
Jeyanthi (2010); John (2012); Ramanibai and Ravichandran (2013);
Shah et al. (2017); and online Western diatom database collections
(https://westerndiatoms.colorado.edu/).

4. Results

4.1. Chronology

Radiocarbon dates (Fig. 3, Table 1) for three organic carbon rich

samples were obtained, ranges from early in the late Holocene
(3140 ± 110 yr BP) to present (1305 ± 57 yr BP). The age-depth model
(plot of depth versus age) indicates that the sedimentation rate from the
late Holocene to present fluctuated. Based on the reservoir correction the
average sedimentation rates were calculated and is as follows: 0.025 cm/
y from 79 to 37 cm (3345 yr BP to 1688 yr BP), 0.052 cm/y from 37 to
13 cm (1688 yr BP to 1230 yr BP) and 0.011 cm/y from 13 cm to the top
of the sediment core (1230 yr BP to the present) indicating a non-linear
stage of deposition and hence there is no inversion of dates (Fig. 4;
Table 1).
4.2. Sediment core lithology and sediment texture
The sediment layers within the sediment core are varied both in
colour and texture and based on these two parameters, the sediment core
was divided into three litho-units. Unit I (80-64 cm), showing black (2.5 Y
2/1) to olive (5 YR 5/4) in colour, represent silty clay and sandy clay with
less shell fragments and plant weeds, overlain by Unit II (63-15 cm)
which is dark olive (5 YR 4/3) or olive black (5 Y 3/2) in colour com-
prising very fine silty clay and clayey silt with olive black to brownish
yellow patches and plant materials. Unit III (14-0 cm), brownish black
(2.5 YR 3/2) coloured, silty clay with organic materials and plant debris
consisting of roots and leaves (Fig. 4).
The sediment grain size analysis reveals a predominance of clay
Fig. 6. Down sediment core variation of sand, silt, clay, OM, TOC (%) and C/N
ratio of Manasbal Lake.
fraction and silt fraction over the sand fraction, suggesting relatively
deeper and calm environment of deposition. The sediment core is mainly
composed of clay (39.1–89.5%) followed by silt (5–57.5%) and sand
(3.2–31%). There is not much change in the sand content in this sediment
core was observed till a depth of 60 cm, while clay and silt fractions re-
veal large variations in depths between 8 and 6 cm; 36-26 cm, and 60-
40 cm. The clay content is higher at the depths of 74-58 cm (49.8–89.5%;
3187-2556 yr BP), 58-54 cm (59.6–78.4%; 2477-2398 yr BP), 46-42 cm
(58.8–69.3%; 2083–1925 yr BP, 38-28 cm (59.4–72.1%; 1767-1535 yr
BP), 8-6 cm (78.9%; 662 yr BP) and less at 24-22 cm (39.1%; 1421 yr BP).
The silt content is high at the depths of 54-52 cm (54.6%; 2319 yr BP), 48-
46 cm (53.7%; 2083 yr BP), 38-36 cm (51.1%; 1688 yr BP), 24-22 cm
(55.1%; 1421 yr BP), 16-14 cm (57.5%; 1268 yr BP) and least at 60-58 cm
(5%; 2556 yr BP). The sand content is comparatively high at the depths of
80-76 cm (12.6–13.6%; 3345-3187 yr BP), 72-68 cm (20.1–31%; 3029-
2793 yr BP, 64-62 cm (15.9%; 2714 yr BP) and 12-10 cm (16.6%; 1041 yr
BP). Based on Shepard’s (1954) classification using the ternary diagram
that is divided into ten classes of sediment texture, the sediment samples
of the present study are dominantly silty clay, clayey silt, sandy clay and
clay in nature (Figs. 4 and 5).

4.3. OM%, TOC% and C/N ratio

The sediment core contains the sediments which mixed with shell
fragments and it reveals the considerable biogenic contribution of CaCO3
and OM from the Manasbal Lake. Analytical results of OM and TOC
content are complementing each other (increasing with decreasing
trend), depending on the textural parameters and TN and C/N ratio. The
OM content in the core ranges from 12.56% (66-64 cm; 2793 yr BP) to
20.6% 28-26 cm; 1497 yr BP). TOC contents in the sediments vary from
2.57% (66-64 cm; 2793 yr BP) to 11.02% (34-32 cm; 1612 yr BP) (Fig. 6).
Overall down core variations of both OM and TOC contents showing an
almost similar trend. The C/N ratio of the sediments varied from a
minimum of 1.22% (46-44 cm depth) to a maximum 6.68% (60-58 cm
depth) and it shows a relatively steady increasing and decreasing trend
towards the base of the sediment core. C/N ratio between 4 and 10 sig-
nifying fresh organic matter production due to lake algae, which are
protein rich and reduced cellulose (Meyers, 1997).

