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1
 INDEX
Chapter Contents PAGE No.
1.1 Machine Operation and Guarding :
Principles in machine guarding. Ergonomics of machine guarding. Type of
guards, their design and selection. Guarding of different types of machinery
including special precautions for wood working, paper, rubber and printing
machinery, machine, tools etc. Built-in-safety devices, maintenance and repairs of
guards, incidental safety devices and tools.
Concept of zero access guarding
1.2Safety in the use of Machines :Safety in the use of power presses (all types),
1
shearing, Bending, rolling, drawing, turning, boring, milling, shaping, planning, 4
broaching, plating, grinding, CNC machine, robotics .
1.3 Safety in the uses of Hand Tools and Power Tools: Main causes of
accidents, prevention and control of accidents in the uses of hand and power tools.
Centralized and personal tool issues System. Purchase, storage and supply of
tools. Inspection, maintenance and repair of tools. Portable power tools and their
selection, inspection, maintenance, repair and safe use. Non sparking tools
1.4 Hazards at workplace :Welding , gas cutting , Brazing, soldering buffing,
and publishing hazards and their preventive measures
Material handling and storage :
Manual:-Kinetics of manual handling maximum loads that could be carried, lifting
and carrying of objects of different sizes, shape and weight. safe uses of
accessories for manual handling storage of materials safety in stacking and un
stacking , Floor loading condition, layout condition of safety of storage
2
Mechanical :- lifting machinery, lifts and hoists , design ,use and care, signaling , 72
inspection and maintenance , safety in design in construction operation, inspection
and maintenance of industrial trucks , lifting tackles and loose gears , conveyors,
safety feature and safety location , testing , inspection and maintenance if lifting
tackles, safe working load for all mechanical material handling equipment. The
competent persons in relation to safety legislation, duties and responsibilities.
3.1 Plant Layout Design and Housekeeping :
Plant layout, design and safe distance. Need for planning and follow-up. Safety
and good house-keeping. Typical accidents due to poor house- keeping. Disposal
of scrap and other trade wastes. Prevention of spillage. Marking of aisles space
3 and other locations. Use of colour as an aid for good housekeeping. Cleaning
Methods, Benefits of good Housekeeping 5 S System inspections and check
lists, Safety check-lists for buying new machinery for the plant. Role of 84
preventive maintenance in safety and health. Importance of standards and codes of
practice for plant and equipment.
3.2 Boiler operation :
Hazards of boiler operation and safety measures of its operations.
3.3 Thermic fluid heater operation :
Hazards of Thermic fluid heater operation and safety measures of its operations.

2
 4.1 Electrical Hazards
Hazards of electrical energy. Safe limits of amperages, voltages. Safe distance
from lines. Capacity and protection of conductor. Joints and connections. Means
of cutting off power. Overload and short circuit protection. No load protection.
Earth fault protection. Earth insulation and continuity tests, Earthing Standards.
Protection against voltage fluctuation.
Types of protection for electrical equipment in hazardous atmosphere. Hazardous
area classification. Criteria in their Selection, installation, maintenance and use of
4 equipment of hazardous area.
113
4.2Static Electricity :Electro-Static charging where charging can occur contact
electrification. Electro Static dischargers (sparks) Electro Static hazards and their
control. Earthing and bonding. Recommended earthling
resistance for control of electricity
4.3 Lightning Arrestors :
Definition, lightning splash, lightning strokes, lightning protection systems.
Characterizations of health effects of lightening stroke (electrical effects, side
flashers, thermal effects, mechanical effects. Function of lightning of lightning
arresters.
5.1 Introduction of safety aspect in engineering industries :
Engineering industries automobile manufacturing activity like pattern making ,
melting, molding , machine forging ,chipping, grinding , ferrous and nonferrous
industry, foundry, steel plant ,hazard associated process with melting(furnaces)
,Casting ,foundry, forging and hot and cold rolling and their control measures
Hazards of workplace:
5 Mechanical hazards, noise, vibration hazards, fire hazards ,physical, toxic and
chemical heating hazards 134
5.2 Agro-Industry / Sugar Industry:Process and various hazards in agro/sugar
industries and their measures
5.3Textile Industry :Process and various hazards in Textile Industries and their
measures
5.4 Safety in docks:Hazards in Handling of cargo, on board operations, on shore
and along shore operations, Warehouse operation, Dangerous goods, Container
Operations, Lifting appliance, loose gear and wire rope, Responsibility of
different agencies for safety, health & environment involved in dock work.
6.1 Destructive Testing , Non Destructive testing and Heat treatment:
Break load test, textile stress load testing, NDT testing, significance and
limitation, Types of NDT penetration Radiography, ultrasound magnetic particle
methods, eddy current methods, thermography and heat treatment safety aspects
6.2Safety in IT and electronic industry and service sectors :
6 Various hazards in IT electronic related service sectors and their control measures, 182
ergonomic hazards /Musculoskeletal disorder (MSD), electrical hazards, physical
hazards, radiation hazards , fire hazards, computer vision syndrome (CVS), carpal
tunnel syndrome( CTS),Repetitive strain injury(RSI), various hazards in malls,
cinema halls ,parking lots and commercial sectors, preventive and control
measures

3
 Chapter 1

1.1 Machin Operation andGuarding:

PRINCIPLES OF MACHINE GUARDING

Definitions:
1. Point of operation: That area on a machine where material is positioned for processing
by 'the machine and where work is actually being performed on the material.(Feeding
point, Hopper)
2. Zero Mechanical State (ZMS): The mechanical state of a machine in which every
power source that can produce a machine member movement has been shut/locked
off. This means deenergised, de-pressurized and neutralized condition of the machine
or equipment which provides maximum protection against unexpected mechanical
movement.
3. Power off: state in which power (electric, pneumatic, hydraulic, atomic etc.) cannot
flow to the machine is considered a power-off stage.
4. Power-locked off: The state in which the device that turns power off is locked in the
off position with the padlock of every individual who is working on the machine.
5. Guarding: Any means of effectively preventing personnel from coming in contact
with the moving parts of machinery or equipment which could cause physical harm to
the personnel. In case of a power-press, a cover on point of operation (die and punch)
is called 'guard' while those on other danger zones are called 'enclosure' or 'safeguard'.
Safety by Guarding is most important as other methods are not always
possible. Depending upon the dangerous part, its size, position, speed etc., a guard
should be selected. Generally the parts to be guarded fall within three categories:
1. The prime mover.
2. Transmission parts from the prime mover to the machine and the transmission
parts in the machine itself. It is desirable to minimise them and enclose
completely.
3. Operating parts of a machine, of which the points of dangerous operation need
effective guarding.
6. A machine guard means any enclosure, barrier or device constructed to prevent a
person or his clothing coming into contact .with dangerous parts of the machine. The
point of operation is that part of working machine at which cutting, shaping, forming

