CHAPTER-4

Gating System and risering

Course Name: Foundry Engineering

Course Code: MEME-4151
2023 /2024 A.Y. , I-SEMISTER

DEPARTMENT OF METALLURGICAL AND

MATERIALS ENGINEERING

ETHIOPIAN DEFENCE UNIVERSITY, COLLEGE

OF ENGINEERING 1
 Chapter Outlines
Introduction to gating system
Requirements and functioning of gating
system
Elements of gating system
Types of gating system
General Principles of Hydraulic Flow (Law
of Continuity and Bernoulli‟s Theorem)
Gating system design
Fluidity of molten metal
2
Cont‟d

Design variables (Pouring time, pouring

basin, Choke area, Sprue, Sprue base well,
Gating ratios, Slag trap systems, Ingate
design, etc.)
Risering
Risers Rule
Types of Risers
Risering design
Methods of risering design
3
 Gating System and risering
 One of the key elements to make a metal casting of high
quality is the design of a good gating system.
 The gating system refers to channels through which the
molten metal flows from the ladle to the mold cavity.
 The main objective of a gating system is to lead clean
molten metal poured from ladle to the casting cavity,
ensuring smooth, uniform and complete filling;
 The use of a good gating system is even more important if
a casting is produced by a gravity process.
 If poor gating techniques are used, invariably, lower
casting quality is achieved, because of damage on the
molten metal received during the flow through the gating
system.
 It could be even worse, if the molten material is a sensitive
metal for receiving damage during the filling, because of
dross and slag formation. 4
Cont‟d

Fig: Schematic of a simple gating system for a horizontally

parted mold
5
 Requirements, purpose or function of the gating
system
Requirements of the gating system:
 A gating system should:
1. Fill the mold cavity completely before freezing:
2. Introduce the liquid metal in to the mold cavity with low velocity and
little turbulence, so that mold erosion, metal oxidation and gas pick
up is prevented;
3. Help to promote temperature gradients favorable for proper
directional solidification;
4. Incorporate traps for the separation of non metallic inclusions which
are either introduced with the molten metal or dislodge in the gating
system;
5. Regulate the rate at which the liquid metal enters in to the mold;
6. Be practicable and economical to make;
7. Consume least metal- the metal solidified in the gating system
elements should be minimum.

6
Cont‟d
 For proper functioning of the gating system, the
following factors need to be controlled:
• Type of pouring equipment such as ladles, pouring
basin etc;
• Temperature/fluidity of molten metal;
• Rate of liquid metal pouring;
• Type and size of sprue;
• Type and size of runner;
• Size , number and location of gates connecting runner
and casting;
• Position of mold during pouring and solidification.
7
Cont‟d

Functions of Gating System:

Functions of good gating system are:
• To trap contaminants;
• To regulate flow of molten metal;
• To control turbulence;
• To establish directional solidification.

8
 The members of the gating system
Pouring basin:
• The pouring basin or bush or cup is a circular or rectangular
pocket that accepts the molten metal from the ladle;
• Pouring basins that contain a well deeper than their depth at the
sprue junction to effectively absorb the impact of the arriving
stream, and flow velocity will be governed by sprue height only;
• Another advantage of this design is that pouring may start out
slowly without molten metal entering the sprue;
• Once the proper location of the ladles lip has been established,
fast pour and sprue filling begins with minimum slag entry;
• A liquid metal is poured in to the pouring basin ,which acts as a
reservoir from which it moves into the sprue smoothly;
• Reduces turbulence and vortexing at the sprue entrance;
• Helps separating dross and slag before entering to the sprue;
• Pouring basin may be cut directly in to the cope portion or
separately from dry sand.
9
Cont‟d

Fig Basic components of a simple gating system for a horizontally parted

mold
10
Cont‟d
Sprue:
• Circular cross sections are being used most commonly;
• Tapering the sprue downwards is always a good practice;
• Straight or nearly straight sprue may be used in all pressurized
systems;
• Chocked at the bottom (or sprue basin) of the sprue must be used in a
non-pressurized gating systems.