4.4. Geochemistry

4.4.1. Major oxides and trace elements

Fig. 5. Trilinear diagram (Shepard, 1954) showing grain size characteristics of The major oxide (weight %) data from the Manasbal lake sediment core is
the Manasbal Lake sediment core. listed in Table 2. The major oxide values were compared with Upper

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C. Babeesh, et al. Quaternary International xxx (xxxx) xxx–xxx

Table 2
Down sediment core variation of chemical compositions of Manasbal Sediment core with calibrated ages.
Depth (cm) Yrs BP SiO2 Al2O3 K2O CaO TiO2 Na2O MgO P2O5 MnO Fe2O3 LOI Sum CIA CWI ICV CaO/MgO SiO2/ K2O/ Rb/Sr Ba/Sr
Al2O3 Al2O3

0–2 95 53.09 9.29 1.92 7.99 0.51 0.01 1.83 0.08 0.09 3.48 20.73 99.01 81.42 0.48 1.70 3.14 5.71 0.21 0.07 0.30
2–4 284 52.26 9.34 1.85 7.03 0.55 0.37 1.81 0.08 0.07 3.49 22.31 99.17 74.35 0.116 1.62 2.78 5.60 0.20 0.08 0.33
6–8 662 48.39 10.79 1.58 7.79 0.54 0.25 2.03 0.07 0.08 3.75 24.13 99.40 80.92 0.093 1.48 2.76 4.48 0.15 0.08 0.30
10–12 1041 49.64 9.55 1.50 7.89 0.47 0.20 1.98 0.08 0.08 3.80 24.65 99.83 80.81 0.086 1.67 2.86 5.20 0.16 0.08 0.26
14–16 1268 54.62 8.15 1.40 4.10 0.56 0.43 2.10 0.08 0.08 4.51 21.58 97.60 73.69 0.145 1.62 1.40 6.70 0.17 0.12 0.46
18–20 1344 49.83 8.69 1.58 6.45 0.57 0.37 1.90 0.07 0.08 3.84 25.55 98.94 74.77 0.124 1.70 2.43 5.73 0.18 0.09 0.34
22–24 1421 46.15 5.90 0.97 15.17 0.32 0.02 1.37 0.07 0.07 3.04 25.93 99.01 84.16 0.040 3.55 7.95 7.82 0.16 0.04 0.24
26–28 1497 50.82 7.29 1.24 11.04 0.40 0.02 1.64 0.08 0.07 3.40 22.67 98.65 84.02 0.044 2.44 4.84 6.97 0.17 0.05 0.22
30–32 1573 48.29 7.70 1.40 14.04 0.30 0.02 1.40 0.07 0.08 3.00 23.29 99.58 83.10 0.038 2.63 7.21 6.27 0.18 0.04 0.13
34–36 1650 49.54 7.64 1.37 10.23 0.36 0.01 1.50 0.07 0.07 3.23 24.33 98.35 83.36 0.040 2.19 4.91 6.48 0.18 0.04 0.18
36–38 1688 51.82 7.81 1.37 7.86 0.39 0.01 1.41 0.08 0.06 3.34 23.27 97.43 83.63 0.038 1.85 3.99 6.64 0.18 0.05 0.18
40–42 1846 52.55 7.76 1.39 6.83 0.62 0.19 1.98 0.09 0.06 4.60 21.20 97.27 78.58 0.092 2.02 2.48 6.77 0.18 0.12 0.36
44–46 2004 50.74 8.01 1.44 8.84 0.58 0.08 1.97 0.09 0.06 4.38 21.35 97.55 81.52 0.066 2.17 3.23 6.33 0.18 0.12 0.38
48–50 2161 48.89 8.10 1.40 11.60 0.54 0.03 2.04 0.08 0.06 4.29 21.39 98.42 83.43 0.057 2.46 4.09 6.04 0.17 0.11 0.34
52–54 2319 46.37 8.03 1.37 13.01 0.52 0.03 1.93 0.08 0.07 4.03 23.61 99.05 83.54 0.054 2.61 4.83 5.77 0.17 0.09 0.30
56–58 2477 49.09 6.47 1.13 12.41 0.41 0.20 1.68 0.07 0.06 3.39 23.99 98.91 77.42 0.097 2.98 5.31 7.59 0.17 0.05 0.22
58–60 2556 49.84 6.70 0.99 8.72 0.44 0.36 1.70 0.09 0.06 3.49 25.35 97.74 74.73 0.138 2.35 3.67 7.44 0.15 0.06 0.28
62–64 2714 45.71 5.87 0.74 16.71 0.31 0.03 1.53 0.08 0.05 2.37 25.40 98.80 86.73 0.047 3.70 7.84 7.79 0.13 0.03 0.17
64–66 2793 42.90 4.53 0.65 19.83 0.20 0.03 1.53 0.06 0.05 2.19 27.53 99.49 85.12 0.049 5.40 9.31 9.47 0.14 0.02 0.09
70–72 3029 44.32 5.05 0.70 18.78 0.30 0.03 1.47 0.06 0.05 2.54 25.76 99.04 85.71 0.046 4.73 9.20 8.78 0.14 0.03 0.13
74–76 3187 44.29 5.00 0.71 19.11 0.33 0.03 1.56 0.07 0.05 2.39 24.92 98.44 85.36 0.049 4.83 8.82 8.86 0.14 0.04 0.17
78–80 3345 43.04 5.02 0.67 19.45 0.31 0.11 1.60 0.06 0.05 2.04 26.23 98.58 82.23 0.077 4.83 8.74 8.57 0.13 0.03 0.13

CIA: Chemical Index of Alteration; CWI: Chemical Weathering Intensity.