4
 or any other necessary operation is accomplished. A guard for that part is known as
the point of operation guard.
7. Enclosures: Guarding by fixed physical barriers that are mounted on or around a
machine to prevent access to the moving parts.
8. Fencing: Guarding by means of a locked fence or rail enclosure which restricts access
to the machine except by authorised personnel, Enclosures must be a minimum 1m
(42 in) away from the dangerous part of the machine.
9. Safety by Position or Location: It is a guarding as a result of the physical
inaccessibility of a particular hazard under normal operating conditions or use. Words
"Safe by location" or "Safe by position" are used to denote safety by distance.
The words "safe by position" are used by Section-21 of the Factories Act. It
means the situation (out of reach) or position in such a way that normally it is not
possible to touch the dangerous parts. However intentional contact should be
prevented. Moving feed opening can be made safe by position if gravity or remote
feeding device is applied. But, then, it is a type of indirect guarding. A distance of 2.6
m or 8'6" is considered safe by position.
10. Ingoing (in-running) Nips: A hazard area created by two or more mechanical
components rotating in opposite directions in the' same plane and in close conjunction
or interaction e.g. calendar rolls, in running rolls of textile or paper machines.
11. Safety by Construction : It indicates parts so constructed as to cause no hazard, viz.
shaft, sliding and link mechanism so located or with slow speed that their contact is
not dangerous. Built-in-safety- is the similar word for designing and constructing new
machinery in such a way to make the dangerous parts safe by deep housing or
position etc.
ERGONOMICS OF MACHINE GUARDING
Meaning of Ergonomics:
As explained by W.T. Singleton in ILO Encyclopedia, literal meaning of 'ergonomics'
is the study, measurement and organisation of work. It is concerned with making purposeful
human activities more effective. The focus of study is the person interacting with the
engineering environment. The designer should consider complexity arising from human
nature and his limitations. To consider human factors, it studies anatomy, anthropometry,
biomechanics and psychology as useful sciences. To consider design aspect of work, systems,
workspace, environment, and interface and work situation, it studies technology. Thus an

5
ergonomist is expected to take an over-all view and identify the key design aspects for
particular people engaged in particular tasks.
As explained by K. Kogi, a Regional Advisor to ILO, ergonomics is a useful tool for
fitting work to people, not people to work. 'Ergon' means work and 'nomos' means habit of
law. Thus ergonomics is for the purpose of solving the problems of work habits. It requires
designing of proper workspace, working posture, reach, seat, controls, knob, brake, display,
communication, skills, work intensity; sufficient time for rest, good environment, clear
understanding and providing platforms or lift tables, carts, transport ways, proper storage
racks, buffer stocks, good lighting, ventilation and housekeeping, proper guards and good
welfare facilities. Thus ergonomic principles include comfortable posture, balanced and easy
motions, adequate rest and enough variety.
As a science, ergonomics studies anatomy, physiology and psychology. Anatomy
includes anthropometry and biomechanics. Anthropometry, the measurement of man
provides the dimensional data needed for the positioning of controls and the size of work
spaces. Statute (height upto head), eye height, shoulder height, elbow height, knuckle height
(upto the palm of hanging hand), sitting height, shoulder width, breadth across elbows,
upward reach, sideways reach, forward reach, hand length, hand breadth etc., are main human
dimensions as stated by W.T. Singleton. Biomechanics is concerned with the application of
forces by the human body. This requires knowledge of the locations of the main muscle
groups, their composition and their modes of action.
Physiology includes work physiology & environmental physiology. Work Physiology
is concerned with the human process of energy production & considers human efficiency,
oxygen uptake capacity etc. Environmental physiology provides measures of the stress and
standards of reasonable parameters of climate, light, noise, vibration etc. Their effects on
human behaviour are studied.

6
 Psychology considers various factors described in Chapter-3 and also some theories
such as human performance theory based on an information model of the human operator,
learning and skill theory and training and organization theory for work and system designs.
Such psychological theories say about human error - why people make mistakes. Many times
guards, controls and protective equipment are provided but operators fail to use them. Why
do they do so is an important question which can be replied by psychological study only.
Effective audio-visual information, choice reaction times, information processing capacity,

7
memory, attention, understanding, fatigue effects, interaction with other people, morale,
group behaviour etc. are useful factors to be considered. If workers are properly educated and
trained based on such study, their failure to use guards and safe job methods will be
minimised. Such human factors must be considered while designing any machine or work.
Explaining the historical part. King and Magid state in their book (Ref. No. 4 at the
end of this Chapter) that this word was first used in 1949 when the society, the Ergonomics
Research Society was founded in Britain including anatomists, physiologists, psychologists,
industrial medical officers, industrial hygienists, design engineers, work study engineers,
architects, illuminating engineers and others. In USA the terms 'Human Engineerings and
'Human Factors Engineerings are used to cover the same field. Biomechanics and
Engineering Psychology are other expressions used.
Aims of Ergonomics :
Its aims are :
1. To facilitate whatever a person wishes to do and to ensure that he does it comfortably
and efficiently. Efficiency includes effective work without detrimental health effects and
minimisation of risk to the operator and others.
2. The work, working conditions, plant and infrastructure should be so designed that
they are best fitting to the workers. Purpose is not to fit a worker to any awkward, unsafe,
unhealthy or uncomfortable work. But the purpose is to design or provide work and working
conditions comfortable to the workers.
3. To minimise the possibility of human error or mistake. To ensure industrial activities
with minimal use of energy and materials and without waste resulting from mistakes.
4. To develop knowledge and techniques by the combined use of many expertise and
systems approach.
5. To solve human problems of work performance by considering human factors in
design of machines and work and safe job methods which are explained in the following part.
Requisite Characteristics (Design principles) of Guards:
Twelve characteristics, design principles, specifications, basic requirements or
good guarding practice for machine guarding are:
1. With its primary purpose of protection, it should also facilitate the work i.e. it should
be convenient, reliable and not hampering the work or rate of production.
2. It should fully satisfy the legal provisions and IS prescribed i.e. it should conform the
standards, be a complete guard and not incomplete or giving any access to the part to be
protected. It should be as close as possible.