11
 Cont‟d
Runner.
• A straight runner is the best choice of space permits it. If bending the
runner is unavoidable, it should be done with as large radius as space
permits, because curvatures introduce additional turbulence;
• A minimum distance of 50 mm between the end point of the runner
and the next gate us recommended;
• The cross section of the runner is almost always rectangular with
thickness to height ratio of 1:2 in a pressurized system.
• The runner system is fed by the well and is the path that the gates are
fed from;
• The Runner path should promote smooth laminar flow by a balanced
volumetric flow, and avoiding sharp or abrupt changes in direction;
• The "Runner Extension“ (R-Ext) is a "Dead-End" that is placed after
the last gate;
• The R-Ext acts as a cushion to absorb the forward momentum or
kinetic energy of the fluid flow. The R-Ext also acts as a "Dross/Gas
Trap" for any materials generated and picked-up along the flow of
the runner.
12
Cont‟d

13
 Sprue runner junction
• The first rule in shaping the sprue-runner junction is that it
must not locally decrease the calculated sprue bottom cross-
section area;
• If then, the sprue cross section is largely in any dimension
than the horizontal section of the runner, the sprue bottom
should extend to the bottom of the runner.
Gates:
• Gates are the most delicate members of the system. Gates
should be thin and correspondingly wide, and should be easy
to removed. The optimum gate cross section is rectangular
with a little draft as condition permit.
• The Gates (in this case) accommodate a directional change in
the fluid flow and deliver the metal to the Casting cavity.
• The design objective is to promote laminar flow, the primary
causes of turbulence are sharp corners, or un-proportioned
gate/runner sizes. 14
Runner-gate Junction
• A gate must never be placed in straight continuation of
the runner;
• Gates must branch off the side(s) of the runner at near
right of the runner, which forms a relationship to the
choke or base of the sprue area;
• The issue of sharp corners (both inner and outer) create
turbulence, low & high pressure zones that promote
aspiration of mold gases into the flow, and can draw
mold material (sand) into the flow;
• None of this is good, by providing curved radius
changes in direction the above effects are still at play but
at a reduced level. Similarly sharp angles impact the
solidification process and may inhibit "Directional
Solidification" with cross-sectional freezing.
15
Gate-Casting junction
• The gates need to join the thinnest sections of the
casting as much as layout limitations permit;
• The aim is to equalize cooling rate between the
different segments of the casting;
• If delicate cores or soft mold wall would be
damaged by the impact of entering stream of
metal, gates may be flared out or their cross
section increased nearing the casting.
• Such precaution is seldom used because it
increases cleaning room cost, and the reduction in
linear velocity is not significant.

16
Cont‟d

Major elements of a gating system

17
 Types of gating system
 Horizontal gating systems: are suitable for flat castings
filled under gravity. They are widely used in sand casting of
ferrous metals, as well as gravity diecasting of non-ferrous
metals;
 Vertical gating systems: are suitable for tall castings. They
are employed in high-pressure sand mold, shell mold and
diecasting processes, where the parting plane is vertical;
 Top gating systems: in which hot molten metal enters at the
top of the casting, promote directional solidification from
bottom to top of the casting. These are however, suitable
only for flat castings to limit the damage to metal as well as
the mould by free fall of the molten metal during initial
filling; 18
 Cont‟d
Bottom gating systems: have the opposite
characteristics: the metal enters at the bottom of the
casting and gradually fills up the mold with
minimal disturbances. It is recommended for tall
castings, where free fall of molten metal (from top
or parting gates) has to be avoided;
Parting gating system: Molten metals enters
through the sprue and reaches the parting surface
where the sprue is connected to the gate in a
direction horizontal to the casting

19
Cont‟d

(a) Horizontal gating system (b) Vertical gating system

Figure: Classification of gating system based on parting plane orientation

20
 Cont‟d

Figure: Classification of gating system based on position of ingates.