Continental Crust (UCC), Post Archean Australian Shale (PAAS) (Taylor and
McLennan, 1985a,b) and North American Shale Composite (NASC) (Gromet
et al., 1984) values. A comparison with UCC (Taylor and McLennan,
1985a,b), it is noted that the SiO2, Al2O3, Fe2O3 contents in the lake core
sediments are slightly decreased but exhibit a wider increase in CaO con-
centrations (Fig. 7). Na2O concentrations are less in all the sediment samples,
whereas in few sediment samples MnO, MgO and TiO2 display slightly higher
values compared to the UCC values (Fig. 7). The major oxides concentration
in the present study follows a decreasing order
SiO2 > CaO > Al2O3 > Fe2O3 > MgO > K2O > TiO2 > Na2O > P2O5 >
MnO which indicates that SiO2 is predominant, followed by CaO, Al2O3 and
Fe2O3. The abundance of SiO2, vary from 42.90% to 54.62%, Al2O3 ranges
from 4.53% to 10.79%, CaO ranges from 4.10% to 19.83%, and Fe2O3 ranges
from 2.04% to 4.60%. MgO fluctuate from 1.37% to 2.10%, K2O varies from
0.65% to 1.92%, followed by Na2O, TiO2, P2O5, and MnO are present only in
minor (< 1%) amounts (Table 2). It is observed that the average concentra-
tions of the trace elements exhibit lower values than the PAAS, UCC and
NASC standards except the Strontium element which reveals higher values
than the standards (Fig. 8).
of
4.5. Diatom studies
Diatoms were studied from 24 sediment samples of various depths,
and a total of 19 species was identified, of these 13 had greater than 10%

Fig. 7. In this UCC normalised spider diagram a comparison of the major oxides data using standard values of PAAS and UCC (Taylor and McLennan, 1985a,b), NASC
(Gromet et al., 1984) is presented.

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C. Babeesh, et al.
Fig. 8. In this UCC normalised spider diagram a comparison of the trace elements data using standard values of PAAS and UCC (Taylor and McLennan, 1985a,b),
NASC (Gromet et al., 1984) is presented.
Fig. 9. Relative abundances of the diatom taxa (=19 species) as present in the sediment core with respect to the calibrated radiocarbon ages.
abundance and the diatoms were discussed on the basis of three litho-unit
of the sediment core. In the present study 5–41 diatoms per slide were
counted and the total diatom count of each sample depth ranged from
100 to 820. However, it was noted that Cymbella tumida and Cymbella
proxima are the most dominant diatom species of Manasbal Lake (Fig. 9).
Because of the siliceous composition, diatoms have a high preservation
potential in lacustrine environment, particularly fine-grained sediments
that minimize damage of the diatom count (Anderson, 1997; Lowe and
Walker, 1997; Stoermer and Smol, 1999; Gehrels, 2007). The diverse
taxonomy and preservation potential make diatoms, very useful proxy for
paleoenvironmental reconstruction of long-term change, but their short
lifespan and ability of rapid rebirth also allows for their application in
understanding centennial scale climatic changes (Leblanc et al., 2005;
Bradbury, 1997) (Table 3).
From the base of the core to 64 cm (3345yr BP to 2714 yr BP)
Cymbella proxima, Cymbella tumida, Cyclotella menighiniana and Epithemia
adnata species are markedly abundant. These benthic fresh water diatom
species reach maximum abundances of 36, 25, 25 and 20% respectively.
Other fresh water diatom species such as Tabularia fasciculate,
Gomphonema truncatum, Cocconeis placentula, Epithemia sorex and
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Craticula acidoclinata can also be seen in this zone, although in very slight
percentages (Fig. 10).
Between 63 and 15 cm (2635 yr BP to 1268 yr BP) the dominant
species are the Cymbella tumida, Cymbella proxima, Epithemia adnata,
Navicula cyptocephala, Craticula acidoclinata and Epithemia turgida. These
species reach maximum abundances of 47.29, 46.78, 46.83, 38.10, 17.65
and 16.67%, respectively within the litho-unit II.
From the depth of 14 cm to the surface (14-0 cm; 1230yr BP-Present)
of the sediment core Epithemia adnata, Cymbella proxima, Cymbella tumida,
Cocconeis placentula, and Rhopalodia gibba are abundant. These freshwater
taxa occur at maximum abundances of 45, 40, 25 20 and 16.67% re-
spectively within this zone.
5. Discussion
5.1. Sediment characteristics and paleoenvironmental reconstruction
In lake sediments, grain-size distribution is as an important proxy to
understand the energy of depositional environment (Sly, 1978; Gayantha
et al., 2017). Due to high rainfall and erosion; high amounts of coarse
C. Babeesh, et al. Quaternary International xxx (xxxx) xxx–xxx

Table 3
Diatom classifications of the Manasbal Lake sediment core.
Kingdom Phylum Class Order Family Genus Species

Chromista Bacillariophyta Bacillariophyceae Cymbellales Cymbellaceae Cymbella Cymbella tumida

Chromista Bacillariophyta Bacillariophyceae Cymbellales Cymbellaceae Cymbella Cymbella proxima
Chromista Bacillariophyta Bacillariophyceae Naviculales Naviculaceae Navicula Navicula cyptocephala
Chromista Bacillariophyta Bacillariophyceae Rhopalodiales Rhopalodiaceae Epithemia Epithemia adnata
Chromista Bacillariophyta Bacillariophyceae Rhopalodiales Rhopalodiaceae Rhopalodia Rhopalodia gibba
Chromista Bacillariophyta Bacillariophyceae Rhopalodiales Rhopalodiaceae Epithemia Epithemia turgida
Chromista Bacillariophyta Bacillariophyceae Naviculales Stauroneidaceae Craticula Craticula cuspiclata
Chromista Bacillariophyta Bacillariophyceae Naviculales Naviculales Pinnularia Pinnularia gibba
Chromista Bacillariophyta Bacillariophyceae Licmophorales Ulnariaceae Tabularia Tabularia fasciculata
Chromista Bacillariophyta Bacillariophyceae Cocconeidales Cocconeidaceae Cocconeis Cocconeis placentula
Chromista Bacillariophyta Bacillariophyceae Cymbellales Cymbellaceae Cymbella Cymbella affinis
Chromista Bacillariophyta Bacillariophyceae Naviculales Stauroneidaceae Craticula Craticula acidoclinata
Chromista Bacillariophyta Mediophyceae Stephanodiscales Stephanodiscaceae Cyclotella Cyclotella menighiniana
Chromista Bacillariophyta Bacillariophyceae Naviculales Stauroneidaceae Craticula Craticula sardiniana
Chromista Bacillariophyta Bacillariophyceae Cymbellales Gomphonemataceae Gomphonema Gomphonema truncatum
Chromista Bacillariophyta Bacillariophyceae Naviculales Stauroneidaceae Craticula Craticula halophila
Chromista Bacillariophyta Bacillariophyceae Surirellales Surirellaceae Cymatopleura Cymatopleura solea
Chromista Bacillaiophyta Bacillaiophyceae Rhopalodiales Rhopalodiaceae Epithemia Epithemia sorex
Chromista Bacillariophyta Bacillariophyceae Cymbellales Gomphonemataceae Gomphonema Gomphonema parvulum