8
3. It should be suitable and effective to the job and the machine. It should not weaken the
machine.
4. It should allow for oiling, inspection, adjustment and repair. If it requires opening for this
purpose, it should be easily and quickly replaceable.
5. It should withstand wear, shock, vibration and long use with minimum maintenance. If it
requires frequent opening and closing, this factor becomes more important.
6. It should be of proper material and construction. It should be well fitted. Fire and corrosion
resistant material is preferable..
7. It should be free from self-hazard such as sharp or rough edges, nails, splinters, more
opening, noise, vibration etc.
8. If visual watch of operation is necessary, it should be transparent and yet durable.
9. If dusting is possible as in case of machining of wood, rubber, brass, cast iron etc., apart
from the guard, dust suction device should also be fitted as a special guarding.
10. It should be fail-safe i.e. if it fails or breaks it should stop the machine or at least it
should give warning (alarm) to stop the machine.
11. It should be interlocking type i.e. the machine will not start till it is not closed and will
stop soon if it is opened.
12. It should fulfill special requirement depending upon its purpose viz. distance guard
should provide sufficient protective distance, trip guard must immediately trip the machine
etc.
It may be difficult to fulfill all these requirements but it is desirable that safety engineers
must design guards by keeping above points in mind. If it is no possible to provide guard
without interfering with production, safety should be preceded over production Similarly
when complete protection is not possible incomplete (maximum possible) protection, should
b( preferred to no protection.
TYPES AND GUARDS SELECTION
Safety by Construction : A shaft end or any par without nip, spoke, nail or
protruding projection moving at very slow speed, any sliding or link mechanism moving at
very slow speed without danger of trapping or crushing, a power operated sliding door which
will stop or return at touch are some of the examples of safety by construction. Such
unguarded slow moving parts without risk are considered safe by construction. Because of
high production rate and dangerous cutting shaping operations required, this type of slow
moving machinery is hardly possible. Even then safe construction of machines must always
be aimed at. At least outer or exposed part must be safe.Built-in-safety should not be

9
understood as safety by construction. The dangerous moving parts enclosed in casing so that
no separate guard is required are an example of built-in-safety. Here speed, nip or sharp edge
of moving parts are dangerous if the casing is removed, therefore their construction is unsafe
and safety is built-in by providing a solid enclosure so that the moving parts are neither
visible nor exposed. See Part 4.2 for details.
Safety by Position: When dangerous parts are so situated by height, depth or position
that it is normally difficult to touch them, they are called 'safe by position'. Overhead
transmission machinery, dangerous parts out of reach because of height or covered by some
structure so as to prevent access or contact, are generally called safe by possible.However this
concept does not provide full safety. Unpredictable behaviour of a 'person or touching
because of cleaning by broom stick can still cause an accident. Therefore decision regarding
'safe by position' should be thought twice with all considerations.
Feed openings where access is possible and guard is not possible, should be made safe
by providing gravity, conveyor or remote control feeding. This is also a way of safety by
position. Hopper depth should be sufficient so that extended arm cannot touch the dangerous
part.
Machine Safety

Safety by construction
Safety by position
Built-in safety
Safety by machine controls
Safety by precautions and maintenance
Safety by Guarding prime mover,
transmission parts and points of operation

Fixed guards or fencing

1 Total enclosure
2 With .limited access
3 With adjustable access
4 Distance or barrier guard

Interlock guards.

1 Mechanical interlocking
2 Electrical interlocking
3 Tripguard
4 Control guard

Automatic guards
1 Mechanical type-sweep, knock or push away guard
2 Photo-electric cell type

Safety devices
1 Two-hand control
2 Optical sensor
3 Electro-magnetic sensor
4 Mechanical feed (conveyor)
5 Feed tools (tong, magnetic device)
6 Non repeat device
7 Pedal guard

Types of Guards and Selection:

Unguarded dangerous machine parts are shown in Fig. 14.5. They need guards.
Various types of guards are shown in fig. 14.6(A) and (B)

10
 Various types of guards are shown classified in previous part.
Fixed guards: They are simple, easy to provide and cover parts as well as throwing
particles if any. They are of various types, materials and design. A minimum thickness of 1.2
mm is recommended for sheet metal. Guard opening and its distance from the dangerous part
should be fully safe. Such spacing and distance are prescribed and formulae are also
available, but it is rather a matter of fact of individual requirement. They should be close fit,
robust and should withstand speed, vibration, impact etc. They should be properly fitted by
clamps, bolts etc. They require special tool for their removal.
Every fixed guard (or other guard) on point of operation should prevent entry of
fingers (preferably the smallest finger) or hands by reaching over, under, or around the guard
into the point of operation. Its fasteners should not be easily openable to prevent misuse or
accident. On point of operation it should offer full visibility, while on transmission parts it
may not.
Following formula was suggested by the Chief Inspector of Factories, UK in his
Report of 1975 –
Y = X +6
12
where Y = guard opening or gap in mm and
X = distance from danger in mm
Fixed total enclosures are used to cover prime mover and transmission parts such as
headstock gearing, belts, pulleys etc.
Fixed limited access guards provide minimum opening in the guard to insert and
remove the job (material). It disallows finger to trap. If the material is jammed, it requires
special tool and opening and refitting of the guard. They are used on power presses..
Fixed adjustable access guards -provide opening through or around guard to
accommodate materials of different sizes. Guards on band saws, jigsaws, milling cutter etc.
can be raised or lowered as per the thickness to cut. Such guard known as "crown guard" on
circular saw or drill tool adjusts automatically as the job or tool moves. Its disadvantage is
that it gives little protection when thin material is processed. See Fig. 14.6(B)
Fencing, distance or barrier guards make it physically difficult for people to gain
access. Nip guard to in-running rolls and fixed railing or fencing to engines, motors, planning
or shaping machine are of this type.

11
 Interlock guards make certain that the machine cannot be started until the guard
screen is in close position and conversely the guard cannot be removed until the working
parts have been stopped. Mechanical, electrical, hydraulic or pneumatic systems are used to
actuate the guard. Mechanical interlocking of a power press, card machine and electrical
(limit or micro switches) interlocking of headstock covers of many textile machinery are such
examples. Many times the interlocking is by-passed or made ineffective which is not good.
This is its disadvantage. Correct working condition of limit switch is most important. Limit or
micro switches are used but they are not fully safe.
Trip guards are actuated by anyone approaching beyond the safe position and
operate a stop or reverse control viz. trip rod along the conveyor belt, hand trip on a rubber
mill, electronic eye, lift door, platen printing guard, calendars or dough brakes etc.
Control guards activate the machine when the guard is closed and opening the guard
stops it. Thus the guard acts as on-off switch. Such guard is useful for the machine which can
be brought to rest very rapidly, e.g. power press.
Automatic guards will ensure that the operator is prevented from coming into contact
with dangerous parts when the machine is set in motion accidentally. This guard is itself
actuated by the movement of the dangerous part. It can only be used where sufficient time is
available to remove the body part from the danger zone viz. sweep, knock or push away
guard on a power press or platen printing machine. Because of its stroke hazard it is hardly
used. Photo-electric guard (device) operates to stop the dangerous part when the light curtain
is interrupted. This type of guard is used on shearing or cutting machine.
Safety by Machine Controls: These should be differentiated from incidental safety
devices which are external and work like guard for protection. But the machine itself has
many controls as its inherent or attached elements. All levels, buttons, brakes, pedals,
switches, handles, wheels, auto controls etc., are machine controls to run the machine safely
and efficiently. Such controls should be clearly identified, marked and suitably placed tot
ease of operation. Their purpose and direction of movement shall be marked. Each stop
button should accompany start button and they should be sunk to prevent accidental pressing.
Levers should be capable of being locked in position. Levers, handles, or wheels
should operate to give naturally anticipated direction (e.g. clockwise close and anticlockwise
open, up forward, down reverse etc.), controls should be at rest when power is applied and
they should not restart the machine after resetting. Guard or control should be of fail-safe
type i.e. the machine will stop if the control fails. When there are more controls nearly placed

12
or on one board clear instruction of their use must be marked to prevent then false operation.
Locks or keys on some controls are required to prevent their undesired operation by mistake.