21
Cont‟d

Type of bottom gates

Type of parting gates

22
Types of Gating System Based on hydrodynamics of flow
 According to the hydrodynamics of flow of metal, Gating
system are divided into closed and open:
Pressurized (Closed):
 Closed or pressurized gating system are characterized by
gradually decreeing cross sectional areas of the sprue, runners
and slag traps;
SA > RA >GA
• The total cross sectional area decreases towards the mold
cavity;
• Back pressure is maintained by the restrictions in the metal
flow;
• Flow of liquid (volume) is almost equal from all gates;
• Back pressure helps in reducing the aspiration as the sprue
always runs full;
• Because of the restrictions the metal flows at high velocity
leading to more turbulence and chances of mold erosion;
23
 Cont‟d
• Better separation of slag, the metal enters the mold cavity with a
high linear velocity, which can lead to splashing and oxidation of
the molten metal, capture of air, and washout of the mould walls;
• Closed gating systems are especially popular in the manufacturing
of Cast Iron castings.
Open or non-pressurized:
• Open or non-pressurized gating system are characterized by
gradually increasing cross sectional areas of the sprue, slag traps
and runners, (sprue: runner :gate):
SA < RA < GA
• Open gating systems are used in casting of steels, aluminum,
magnesium and other easily oxidable alloys;
• The total cross sectional area increases towards the mold cavity;
• Restriction only at the bottom of sprue;
• Flow of liquid (volume) is different from all gates;
• Aspiration in the gating system as the system never runs full;
• Less turbulence. 24
 Gating ratio
 Gating Ratio is given by As:Ar:Ag where As , Ar , Ag are
the cross-sectional areas of sprue exit, runner(s) and
ingate(s);
 If multiple runners and ingates are present, the total area
(of all runners, and/or all ingates, respectively) must be
considered;
 A converging diverging system, where the ingate area is
more than the sprue exit area, is to be preferred;
 This ensures that the metal slows down (thereby reducing
turbulence-related problems).
 A non-pressurized gating system, wherein the area of
runners and gates is larger than that of the sprue i.e.. 1:2:2
or 1:4:4, offers a rapid filling, the low velocity metal
stream resulting in materially reduced mold erosion. 25
 General Principles of Hydraulic Flow
• On the timeline of a cast product, mould filling is a
mere dot. Yet, it has the greatest influence on casting
quality, both internal and external. The flow of molten
metal after being poured is a transient phenomenon
which is accompanied by turbulence, splashing,
separation of streams near change of sections,
branching off and rejoining of streams, changes in melt
properties such as density, viscosity and surface tension
and the onset of solidification.
• To obtain understanding of the fundamentals of metal
flow in gating systems, two basic fluid flow equations
are of interest. The first of them is the “Law of
continuity” and the second one is “Bernoulli‟s
Theorem”. 26
Law of Continuity
• The law of continuity states that the flow rate must be
the same at a given time in all portions of a fluid
system. It may be written as:-
Q = A1V1 =A2V2 ; Where:
-Q = metal flow rate in cu.ft/sec
-A1 & A2 = cross-sectional area of flow channel at two
different points 1 & 2 in sq.ft.
-V1 & V2 = metal velocity at points 1 & 2 in ft/sec.
 This would mean that if the flow channel narrows down
to half its original cross-section, the metal velocity
would be double, and vice versa.
 The law of continuity, therefore, can be used to predict
quantitatively, the effect of variation in channel size on
the metal velocities and flow rates in a gating system.
27
 Bernoulli‟s Theorem
• Bernoulli‟s theorem states that the energy of a liquid at a
given point can be separated into three parts: energy of
velocity (v2/2g), energy of pressure (P1/ρ) and energy of
position, (h). In the ideal case ( with no energy loss), when
liquid moves from point 1 to point 2, it neither gains nor
looses energy. Thus, setting the energies equal for two
positions, yields the equation as below:-
 (V21†2g) + (P1†ρ) + h1 = (V22†2g) + (P2†ρ) + h2
where V1 & V2 ~ metal velocity at two different points 1 &
2, in ft/sec.
g ~ acceleration due to gravity.
P1& P2 ~ static pressure in the liquid at points 1 & 2 in
lb/sq,in.
h1 & h2 ~ height of liquid at points 1 & 2 in ft.
ρ ~ density of liquid in lb/ cu.ft.
28
Cont‟d

Bernoulli‟s theorem

29
Cont‟d
• As mentioned earlier, Bernoulli‟s theorem can
only be employed to calculate velocity in ideal
fluid system i.e.. in systems in which the fluid
suffers no energy losses.
• In real gating systems, besides losses due to
friction, energy losses occur at all entrances and
exits, bends, enlargements and contractions.
• The exit velocity and flow rates obtained by the
above equation, therefore, be somewhat higher
than those found in actual practice.
30
Reynold's Number