fractions were transported from the nearby catchment and eventually
deposited into the lake (Peng et al., 2005). When rainfall decreases, the
fine sediment fraction becomes dominant in the sediment layers. How-
ever, other factors such as catchment morphological changes, the hy-
drological budget of the lake catchment and the lake itself, the vegetation
around the lake and human activities influence the grain-size variation in
lake sediments.
The chronology and sedimentation rates suggest that the Manasbal
Lake has been receiving sediments from its catchment for the past ∼3500
years BP to present. The down core sediment texture of the present study
exposed variations in grain-size (silty clay, clay and clayey silt), which
reveals the hydrological regime and change in precipitation around the
region. We also observed that, relatively higher sand and silt content
along with low clay fractions during ∼3300 yr BP to ∼2500 yr BP and
∼1800 yr BP to ∼1300 yr BP, is probably owing to wet and cold climatic
conditions that prevailed in this region. However, a decrease in sand
content, the periods during ∼3345 yr BP to ∼3300 yr BP and ∼2500 yr
BP to ∼1800 yr BP the sand and silt fractions are relatively low, which
indicate a drier phase (Fig. 6).
The C/N ratio in sediments is often used as a proxy to identify organic
matter sources, assess diagenetic alteration and paleoenvironmental
condition prevailed in that particular region (Meyers and Ishiwatari,
1993; Talbot and Lærdal, 2000). The C/N ratio of the entire lake sediment
core varies from 1.22 to 6.68(> 7), signifying the occurrence of algae and
that the organic matter is autochthonous in origin (Kusumgar et al.,
1992). Hence, it is suggested that the allochthonous input into the lake
system are relatively less. However, an increase in the C/N ratio
during∼3300 yr BP to ∼2500 yr BP and ∼1800 yr BP to ∼1300 yr BP
(Fig. 6), indicates the dominant allochthonous source of organic input,
due to the increase in the runoff from terrestrial sources. The TOC and
OM contents decreased with high silt and clay fractions (∼3300 yr BP to
∼2500 yr BP and ∼1800 yr BP to ∼1300 yr BP; Fig. 4) and this is at-
tributed to the wet and cold climate conditions that prevailed around the
region (Anderson et al., 2002; Wang et al., 2012). It is also observed that
the shifts in the sediment texture, basically matches the changes in the
sedimentation rate.
5.2. Paleoweathering and provenance
Climate plays an important role in chemical weathering, as water
from precipitation is seen as the primary agent that initiates weathering
process in sediments and determines the degree of major chemical re-
actions (White and Blum, 1995; Blands and Rolls, 1998; Sun et al., 2010).
The intensity of chemical weathering and change in the provenance of the
lake sediments can be inferred from their chemical composition, climatic
condition and rate of tectonic uplift of the source region (Wronkiewicz
and Condie, 1987; Li et al., 2016). To understand the relationship within
the major oxides, sediment characteristics and their controlling factors;
Pearson correlation coefficient (a measure of the linear correlation be-
tween two variables X and Y) were applied using the statistical software
(IBM SPSS, V-21) (Table 4). The nature and behaviour of various che-
mical constituents in a lacustrine environment, mainly depends on the
geology of the catchment area, soil type, anthropogenic activities and the
provenance of sediments. Because their contributions are directly or in-
directly from detritus and solutes derived from weathering largely from
the catchment around (Blum et al., 1998; Taylor and Lasaga, 1999; Jin
et al., 2001). With the exception of CaO, the major oxides show similar
chemical compositions or variation trends (Fig. 7). The same pattern also
can be found in Fig. 8 present the geochemical features of trace elements,
though there are differences in contents, which may be related to the
weathering intensity.
The SiO2 contents in the core sediments exhibit strong positive cor-
relation with Al2O3(R2 = 0.71) and TiO2 (R2 = 0.73) suggesting that the
much of SiO2 is not present as quartz grains (Table 4). TiO2 shows sig-
nificant positive correlation with Al2O3 (R2 = 0.77), Fe2O3 (R2 = 0.91)
and considerable positive correlation with MnO (R2 = 0.47) reveals the
occurrence of TiO2 in the clays and the mafic minerals. The CaO corre-
lates negatively with SiO2 and Al2O3 suggesting the carbonate minerals
are of secondary origin and that they are in situ formation (Moosavirad
et al., 2010; Ahmad and Chandra, 2013; Babeesh et al., 2017a, b). The
large variations in CaO wt%, in the core sediments perhaps can be argued
for high LOI (Honda et al., 2004), which ranges from, 20.73 to 27.53 wt%
(average = 23.87 wt%). Most of the analyzed samples display high CaO
wt% with respect to PAAS signifying that these sediments are compara-
tively less mature than the PAAS values (Condie, 1993; Mahjoor et al.,
2009).
The positive correlation of Al2O3 with K2O and MgO (Table 4) reveals
that the concentrations of the K-bearing minerals such as orthoclase, il-
lite, or muscovite have weak to moderate influence of aluminium dis-
tribution (McLennan et al., 1983; Jin et al., 2006). The values of the K2O/
Al2O3 ratio of clays and feldspars are different, for clays it is > 0.3 and
those for feldspars it's 0.3 to 0.9 (Cox et al., 1995). However, the K2O/
Al2O3 ratios of the present study (from 0.13 to 0.21; average = 0.17)
suggesting a predominance of clay minerals over K-bearing minerals (for
example, K-feldspars and micas) (McLennan et al., 1983; Cox et al., 1995;
Moosavirad et al., 2010; Ahmad and Chandra, 2013; Babeesh et al.,
2017a, b; Resmi and Achyuthan, 2018). Hence, the Index of Composi-
tional Variation (ICV; Cox et al., 1995) values (from 1.48 to 5.40 with an
average of 2.75) (Table 2) also suggest the occurrence of the clay mi-
nerals as well as the rock-forming minerals in the studied sediments (Cox