Safety by Precautions and Maintenance: Above paras highlight the need of utmost
precautions in safe operation and maintenance of all safety guards, devices and controls. A
man has made them and a man can make them ineffective or misuse. Therefore all
precautionary operating measures are necessary in addition to the machine guarding. The
machine operators should be made aware of hazards in their works, location and operation of
machine controls, regular checking of guards, warning and training not to make the guards

13
ineffective, repairs, adjustment etc., by specially trained person, need of wearing tight fitting
clothing and protective equipment necessary and using right tools and equipment.
Criteria for Guard Selection: Selection of a guard depends on following factors:

1. Its physical dimensions, weight etc.

2. Method of drive and power requirements.

3. Limitations of speed, pressure, temperature etc.

4. Materials being processed or handled.

5. Access requirements especially for setting, adjustments and maintenance.

6. Environmental factors such as noise, vibration, dust, fumes and

7. Operating requirements such as visibility. (Green or Yellow colour)

Guarding of Different Machines:

Name of the Machine Guard / Device Suggested
Individual Starting/ Stopping device in safe
1 General requirements 1
position
2 Belt shifting lock
3 Guards on all moving parts
Interlock guards / doors on beaters and dangerous
2 Openers/ Pickers 1
parts
2 Feed guards
3 Nip guards on fixed rolls and lap forming rollers
3 Cotton Cards 1 Interlocking doors on cylinders
2 Fixed guard on licker-in
4 Trained worker for stripping or grinding
4 Garnet Machines 1 Fixed guard on licker-ins
2 Fixed guard on Fancy rolls
3 Screen under garnet
5 Gill Boxes 1 Guard on feed end
2 Nip guards on rolls (Distances are suggested)
6 Silver/ Ribbon , lappers Guard on calendar drums and lap spool
7 Speed Frames Interlock doors on head stock gearing
8 Spinning Mules Guard on carriage wheels
9 Slashers/ Dryers 1 Nip guards on in-running rolls
2 Control levers within 1.7 mt from the floor
3 Stop/ Start push buttons conveniently located
10 Looms 1 Shuttle guard
2 Beam weigh fall preventer
11 Valve on Kiers 1 Locking device on valve
Tanks & containers 2 Shut off valves to stop overflow/ splash
Guard on revolving blades (opening less than 1
12 Shearing Machines
cm)
13 Bleaching range Nip guard on rolls

14
14 Mercerizing range 1 Stop button at each end of the machine
2 Guard on frame between chain & clip opener
3 Nip guard on mangle rolls & washers
15 Centri-fugal extractors 1 Interlock guard on basket
2 Brake to stop basket
16 Mangles, Washers etc. Nip guards on in-running rolls
Sanforizing and Palmer
17 1 Nip guards on in-running rolls
Machines
2 Side guards on in-running rolls
Trip rod, cable or wire near cylinders. Height not
3
more than 1.7 mt from working platform.
18 Rope washers 1 Splash guards
2 Trip rod near washers
Washers, tumblers or
19 1 Interlock door on cylinder
shakers
2 Holding open device for cylinder doors
20 Calendars Nip guard on rolls
21 Rotary staple cutter Guard on cutting zone
22 Plating machine Guard on space between knife and card bar
23 Hand baling machine Handle stop guard at right angle to the frame
Trip bar/ guard on first pressure (feed) rolls to stop
24 Flat work ironer
the machine.
Ginning, Woodworking and Rubber m/c:
The machine guarding u/r 54, sch 2, 3 and 4 is summarised below in tale 14.3 :

Wood workingand rubber machines:

Machine Dangerous Pars Types of Guards
A riving knife of prescribed
dimensions and setting.
1 Circular saws The saw
Adjustable top guards, two
metal plates guard, push sticks
Top and bottom
2 Band Saws Fixed guards
pulleys and the blade
Cutting slot, freed
3 Planning machine Bridge guard, efficient guard
roller
Vertical Spindle Moulding Cutter, the wood being
4 Suitable guard, A jig or holder
machine moulded
5 Chain mortising m/c Chain and cutters Suitable guard
Rubber Mill :
Height more than 96.5 cm, a
distance guard, feed hopper,
1 Rubber mill Inrunning rolls
trip guard (rod) within 1.7 m
height.
Trip guard within 1.7 m height,
2 Calendar m/c Inrunning rolls tight wire cable connected with
it.

15
Power Press (Rule 54 Sch.6) :
Applicability : This schedule applies to all types of power presses including press brakes
except when used for hot working of metal. The CIF can give exemption by a written
certificate with conditions, if any, and he can revoke such certificate also.
Tower-Press' means a machine used in metal or other industries for molding, pressing,
blanking, raising, drawing and similar purposes.
Paper Industry: Opens. & Guarding:
Collecting:
Old Paper and card is collected in bins, cages etc. and transferred to recycling sites for
processing
Cutting:
Hand-held circular saws are used to cut large reels, separating paper reducing thereel size.
Methods include ‗free hand‘ splitting by hand saw, where the operator holds a circular saw to
complete the task or ‗fixed frame‘ splitting, where a circular saw ismounted on a fixed frame
(fitted with dust extraction).
Risk : Lacerated legs, feet and other limbs from contact with the rotating blade.
Control: If reel splitting is done regularly, replace ‗free hand‘ cutting with ‗fixed frame‘
saws frame to hold reels firmly in the cutting machine.
Conveyor & Baling mechanism:
Baling machines are used to compress paperand card for recycling. They vary in size and
design and are either horizontal or vertical.Balers processing large quantities are fed by
inclined or horizontal conveyors
Risk : Shear traps formed by the hydraulic through various ram or electrically driven
motor.
Control: Make sure guards cover the full path of the ram and needle stroke including needle
Pit Install suitable and sufficient emergency stop devices (Trip-wire: A single tripwire hung
centrally up the length of the conveyor with pull cords suspended at regular intervals that can
be reached easily.) to the conveyor and baler. Consider where people work and where they
could become trapped on the conveyor system.
Compactors:
Compactors further compress recovered material or waste into a container for recycling or
disposal.All machines must have a means to isolate and lock off power, in an accessible
position
Where regular access is required, interlocked guards must be provided, Guarding the drive
unit Fully enclose all drive and power units to prevent contact with dangerous parts.
Restrict access to the machine to authorized people only.
Wherever possible, enclose internal components forming part of the compactor ram
Mechanism by fixed guarding that can only be removed with a tool.
Make additional interlocking arrangements if guards are accessed regularly
(Typically on larger machines).
Guarding the inlet hopper
Take measures to prevent people reaching into the danger zone to clear obstructions or clean
the Chamber.