• Nature of flow in the gating system can be

established by calculating Reynold's number
RN= VD ρ /η
RN = Reynold's number;
V = Mean Velocity of flow;
D = Diameter of tubular flow;
η = Kinematics Viscosity/ Dynamic Viscosity;
ρ = Fluid density.
 Re is usually between 2000 and 20,000.
31
 Cont‟d
• When the Reynold's number is less than 2000,
stream line flow results and when the number is
more than 20000, turbulent flow prevails.
As far as possible the turbulent flow must be avoided
in the sand mold as because of the turbulence, sand
particles gets dislodged from the mold or the gating
system and may enter into the mould cavity leading
to the production of defective casting.
Excess turbulence causes:
• Inclusion of dross or slag;
• Air aspiration into the mold;
• Erosion of the mold walls. 32
Cont‟d
• Re is usually between 2000 and 20,000
For Re above 20000:
• „Dross‟ formations occur caused by air and gases
• Scum on top can get mixed with alloys
Elimination techniques for Dross:
• Avoid sudden changes in fluid flow
• Avoid sudden changes in cross section
• „Dross‟ can be reduced by filters ( ceramic, mica)
• Also with proper pouring basin and gating system
 Dross is a mass of solid impurities floating on a molten
metal or dispersed in the metal, such as in wrought iron.
33
 Fluidity
• Fluidity is capability of the molten metal to fill the mold
cavities;
• Gating system design strongly depends on knowledge of
fluid flow.
• A measure of the capability of a metal to flow into and fill
the mold before freezing (Inverse of viscosity);
Factors affecting fluidity:
• Viscosity: Increasing viscosity and sensitivity to
temperature reduces fluidity;
• Surface tension: High surface tension reduces fluidity;
• Inclusions: Insoluble particles reduce fluidity;
• Pouring temperature, Metal composition, Heat transfer to
the surroundings, Heat of fusion and Solidification are also
the other factors;
34
 Design of gating system

• A number of methods for calculating gating

systems are available in technical literatures
today.
• The method consist of calculating the optimum
pouring time of the casting, which is cross
checked with minimum rate of rise of metal in the
mould.
• The next step is to determine the total ingate area,
from which the size of the individual gate, runner
and sprue are derived, depending upon the gating
ratio being used.
35
 Casting Yield
• Before designing and determining all the necessary gating
system elements and riser, fixing the casting ratio is the
primary one.
• From different standard books and journals, the value of
casting yield is considered as from 50-60% which is
depending on the quality of the cast.
• This value is very important for determining the total mass of
metal poured into the mould (i.e. actual mass of the cast plus
the mass of the gating elements).
• The casting yield is the proportion of the actual casting mass,
„m‟ to the mass of metal poured into the mould, M expressed
as percentage as follows:
Casting yield = m/M* 100 36
 Pouring Time

• For determination of pouring time, the following

empirical formula can be used:-
t=S3√VG
Where: t- is pouring time in seconds,
S -is time-coefficient for castings,
V- is mean section thickness of casting,
G- is weight of casting and risers.

37
Cont‟d
Pouring cup
• Cut into cope
• Large enough to keep the sprue full
• Skim core to provide clean metal

38
 Design of Sprue

• As the liquid metal passes down the sprue it loses

its pressure head but gains velocity.
• To reduce turbulence and promote Laminar Flow,
from the Pouring Basin, the flow begins a near
vertical incline that is acted upon by gravity and
with an accelerative gravity force.

39
 Design of Sprue
Low of mass of continuity: flow rate (Q)
given by:
Q = A1V1= A2V2, Hence,

Where: A1= cross-sectional area of the sprue at the top;

A2= cross-sectional area of sprue at the bottom;
h1 &h2 are the height differences at point 1 and 2.

• Asthe liquid flows down the cross section of the fluid

decreases. So the taper is provided in the sprue;
• Liquid loses contact if sprue is straight-causes
„Aspiration‟. 40
Choke Area
• The gating system can be designed to fill a given
casting in a predetermined time, by keeping a
constant level of liquid metal in the pouring basin
during pouring, to achieve a controlled rate of
flow through the choke;
- The choke is the smallest cross-section in the
gating system that controls the flow rate of molten
metal;
- The element (sprue exit, runners or ingates) with
the smallest value in the gating ratio is considered
the choke;
41
 Choke area (Ac)
Choke area is the smallest or controlling area found at bottom of the
sprue and is given by the following equations.

Where:
Ac=choke area, mm2;
W= casting mass including gating elements, kg ;
ρ= mass density of molten metal, kg/mm3;
g= acceleration due to gravity, mm/s2=980mm/s2 ;
C= efficiency factor which is a function of gating
system use=0.9 for single runner;
H=effective sprue height
42
 Cont‟d
The effective sprue heads can be calculated using the following relations:

Where: c= Total height of mould cavity;

h= height of sprue;
P= height of mould cavity in cope.
43
 Designing of Runner and Ingate based on the Gating
ratio
• Gating ratio refers to the proportion of the cross sectional
area between the sprue, runner and ingate and is generally
denoted as sprue choke area: runner area: in-gate area.
• A non-pressurized gating system means having choke at
the bottom of the sprue base, having total runner area and
in-gate area higher than the sprue area.
• This kind of gating system is selected for some of ferrous
and most of non-ferrous sand casting, while the
pressurized gating system is used for some ferrous sand
casting.
• Hence, gating ratio of aluminum and its alloy in sand
casting is given by: Ac: Ar: Ag (1: 4: 4), which is type of a
44
non-pressurized gating system.
Risering
• Risers are reservoirs of molten metal that are
used to feed the casting during solidification;
• The shrinkage occurring during solidification
causes voids unless more molten metal can be
fed to the potential problem spots;
• Risers are designed to solidify last and to
draw the shrinkage voids out of the casting;
• Risers also serve as exits for gases and dross
entrapped in the metal and as pressure heads to
feed thin sections.
45
 Risers Rule
1. Risers are located near thick sections of the casting;
2. Side risers are usually located on top of the gates. Use of side
risers is common for thin-walled castings. Since the first metal
to enter the casting will warm the bottom of the side riser and
cool down, and side risers will be filled with hot metal, use of
side risers promotes sequential solidification;
3. Top risers are located on bosses, away from the gates;
4. If the casting is bottom-gated, fast filling of the mold with
more gates, use of insulated or exothermic risers, and chilling
the gate area are safe practices to cure unfavorable
temperature gradients. In the case of open risers, hot metal can
also be poured into the riser after solidification starts;
5. Risers are sized by the volume fed. In the case of multiple
risering, each riser is considered to be feeding a part of the
casting and is sized according to the volume of that part in
question;
46
Cont‟d
6. Risers should be large enough to provide at least as much
feed metal as the shrinkage volume of the section it feeds (4
to 6%);
7. If the top of the riser is not open to atmospheric pressure, the
height: diameter ratio of 1:1 to 3:1 should be maintained for
a cylindrical riser;
8. Top risers should be located on flat, accessible surfaces so
that they can be easily;
9. External risers are preferred to internal ones because of easy
removal and cleanup after production;
10. Risers should have greater volume: area ratios than the part
itself, so that the part will solidify before the risers. In the
calculation of this ratio, the area used does not include the
area between the part and the riser or the area between the
part and the gates. This rule is suggested by Chvorinov and
has been applied to practice by most workers.
47
 Types of Risers
• Open and Closed (according to form of
construction);
• Direct ,which connected as a rule at the upper
surface of casting and side, which is located to the
vertical or inclined surface of castings.( according
to the location relative to the par to be filled);
• Round, cylindrical, ball type, half ball, ring type,
half ring, combined ,flat(rectangular and square)
and shaped (according to the geometric shape);
• Heated type with exothermic mixture or external
heating source by using electrical, gas, chemical
(according to method of cooling);
48
Cont‟d
• Cutting or easily removable (according to method
of removal from the casts);
• Individual, and group (according to number of
parts to be filled);
 Gas is removed easily and good quality casting is
the product especially thin walled section long
castings can be produced, filling process is
improved easy to construct usually better for light
metal castings that closed one as heat lose;
Most commonly used riser is open one ,which is
used for small, medium and large type castings. 49
Risering design
• Risering is a process designed to prevent
shrinkage voids that occur during solidification
contractions:
Criteria for Riser design:
 Riser must remain molten until casting is
completely solidified;
 Riser should have enough liquid metal to feed
casting;
 Riser should be kept at proper distance from the
casting.

50
Cont‟d
Chvorinov‟s rule can be expressed in inverse form as the following:
Ariser Apart

Vriser V part
Or, assuming that a cylindrical riser is used,
r 2  2rh A part

r 2 h V part

Where r is the radius of the riser and h is the riser height;

simplifying the above Equation gives:
r  2h A part

rh V par
or
1 2 A part
 
h r V part

 The height obtained using the Equations above is usually multiplied with a factor
of safety of about 1.2 on parts that have cylindrical bosses, the radius of the riser
selected is slightly less than that of the boss to ease the removal of the riser from the
part after solidification.
51
Cont‟d
• Riser volume= a x (casting volume),
Where 'a' is the ratio of the riser volume to
casting volume.
• Naval research method is essentially a
simplification of the chain's method, defines a
shape factor to replace the freezing ratio.
• The shape factor is deified as:
• Using naval research method of the graph,
determine the value of “a” which is
corresponding to the shape factor.
52
Cont‟d

53
End of Chapter
Thanks

54