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Fig. 10. Identified diatom species from Manasbal Lake sediment core (1–20) 1. Cymbella tumida 2. Navicula cyptocephala 3. Cymbella proxima 4–5. Epithemia adnata 6.
Rhopalodia gibba 7. Epithemia turgida 8. Craticula cuspiclata 9. Craticula sardiniana 10. Pinnularia gibba 11. Cymbella affinis 12. Cocconeis placentula 13. Cymatopleura
solea 14. Craticula acidoclinata 15. Epithemia sorex 16. Cyclotella menighiniana 17. Gomphonema truncatum 18. Gomphonema pluvulum 19. Craticula halophila 20.
Tabularia fasciculate.

et al., 1995).
Several geochemical studies have revealed that High field strength
elements (HFSEs) and Transition trace elements (TTEs) are useful to
understand the source-area composition of the detritus. Since, these
elements have very short residence times in the water column, and
therefore they transferred rapidly into the sedimentary basin. Further, the
ratios of both incompatible and compatible elements are also helpful in
differentiating felsic and mafic source components in shales and sand-
stones (McLennan et al., 1983; Taylor and McLennan, 1985a,b;
Wronkiewicz and Condie, 1987; Cox et al., 1995; Das et al., 2006).
The sediments display a significant positive correlation between Ba/
Sr and Rb/Sr (R2 = 0.91) indicating that the Rb and Ba generally stay as
immobile elements during weathering. However, in UCC-normalised
spider diagram (Fig. 8). Rb concentration of all the sediments showing
slightly higher concentration than the Ba suggests minor depletion of the
Ba during pedogenesis since Ba is less resistant than Rb (Ahmad and
Chandra, 2013). Sr exhibit negative correlation with Rb and Ba reveal its
high mobility due to pedogenesis. The Rb/Sr ratio shows significant po-
sitive correlation with the 1/Sr concentration (Fig. 11 A) in the Manasbal
lake sediments (R2 = 0.97), indicating that its variation depends on the

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Table 4
Pearson's correlation matrix for Manasbal major oxide data.
Major Oxides SiO2 (%) Al2O3 (%) K2O (%) CaO (%) TiO2 (%) Na2O (%) MgO (%) P2O5 (%) MnO (%) Fe2O3 (%)

SiO2 (%) 1
Al2O3 (%) .713a 1
K2O (%) .804a .932a 1
CaO (%) -.932a -.841a -.841a 1
TiO2 (%) .732a .769a .762a -.829a 1
Na2O (%) .456b .398 .325 -.604a .551a 1
MgO (%) .502b .661a .570a -.639a .877a .548a 1
P2O5 (%) .701a .470b .484b -.664a .671a .247 .497b 1
MnO (%) .614a .799a .813a -.678a .486b .305 .400 .210 1
Fe2O3 (%) .773a .718a .719a -.839a .908a .428b .796a .711a .512b 1

a
Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).
b
Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed).

ratio fluctuation. These correlations between Rb/Sr and 1/Sr and be-
tween Rb and Sr concentrations indicate that the Rb/Sr ratio is controlled
essentially by Sr concentration (Chang et al., 2013). Rb/Sr ratios also
reflect the climate conditions of the area in particular, precipitation,
temperature, humidity and aridity, etc., controlled by the westerly winds
(Fig. 11 A, B). Positive correlations of Fe2O3 and Al2O3 with Transition
trace elements (TTEs) like, Cu, Ni, V and Co suggest their relationship
with iron oxides and clay minerals (Hirst, 1962; Ahmad and Chandra,
2013; Babeesh et al., 2017a, b).
The intensity of chemical weathering is commonly measured by em-
ploying the chemical index of alteration (CIA) (Nesbitt and Young, 1982),
to reflect quantitatively the degree of weathering and transformation of
feldspars to secondary clay minerals relative to fresh parent rocks. The
formula applied for calculations is as follows:

CIA = {Al2O3 / (Al2O3 + CaO* + Na2O + K2O)} × 100 (in molar

proportions)