16
Employers/users must identify measures to control the risk of people falling/climbingin to the
compaction chamber.
Compactors fed by high-level chutes or conveyor systems should be positioned or
enclosed, to prevent ready access, e. g. use an overhead conveyor to the feed inlet and
enclose the hopper completely. The height of the hopper loading lid must conform tothe
minimum reach dimensions set out.
Removal of Blockages
Risks - Most serious and fatal accidents happen while clearing blockages.
Isolates and locks off the compactor and feed conveyor, before attempting to clear the
blockage. Use Electrical LOTO system,
After removing blockages all guards must be replaced and checked before machine
equipment is restarted.
PAPER INDUSTRY
Paper is a thin felted matrix of interlacing cellulosic fibres made from wood pulp or rags,
straw and grass or waste paper.
In making paper, first raw material from wood pulp, west paper or grass is cut in to pieces.
Then it is soaked in water to make pulp. Necessary additives and bleaching agents like C12
or H2O2 are passed through the pulp to make it white. It is passed through many tanks and
pulper machine. Then homogenous pulp is passed through paper mill where it is run on the
felt through wet and dry (hot) processes. A paper film is formed as a result of this process in
the paper machine. Then continuous paper is wound or reel and a papci roll is formed. The
roll is removed from the re-winder machine and sent to the cutting department. There if is cut
in to the required sizes and packed in bundles.
The safety measures should include :
1. Nip guards on various rolls and felt nips of drying and re-winders etc. Interlock
guards for the whole in running nip with additional side guards, efficient doctor
blades, air feeds, belt feed and well designed hand tools are necessary.
2. Manual straightening of paper should be replaced by mechanical straightening.
3. Sufficient stopping and breaking pushbuttons i.e. switches.
4. Operation with moving machinery at slow speed.
5. Automatic lubrication instead of manual while machinery is in motion.
6. Interlocked door on hopper of the baling press.
7. Pulpers should have strong fencing (railing) to prevent fall into the deep vessel and
interlock door near feed point.
8. Interlocked or photo cell guards on guillotine cutters and slitting machine.
9. Keirs, digesters, dryers and boilers should be fully closed under pressure and Rule 61,
GFR should be strictly followed. Safety valve, pressure reducing valve or regulator,
pressure gauge etc. should be well functioning.
10. Digester drives should be properly locked so that they may not rotate while charging
or discharging. Their start-switches should be with keys and properly identified.
11. Steam pipes should be lagged to prevent burns.

17
12. Bridges and walk ways over and along side the machine should be protected with
double railing, toe-boards and non slip surfaces to prevent falls into the machines.
13. Effective fencing at all points where there are chances of falling on moving-
machinery or into pits.
14. Adequate stock and use of lifting machinery.
15. Good drainage of wet flooring and cleaning thereof.
16. Guards on straw cutter drives and beaters. Hopper feeder for straw or grass cutter
essential.
17. Railing around feed opening over digesters.
18. Guards on grass-beaters and cutters.
19. Guards on all drives, gears, couplings, pulley belts etc. of all machineries.
20. Locking of electric switches where accidental starting may cause accidents.
21. Fencing or guarding on pulper chests, agitator tanks and pump-motor sets.
22. Test all lifting machinery u/r 60 GFR and maintain form No. 8 and 10.
23. Exhaust blowers of steam dryers should run efficiently.
24. Guard of fly-knife (rotary cutter) should be interlocked. It should not open when
cutter is moving.
25. Exhaust ventilation near steam exposures or hot environment.
26. Sufficient lighting in congested areas.
27. Enclosures, barriers and absorptive or reactive silencers to reduce high noise levels.
28. Suction and closed ducting to convey flying dust.
29. To prevent chemical hazards of soda, sulphate and sulphite, use hooded ventilation to
vent off steam, HF, SO2, mercaptans, etc. Use mechanical agitation and spraying.
30. Prevent chlorine and ammonia hazards in bleach plant. See Part 8.6.1, 8.6.2 and 17.3
of Chapter-18 for chlorine & ammonia safety. Bleaching should be carried out in a
closed system at a negative pressure.
31. Treatment for caustic burns.
32. Many chemicals used are toxic, flammable and explosive for which effective
ventilation, careful handling and fire control are necessary.
33. Good washing facilities, cloakrooms and lunchrooms are necessary.
34. Speedy removal of waste paper, pulp, spillage, dusts and good housekeeping are
essential.
IS : Glossary of terms relating to paper and packaging 4261, 4661, 7186, relating to
paper sacks 9028, terminology 7186, methods of test for pulp 6213 (Part I to 21), methods of
sampling and test for paper and allied products 1060 (Part I to 3), methods of test for
corrugated fibre board 7063 (Part I to 4), methods of test for smoothness/roughness of paper
9894, Axial (end to end) compression strength of composite cans, tubes and cores, method of
test 13975, method of end blow-off pressure test for composite cans 13976, corrugated fibre
board boxes for packing and transportation 13228, for exporting glass jars and bottles 9313,
for packaging of apples 11844, for packing soaps 10176, fibre board drums 7601, general
purpose packing/wrapping paper 6615, grease proof paper 6622, ice-cream cups and lids
10177, kraft paper 1397, packing paper, waterproof bitumen laminated 1398, aluminium foil
laminates for packaging 8970, waxed paper 3962, 3963, 7162, 9988, alkali resistant paper

18
3673, base paper - for carbon paper 3413, for tracing paper 11687, for waxed paper 2991,
blotting paper 1396, cover paper 6956, hand made drawing paper 3064, map printing paper
12765, newsprint paper 11688, paper for permanent records 1774, paper sizes 1064, sizes of
envelopes 3338, tracing paper 8431, tissue paper 8460, printing paper 1848, cellulosic paper
for electrical purposes 9335 (Part I to 3), 2189, paper clip 5650, Cuttings 4356, germination
6671, insulated lead sheathed cables 3961, insulation, tear resistance 10810, photographic
6139, 6650, 10329, sizing, gelatin for 11227, stationery for schools 5195, top gummed 4185,
teleprinter page roll 9031, tray 3791, wastage and spoilage guide for printing industry 12000,
writing and printing 1848, for computer 12766, for data processing 10557, paper and board
impregnated 5134, paper rolls, sizes, 13075, paper green dehydrated 9486
Guarding printing presses
What are the risks?
Arms, wrists or fingers can be trapped in the machine, causing crushing injuries or
amputation.
A printing press operator‘s right forearm was crushed and wrist fractured when he tried to
clean
a mark off the impression drum while the machine was operating.The machine was not
guarded and there were nosafe operating procedures for cleaning the drum.
What is a solution to the problem?
The risk of injury can be eliminated or reduced by:
• Guarding Nip guard on Rollers of the machine to protect people from rotating parts
(Rollers)
and nip points (e.g. a permanently fixed physical barrier or barrier that can only be removed
with tools).
• Fixed guards on gears & wheel
• Installing an interlock safety system that stops the moving parts of the printing press when
access is required.
• Regularly inspecting and testing the safety system.
• Servicing the machine regularly.
• Placing signs on or near the machine to alert employees of the dangers of operating the
Machine.
• Providing employees with instructions and training on safe work procedures, and regularly
reviewing them, including lock out and tag out systems.
• When setting up or cleaning the printing press, using a single means of control that allows
only limited movement (inching).
• For the Safety of machinery – Prevention of unexpected start-up
• Particular attention is paid to machines that have been supplied second-hand
Guarding of Tool &Die:
Tool and die shall have a fixed guard so as to prevent hand injury in the danger zone. A small
aperture shall be provided at the bottom of the die guard to feed the machine.