Where CaO* represent Ca in the incorporated silicate fraction and all

Fig. 11. (A). Correlation of Rb/Sr ratios vs. reciprocal Sr concentration and (B).
Correlation of Rb/Sr ratios vs. Rb concentration of Manasbal sediments.
Sr element activity during weathering (Fig. 11 A). The Rb/Sr ratios also
indicate a positive correlation with Rb concentration, (R2 = 0.97) and
this increases roughly linearly with Rb concentration (Fig. 11 B).
The higher Rb/Sr ratios are often related to lower weathering rates,
and vice versa. During the weathering process Sr will partly dissolve into
solution and is transported as Sr2+, however Rb is sequestered in the
residual phases since it is an immobile element. When Sr2+ is carried into
the lacustrine sediments, Sr is specially incorporated in the authigenic
carbonates as well as adsorbed onto surfaces of organic matter. The Sr
fluctuation in the Manasbal sediments is the essential factor for Rb/Sr
major oxides are expressed in molar proportions. Due to the complexity
in distinguishing the carbonate CaO from silicate CaO (carbonates and
apatite), McLennan (1993) proposed an indirect method for quantifying
CaO content of silicate fraction presume reasonable values of the CaO/
Na2O ratio of silicate material. If the molar fraction of CaO found to be
less than Na2O, then the value of CaO is accepted. If CaO > Na2O, then
the moles of CaO = Na2O (McLennan, 1993). Following the principle of
McLennan (1993), the CIA values of the sediments have been calculated.
The CIA value for average shale ranges from 70 to 75, which mirrors
as well the values of muscovite, illite, and smectite thus indicating the
large proportion of clay minerals (Das and Haake, 2003). It is noted that
the mineral compositions of trends towards kaolinite or gibbsite and that
the corresponding CIA values approach 100. The CIA value of 50 or less
indicates no weathering. CIA value ranging from 50 to 60 suggests initial
pedogenesis, whereas CIA value ranges from 65 to 84 indicates moderate
degree of pedogenesis, while a CIA value of 84–100 indicates intense
weathering/pedogenesis (Nesbitt and Young, 1982; Fedo et al., 1996;
McLennan, 2001; Abdou and Shehata, 2007). The CIA values of the lake
sediment core vary from 73.69 to 86.73 (average = 81.3) indicating
moderate to high degree of weathering (Table 2) in the catchment area
that has released the particulates into the lake.
The weathering trend is shown in A-CN-K {Al2O3-(CaO*+Na2O)-
K2O} diagram (Nesbitt and Young, 1984). All the samples on the A-CN-K
diagram plot above the plagioclase-potash feldspar line (Fig. 12). The
samples fall between A–CN and A–K lines, which show distribution of
material with different extent of chemical weathering, resulting in the
removal of Ca and Na to intermediate extent as a result of destruction of
plagioclase and also the comparatively less removal rate of K feldspar
(Buggle et al., 2011; Obreht et al., 2015). This is also constant with the
predicted weathering line from the UCC to the PAAS, which reveals
moderate to high degree of weathering in the area.
The SiO2/Al2O3 ratio reflect an insight to sediment recycling,
weathering processes and the ratio helps to understand the distance

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Fig. 12. A-CN-K ternary plot of Manasbal sediments showing weathering trend compared to UCC and PAAS values. A = Al2O3; C=CaO; N=Na2O; K=K2O; CIA:
chemical index of alteration. Diagram after Nesbitt and Young (1982, 1984).

between the sediments, and its source region in this, the higher ratio
indicates closer to its provenance (Muhs and Bettis, 2003; Peng and Guo,
2001; Hao et al., 2010; Li et al., 2016) and also characterizes the maturity
of the sediments with values increasing as quartz survives preferentially
to feldspars, mafic minerals and lithic grains (Roser and Korsch, 1986;
Roser et al., 1996). If the average values < 4.0 distinguish immature
sedimentation; values 4–6 indicate progressive maturity and the sedi-
ments with a SiO2/Al2O3 ratio > 6.0 point towards mature sediments
(Roser et al., 1996). The sediments with SiO2/Al2O3 ratio exceed 7–10
put forward to strongly mature sediments. The values vary between ∼3.0
and 5.0 indicate immature to weakly mature sediments (Roser et al.,
1996). The SiO2/Al2O3 ratio of the lake sediment core ranges from 4.49
to 9.47 (average = 6.9) indicating deposition of progressively matured
sediments since the late Holocene period.
Earlier studies have suggested that the chemical composition of se-
dimentary rocks is directly related to their source area or provenance
(Cullers, 2000; Das et al., 2006; Alvarez and Roser, 2007; Spalletti et al.,
2008; Paikaray et al., 2008; Mishra and Sen, 2010; Kalsbeek and Frei,
2010; Ahmad and Chandra, 2013; Babeesh et al., 2017a, b). Various
discrimination diagrams have been proposed to infer the source area and
the provenance of sedimentary rocks based on major oxides and trace
elements (Bhatia and Crook, 1986; Roser and Korsch, 1988; Hayashi
Fig. 13. Provenance discrimination diagram for Manasbal sediments.
et al., 1997). On the provenance discriminant function diagram (Roser
Discriminant fields (DF) are after Roser and Korsch (1988).
and Korsch, 1988), the Manasbal sediments of the present study fall in the
fields of intermediate igneous and quartzose sedimentary provenance.
This point towards the sediments that they have been derived from the deposited into the lake basin. Therefore, the chemical composition of lake
mixed nearby source rocks (Fig. 13). sediments is the indicator for overall climate change and subsequent
weathering of the lake catchment. Precipitation and subsequent chemical
weathering will affect more soluble major elements such as CaO, MgO
5.3. Paleoclimate interpretations drawn from the geochemical data
and Na2O are readily leached out relative to a resistant residual compo-
nent such Al2O3, SiO2 and TiO2 (Nesbitt and Young, 1982; Sun et al.,
Chemical weathering processes are mainly influenced by climatic
2010). Hence, in the present study the ratio of {(CaO + MgO + Na2O)/
variations since moisture content from precipitation and snowmelt are
Al2O3} indicate the CWI in the lake basin. Moreover, the elemental ratio
the primary controlling factors that affect the intensity of major chemical
of K/Al, Mg/Al and Na/Al will be higher in wet and cold phase, while Fe/
reactions (White and Blum, 1995; Sun et al., 2010). As a result of the
Al and Mn/Al will be lower (Gayantha et al., 2017).
chemical weathering, materials derived from the catchment are finally

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C. Babeesh, et al.
Fig. 14. Variations in the elemental ratios such as K/Al, Mg/Al, Na/Al, Fe/Al, Ca/Al, Mn/Al with CWI and CIA values versus age.
The elemental ratio of the Manasbal sediment core reveals variations
in climate since the late Holocene, which can be interpreted in terms of
the CWI. In the present study, elemental ratios of K/Al, Mg/Al and Na/Al
is higher along with sand and silt content indicates strong weathering and
is likely due to wet and cold phase during ∼3300 yr BP to ∼2500 yr BP.
This is further corroborated by low values of Fe/Al, CWI and Rb/Sr.
However, Mn/Al and Fe/Al show negative correlation with other ele-
mental ratios such as K/Al, Mg/Al and Ti/Al. The high values of K/Al,
Mg/Al and Ti/Al is corresponding with low values of Mn/Al and Fe/Al
ratios of the present study confirm the above said phase is a wet and cold
period. But prior to ∼3300 yr BP an increase of the CWI, Rb/Sr and a
decline of K/Al, Mg/Al and Na/Al shows the period of dry and cold cli-
mate in the region (Fig. 14).
A significant increase CWI and Rb/Sr along with low values of Mg/Al
and Na/Al during ∼2500 BP to ∼1800 yr BP imply changes in en-
vironmental conditions and low weathering intensity, suggesting a dry
and cold climate. During ∼1800 yr BP to ∼1300 yr BP an increase in
CIA, K/Al, Ca/Al and Mg/Al together with low values of Fe/Al, CWI and
Rb/Sr reflects intense chemical weathering probably due to wet and cold
climate. Since the last ∼1300 yr BP, a considerable variation in elemental
ratios such as the Na/Al, K/Al, Mn/Al, Fe/Al, CWI and a decreasing Mg/
Al, Rb/Sr, CIA values, indicate a trend more towards aridity or dry cli-
matic conditions (Fig. 14).
5.4. Late Holocene climate implication based on diatoms
The diatom silica cell walls do not decompose easily and therefore
have been often used to reconstruct and interpret paleoenvironmental
conditions of lakes (Fritz et al., 1991; Psenner and Schmidt, 1992;
Cumming et al., 2002; Wilson et al., 1994; Juggins 2001; Gasse et al.,
1997; Roberts and McMinn, 1996, 1998, 1998; Koinig et al., 1998; Rosen
et al., 2000; Bigler and Hall, 2002; Verschuren et al., 2000; Davies et al.,
2002). It is observed that the diatom species show distinct changes in
assemblage constituents and as these changes may be due to climatic
variability and lake level changes that occurred in the late Holocene
period (Fig. 9; Table 3), Therefore, these variations in environmental
conditions were inferred using the relative abundance of primarily three-
dominant benthic diatom species such as Cymbella tumida, Cymbella
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Quaternary International xxx (xxxx) xxx–xxx
proxima and Epithemia adnata and its abundance. Their occurrence is
indicative of the fresh water, pH being slightly higher than 7 and there-
fore a high relative abundance of Cymbella tumida, Cymbella proxima and
Epithemia adnata species were interpreted as periods of comparatively
low lake levels, high productivity due to dry and cold conditions and non-
mixing of waters due to low wind velocity.
In the entire lake sediment core, we observed higher abundance of
Cymbella tumida, Cymbella proxima, Epithemia adnata, Pinnularia gibba and
Cocconie splacentula. Howerver, during ∼3300 yr BP to ∼2500 yr BP and
∼1800 yr BP to ∼1300 yr BP, a significant decrease in the abundance of
diatom species such as Cymbella tumida, Cymbella proxima, Epithemia
adnata, Pinnularia gibba and Cocconies placentula, etc., along with the high
C/N ratio indicate probable wet and cold climate that existed around the
Manasbal region. An increasing trend of diatom assemblage (Cymbella
tumida, Cymbella proxima, Epithemia adnata, Pinnularia gibba and
Cocconies placentula) occurred during ∼3345 yr BP to ∼3300 yr BP and
∼2500 yr BP to ∼1800 yr BP suggesting an overall drier phase prevailed
in and around the region (Fig. 15).
In this study, an integration of all the results such as sedimentology,
geochemical data and diatom studies supported by 14C dates reveal the
paleoclimatic shifts in the area around Manasbal Lake during the late
Holocene period. We observed that, relatively higher sand and silt con-
tent, C/N ratio and high allochthonous input with decrease in abundance
diatom species, clay, OM and TOC content during ∼3300 yr BP to
∼2500 yr BP and ∼1800 yr BP to ∼1300 yr BP, is probably owing to wet
and cold climatic conditions. The higher elemental ratios of K/Al, Mg/Al
and Na/Al along with low values of Fe/Al, CWI values and Rb/Sr ratio
also support the above statement. However, a decrease in Sand%, C/N
ratio and higher diatom assemblage, along with increase in Clay, OM and
TOC contents, CWI values, Rb/Sr ratio and a decline of K/Al, Mg/Al and
Na/Al shows the period of dry and cold climate in the region during
∼3345 yr BP to ∼3300 yr BP and ∼2500 yr BP to ∼1800 yr BP.
5.5. Correlation with other regional studies
Holocene climate patterns in the western Himalaya especially
Kashmir valley is not well established. This lack of understanding is
primarily due to the complex interaction of controlling factors that affect
C. Babeesh, et al.