19
An automatic or interlocked guard may be used in place of a fixed guard but it should be
maintained in efficient working condition and if such guard develops defect, the press shall
not be operated till the defect is removed.
Trained person for testing, preparing etc. : To set, adjust, try out, install, inspect, test or
prepare a tool or safety device on a power press, an adult trained worker shall be appointed
and his name shall be entered in Form No. 8.
Testing by a Competent Person : No power press or safety device shall be used unless it has
been thoroughly examined and tested by a competent person. Periodicity of testing for a
power press and its safety devices is 12 and 6 months respectively.
Details of such test report are prescribed in para 6(4) of the schedule. This includes name and
address of the factory, name of the occupier, identification number or mark to identify the
press or safety device, date of, the first use, date of each examination and particulars of
defects found and steps taken to remove them.
Disclosure of Defects & Measures : By any test > or examination, when any defect is
disclosed by a competent person, the defective press or safety device shall not be used till it is
remedied.
The competent person shall inform the occupier and the Inspector (within 14 days) in writing,
the defect to be rectified. The defect shall be remedied and its record shall be kept stating the
measures and the date of remedy.
Inspection & Test of Safety Device : After setting, resetting or adjustment of any tool, every
safety device of the press shall be inspected and tested by the authorised (appointed) person
and then only the press shall be used.
Defect disclosed in a safety device as above, shall be notified to the manager forthwith.
Identification: Every power press and every safety device on it shall be distinctively and
plainly marked.
Training & Instruction to Operators : The operators shall be trained and instructed in the safe
method of work before starting work on any power press. See fig. 14.8.
Shears, Slitters and Guillotine Machines (Rule 54 Sch. 7):
Guillotine machine has a straight or bevel edged blade and Shearing machine has a similar
blade operating vertically, while Slitting machine has circular disc type knives for slitting into
narrow strips.
These machines are used to cut metallic or non-metallic substances.
Machine Guarding:
1. The descending blade should have a fixed barrier guard in front of the blade (knife)
fitted with the machine frame.
2. Where fixed guard is not possible due to size and thickness of the material being fed,
either 'two hand control' or 'push away' device shall be provided for the protection of hands.
3. At the back end, inclined ducting cum guard shall be provided through which the slit
pieces would slide and be collected at a safe distance and which would prevent a person from
reaching the blade.
4. Except continuous feed trimmers, power driven cutters shall have two-hand starting
device (push buttons) and at least one hand on a control during the completion of the stroke.

20
In addition to the brake (stop device), an emergency device shall be provided to prevent the
machine from operating in the event of failure of the brake.
5. An automatic guard to push away the hands at every descent of the blade. (Such guard
may be preferred as a last resort if other devices are not possible).
6. Where more than one worker work on the same machine, two-hand start device
should be for each worker and at least one hand on a control to complete the cut.
7. Circular disc type knives shall have a fixed or manually or automatically adjustable
guard to enclose the knife edges. The space between the guard and the material should be less
than 6 mm. Portion underneath the table should also be guarded.
Dangerous Machines: The substituted Rule 57, prescribes the following machines as
'dangerous' and no young person (below the age of 18) shall work on it-
1. Hoists, lifts, lifting machines, chains, ropes, lifting tackles and revolving machinery
(Sections - 28, 29,30).
2. Power presses other than hydraulic presses.
3.Milling machines.
4. Guillotine machines.
5. Circular Saws.
6. Platen printing machines.
Built-in Safety Devices:
The object of built-in safety device is to design and make the machine, equipment, method
and environment so safe that the workers' exposure- to accident or injury is eliminated or
controlled automatically.
It is well experienced that many a times the guards provided on the machines are removed,
not refitted and dangerous parts run without guards. Such unsafe practice leads to accidents.
Therefore it is always essential to incorporate built-in safety devices (guards) from the design
stage so that they become integral part of the machine and subsequent guarding is least
required.
Built-in-safety can be designed for point of operation, transmission parts, controls,
maintenance, adjustment and cleaning. Unnecessary projecting parts should be avoided. Risk
at cutter, tool or equipment should be eliminated or minimised by design, enclosure, handle
etc., closed tools are safer than open tools, controls should be in easy reach and inching or
slow motion, braking, tripping, reversing etc. should be provided where necessary.
Benefits of Built-in Safety Devices:
1. They are safer from accident prevention point of view.
2. They serve more than one purpose.
3. They are less costly in long run. Subsequent addition of guards requires frequent
maintenance and they are usually more costly and less effective.
4. They provide better standard to the design and operation of the machine.
5. Need for training and supervision to control unsafe acts is reduced.
6. It helps for efficient production, high morale and less labour turnover.
For best results, planning at initial engineering level is necessary. Right from the-drawing and
design stage to the delivery stage, all safety aspects should be built-in. The responsibility
should also be extended to product design, machine design, plant layout and working