Fig. 15. Down sediment core variation of diatom assemblages (dominant species) with OM% and C/N ratio versus age.
the regional climate; these factors comprise the low-latitude summer
monsoon, the mid latitude Westerlies, and orographic influences of the
Pir-Panjal ranges (Burbank and Johnson, 1983; Agrawal, 1987; Dar et al.,
2014b). At the same time, the eastern part of the Himalayan region re-
ceives prominently ISM but westerlies also affecting this area (Agrawal,
1987). However, more than ISM and westerlies Kashmir valleys has its
own local climate. Therefore, the study area is in a transitional stage of
these three controlling forces. Hence an absolute comparison between
ISM and with the westerlies dominating the Kashmir valley region is not
reasonable. Yet, we compared the ISM and Westerlies with the available
data to delineate at what extent these controlling forces can influence the
climate in Kashmir Valley. We find that limited paleoclimate records are
available based on the westerlies dominated region. The Holocene pre-
cipitation record reveals different spatial patterns between ACA (Arid
Central Asia) and monsoonal Asia, a westerly dominated region. Though,
climate was clearly humid during the mid-Holocene and moderately
humid climate prevailed in ACA during the late Holocene and the last
∼2000 yr BP (Chen et al., 2008). Schwarz et al. (2017) noted a strong
influence of the Westerlies during ∼5000 yr BP to ∼4400 yr BP,
∼3800 yr BP to ∼3250 yr BP and since ∼1950 yr BP greater the amount
of precipitation during spring, autumn and winter. However, an overall
weakening of ISM is marked in the middle to late Holocene by several
workers (Demske et al., 2009; Mishra et al., 2015). For example, Mishra
et al. (2015) suggest that relatively low, but stable detrital input and a
decrease in surficial erosion pointing relatively dry and cold condition
followed by onset of modern-day climate in Lake Tso Moriri, NW Hi-
malaya since 5000 yr BP to present. Based on the palynological in-
vestigation, Demske et al. (2009) suggested, an overall weakening phase
of ISM since ∼4800 yr BP.
While comparing the already established ISM and westerly record
with our data, we observed that ISM was less intense and often caused
short dry phases since the mid-Holocene while the westerlies display
dissimilarity in spatial distribution. Westerlies also reveal fluctuating
trend since mid-Holocene to present. Our data from the Manasbal lake
reflects a positive correlation with the Westerlies even though there are
variations observed in the westerly precipitations and this is attributed to
the variations caused by the katabatic winds occurring in the Kashmir
Valley.
6. Conclusions
The sedimentological, geochemical and diatom assemblages’ in-
vestigations in the Manasbal Lake, Kashmir Valley provide a climatic
record of ∼3345 yr BP to present, which gives a continues sedimentary
record since Late Holocene. The variations in geochemistry, textural data,
14
Quaternary International xxx (xxxx) xxx–xxx
Organic matter and C/N ratio and the diatom assemblages throughout the
core is attributed to environmental changes in the in and around the lake
during the last ∼3400 yr BP. A decline in CWI (CIA increase) is observed
during ∼3300 yr BP to ∼2500 yr BP and ∼1800 yr BP to ∼1300 yr BP
indicating wet and cold conditions. From improved concentrations of
soluble oxides and CWI during ∼3400 yr BP to ∼3300 yr BP and
∼2500 yr BP to ∼1800yr BP suggests dry and cold phase. During the
overall long wet phases since late Holocene 3345 yr BP to present there
were several shorter drier pulses (∼3345 yr BP to ∼3300 yr BP and
∼2500 yr BP to ∼1800 yr BP) in between. This resulted in the lake
margin shrinking during the short dry phases governing the westerlies as
well as the SW monsoon. Based on the diatom assemblages of the lake
sediment core; Cymbella tumida, Cymbella proxima and Epithemia adnata
species are dominating planktons in the lake and that the diatom species
variability is higher in drier and cold conditions and that probably, the
north westerlies control the sedimentation pattern in the area. However,
contributions from the local climate cannot be excluded because the
katabatic winds blowing down from the mountain slopes could have also
picked up fine fractions from the snow-covered melting front and re-
deposited them on the valley floor. Thus, integrating all the sediment as
well as chemical results, discrimination diagram (Roser and Korsch,
1988) and elemental ratios reveal the signatures of intermediate igneous
or mixed source from felsic and mafic rocks.
Acknowledgement
Babeesh C. is grateful to the University Grants Commission (UGC),
New Delhi, for the UGC-BSR (University Grants Commission-Basic
Scientific Research) fellowship for the financial support. The authors
thank the Head of the Department, Department of Geology, Anna
University, Chennai and Director, Birbal Sahni Institute of Palaeosciences
(BSIP), Lucknow for extending necessary facilities to carry out this study.
All the authors thank the reviewers for their constructive and critical
comments and suggestions that helped in the presentation of this
manuscript.
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