21
conditions, selection and specification of materials, production planning, time study methods,
duties of production foreman and the duties of the workers.
The disadvantage of built-in guards is that slight modification or unanticipated circumstances,
after machine installation can render the guarding less effective. Therefore necessary
correction in safety device should be made if such change is required.
MAINTENANCE AND REPAIRS OF GUARDS
Section 21 of the Factories Act states that the guards shall be constantly maintained and kept
in position. Such maintenance is obviously necessary because a machine running without
guards or with open or broken guards pose danger. Regular inspection of guards can detect
the guard removed, damaged or requiring repairs. A guard removed for repair should be fitted
at the earliest possible and meanwhile temporary guard should be installed or the machine be
stopped. Good maintenance increases the life of guards and vice versa. The supervisor should
pay constant attention for this.
A guard should be so designed or fitted that it is not to be opened for oiling/greasing or
nearby maintenance work. The parts needing regular service should be located outside the
guard. If oil/grease fittings are inside the guard, an extension through the guard should be
provided.
Automatic controls for lubrication, adjustment or service can be provided by a sophisticated
equipment. Interlock type guard ensures that the machine cannot be operated unless all
guards are in position. Such planning helps maintenance without disturbing guards.
When a guard cannot be made to exclude lint, fume, dusting etc., extra ventilation should be
provided. Large guards should have self-closing doors for cleaning. Space should be provided
in surrounding for repair and maintenance. Some people use red colour for guards to show
dangerous part while some prefer the same colour that of the machine to consider it as an
integral part of the machine.
Work on machinery in motion for maintenance purpose :
During maintenance of a machine, normally a guard is removed and observation for fault,
alignment, repairing or oiling/greasing is carried out in unguarded condition. Such condition
may kill or injure' an untrained or unknowing person. See foregoing Part 1.2, para 'Work on
or near machinery in motion' for statutory requirement u/s 22 of the Factories Act.
Zero Mechanical State (ZMS) :
As far as possible this. state (condition) should be observed i.e. all energy sources must be de-
energized or made least effective before any maintenance work is to be started. After
switching off electrical power, rotating machinery may continue to rotate due to moment of
enertia. This may cause accident. The rotating part should come to rest i.e. in stop condition.
Therefore mechanical steady state condition (ZMS) should be maintained before starting any
maintenance work. This is the safest condition.
Lockout and Tag-out:
This system is used at the time of maintenance or repair work on machine. Power source to
the machine is cut off or it is mechanically locked. This is called lockout. A tag is tied with
necessary instruction that this machine is under repair or maintenance audit should not be
started. This is called tag-out.
Incidental Safety Devices and Methods :

22
Some incidental safety devices (indirect guards) equally useful as machine guarding are as
below:
Two Hand control: Two push buttons are required to be operated simultaneously thus
keeping the operator's hands engaged and away from the dangerous parts. Such device does
not protect another approaching person, is prone to faults and cause difficulties on
electrically, hydraulically or pneumatically powered machines. Therefore such device alone
is not advisable. It is used on garment presses etc. Where two operators have to work
simultaneously, four push buttons are required to keep their hands away from dangerous
parts.
Optical Sensor: This uses photoelectric cell and a light. On interruption of light beam, the
dangerous part is stopped. Its working must be checked before starting the work.
Electromagnetic Sensor: This uses a sensor of electromagnetic field, a coupler and
interconnecting cable and a control unit. Interruption of the field by an operator's hand causes
an electric signal which initiates the desired control action.
Mechanical Feed: A positioning device like conveyor or a rotating table moves the parts or
material into the point of operation where the hazard exists thus avoiding human contact
there.
Feed Tools: Tools viz. tong, magnetic lifting rod etc., are used to place material in a press
with an intention to save the hand.
Pedal Guard: Such guard on foot-pedal of a power press prevents occidental foot-stroke on
the pedal.
Ultrasonic device: Inaudible high-frequency sound senses the presence of any part in the
danger zone. As sound attenuates over distance its application is limited.
Feed Hopper : It extends the feed length to prevent access. It can be used on pug mill, rubber
mill etc.

Safety in the use of Machines

Power Press (Rule 54 Sch.6) :
Applicability : This schedule applies to all types of power presses including press
brakes except when used for hot working of metal. The CIF can give exemption by a written
certificate with conditions, if any, and he can revoke such certificate also.
Tower-Press' means a machine used in metal or other industries for moulding,
pressing, blanking, raising, drawing and similar purposes.
Guarding of Tool & Die : Tool and die shall have a fixed guard so as to prevent hand
injury in the danger zone. A small aperture (Slit) shall be provided at the bottom of the die
guard to feed the machine.
An automatic or interlocked guard may be used in place of a fixed guard but it should
be maintained in efficient working condition and if such guard develops defect, the press
shall not be operated till the defect is removed.

23
 Trained person for testing, preparing etc. : To set, adjust, try out, install, inspect,
test or prepare a tool or safety device on a power press, an adult trained worker shall be
appointed and his name shall be entered in Form No. 8.( Given in F.A.)
Testing by a Competent Person : No power press or safety device shall be used
unless it has been thoroughly examined and tested by a competent person. Periodicity of
testing for a power press and its safety devices is 12 and 6 months respectively.
This includes name and address of the factory, name of the occupier, identification
number or mark to identify the press or safety device, date of, the first use, date of each
examination and particulars of defects found and steps taken to remove them.
Disclosure of Defects & Measures : By any test or examination, when any defect is
disclosed by a competent person, the defective press or safety device shall not be used till it is
remedied.
The competent person shall inform the occupier and the Inspector (within 14 days) in
writing, the defect to be rectified. The defect shall be remedied and its record shall be kept
stating the measures and the date of remedy.
Inspection & Test of Safety Device : After setting, resetting or adjustment of any
tool, every safety device of the press shall be inspected and tested by the authorised
(appointed) person and then only the press shall be used.
Defect disclosed in a safety device as above, shall be notified to the manager
forthwith.
Identification: Every power press and every safety device on it shall be distinctively and
plainly marked.
Training & Instruction to Operators: The operators shall be trained and instructed
in the safe method of work before starting work on any power press. See fig. 14.8.

24
Safe use of machinery factsheets: Power presses machine guarding
Improper use of mechanical power presses cause a large number of workplace amputations.
Crushing injuries and fractures to the fingers, hands and arms are also common injuries.
Power Presses are machines that shear, punch, form, or assemble metal or other material by
means of tools or dies attached to slides. Power presses can be mechanical, hydraulic or
pneumatic. In mechanical power presses, tools and dies are mounted on a slide or ram, and
move away from the stationary bed containing the lower die. The upper and lower dies press
together to punch, shear or form the work piece.
Employers have a legal responsibility under the Health and Safety in Employment Act 1992
to provide a safe working environment and this includes the safe use of machinery. Under
Regulation 17 of the HSE Act‘s 1995 Regulations, provision must be made for the safe
cleaning, maintenance and repair of machinery. This includes guarding, lockout mechanisms,
and a training programme for safe work procedures.
Types of Power Presses
A full revolution (positive clutch) power press once activated, cannot be stopped until it
completes the press cycle - lowering and raising of the slide or ram. Presence-sensing devices
will not work on these machines, and operators must be protected by fixed guards or
mechanical interlock guards during the entire press operating cycle.
A part revolution or the friction clutch power press can be disengaged at any time before it
completes the down stroke, and can be guarded with presence-sensing devices.
Power Press Hazards
• Trapping by the tool and die;

• Trapping by other moving parts of the machinery;

• Projectile hazards from tool failure;

• Entanglement by rotating parts.

Hazard Controls
• Use of the closed tool method (enclosed tool);
• Fit with emergency stops;
• Adequate training and supervision of operators;
• Reduced force of the press;
• Increased clearance to remove pinch point;
• Automated material handing or robots.

25
Two-handed controls may be suitable as a backup safety system, but cannot be used as a
replacement for other more
effective guarding systems.
Mechanical power presses
During operation, ensure that the
interlock guard is locked in a
closed position without any gaps
for access, and remains locked
until the crankshaft has
completed at least one revolution
and stopped.
Provide an anti-free fall device, independent of the normal cyclical working of the friction
brake, on the press to prevent involuntary descent of the ram, and/or any other slide due to
over-run or fall-back of the crankshaft or by gravity.
Ensure the power press is suitably guarded to prevent access. Fit the machine with an
interlock safety device to ensure the machine stops when the guard is lifted.
Hydraulic presses
Presence-sensing devices can only be used on hydraulic power presses that are designed and
constructed to meet the requirements of the relevant standards that are listed in this factsheet.
Provide mechanical back-up protection for an electrical interlock. If this is not practicable,
use two independent electrical circuits and monitor regularly.
Anti-free fall devices to prevent ram free-fall should also be provided where this is a hazard.
Maintenance and Servicing
• Power presses and their safety systems should be inspected and checked daily.
• Carry out regular maintenance as per the manufacturer‘s instructions
• Establish a safe die-setting procedure using an inch or jog safety device together with
lockout/tag out procedures.
• Guards must be in place before testing the press‘s automatic mode.
• Use energy control precautions - safety blocks or lock-out the disconnect switch. An
inch or jog device will not provide protection for gravity fall of the slide/ram.
Common Guarding Mistakes
• Using a guard with excessive opening size.

26
• Two-hand controls that are mounted within the safety distance of the press without any
other guarding.
• The machine can be started before the interlocked guard is fully engaged.
• Interrupted feeding rhythm and operator‘s hands are placed in the danger area while
riding the foot pedal.
• Mechanical failure of linkages, electrical control relay, and components.
• Using normally open switches that can be overridden by the operator.
• Ineffective lock-out/tag-out procedures during maintenance.
Relevant standards
Available at www.standards.com.au
AS 4024.3001-2009 Safety of Machinery –Material Forming and Shearing – Mechanical
Power Presses
AS 4024.3002-2009 Safety of Machinery –Material Forming and Shearing – Hydraulic
Power Presses
AS4024.2601-2008 Safety of Machinery-Design of Controls, Interlocks and Guarding-Two
Hand Control Devices-Functional Aspects and Design Principles
AS 1219 - -1994 Power Presses Safety requirements

Excessive opening size in fixed frontal guard leading to accident

Mechanical power press guarded with hinged interlock guard and anti-free fall device
Shearing Machine safety operation
Shearing Machine safety operation:
1, There must be someone responsible for managing the shears.
2. Before the operation to wear tight-fitting protective clothing, cuff buckle, jacket hem
cannot be opened, shall not be starting next to the machine tool wear off changing clothes, or
Wai distributed in the body, preventing the machine twist injury. To wear a good helmet,
pigtail should be placed inside the cap should not wear skirts, slippers.
3. The machine operator must be familiar with shears main structure, performance and use.

27
4. This machine applies to material thickness shearing machine rated a variety of steel,
copper, aluminum and non-metallic materials, plates, and must be no hard-marks, welding
slag, slag, weld material, does not allow super-thick.
5. The use of this machine:
a. In accordance with the thickness of the material being cut, adjust the blade gap.
b. According to adjust the width of the material being cut by die or fixture.
C. Machine operator to 1,3 times before air travel, before it can be cut normal work.
6. Found the use of the machine is not running properly should be immediately cut off the
power outage inspection.
7. Adjust the machine, it must cut off the power, moving work piece should pay attention to
the safety of hands.
8. Ministries should always be lubricated machines, each class by the operator filling oil once
every six months by the mechanic parts of the bearing lubricant filling time.
9, operation, hands and feet movements to coordinate, is strictly prohibited wearing gloves, is
strictly prohibited stretched its hands into the platen and the knife-edge office.
11, In the workplace ban huddle parts and debris, so that at all times maintain machine tools
and the venue clean.
12, Work is completed, cut off the power supply, lock the power box.
Safety in user of Bending Machine
S AF E TY OP ER AT I N G P RO CE D UR E S

Magna Bend™
Electromagnetic Sheetmetal Bending Machine

DO NOT use this machine unless a teacher has instructed

you in its safe use and operation and has given permission.

Safety glasses must be worn Long and loose hair must be

at all times in work areas. contained.

Appropriate footwear with Close fitting/protective

substantial uppers must be clothing must be worn.
worn.

Rings and jewellery must not Gloves must not be worn when
be worn. using this machine.

28
PRE-OPERATIONAL SAFETY CHECKS
1. Guards or safety devices must never be removed or adjusted, except by an
authorized person for maintenance purposes.
2. Working parts (ie. hinges) should be well lubricated and working surfaces kept free
of rust and dirt.
3. Ensure no slip/trip hazards are present in workspaces and walkways.
4. Be aware of other personnel in the immediate vicinity and ensure the area is clear
before using equipment.
5. Familiarise yourself with all machine operations and controls- refer to ‘User
Manual’.
6. Faulty equipment must not be used. Immediately report suspect machinery.
OPERATIONAL SAFETY CHECKS
1. Never use this machine for bending metal that is beyond the machine’s capacity with
respect to thickness, shape, or type. Refer to the manufacturer ‘User Manual’.
2. Never attempt to bend rod, wire, strap, or spring steel sheets in this machine.
3. Adjust for thickness of workpiece – rotate adjusters either end of clampbar.
4. Insert workpiece and align bending edge of clampbar & bending-beam with the
bend line of the workpiece.
5. Press and hold the ‘START’ button (this applies pre-clamping pressure to the
workpiece).
6. Using other hand lift handle (this applies full clamping) and continue bend to
required angle.
7. Keep clear of moving handles and bending-beam.
8. Slotted or short clampbars should be used for bending box shapes – refer to ‘user
manual’.
HOUSEKEEPING
1. Ensure machine is turned off after use.
2. Return all accessories to storage racks.
3. Leave the work area in a safe, clean and tidy state.
POTENTIAL HAZARDS
▪ Sharp edges and burrs ▪ Impact from handles or
bending-beam
▪ Squash/crush and pinch points ▪ Electrical & electromagnetic energy

29
Rolling Machine safety operation
1, starting pre - 1, Check whether all parts of an exception, fastening screws (cap) may not
have spare. Brakes should be normal and reliable.2, In strict accordance with the thickness
adjustment plate distance reel shall not be overloaded with work. Volume cannot exceed the
mechanical properties of pressure within the provisions of the work piece.
2, in operation Attention1, You must put a smooth piece, (for better rolling) bit before
driving is running operations, and should be a clear signal to designate a person
command.(Proper supervision or Inspection)2, Hands were not on the pressure plate on the
volume and not permitted to conduct sample inspections, parking behind the license model
checking roundness.3, the volume is not enough pressure the entire round work piece, the
roll-roll-to-end steel, you should reserve a certain margin to prevent the work piece falls
hurt.4, Operating when the work piece is strictly prohibited to stand on, nor shall have a good
roll on the cylinder to find Shoen degrees.5, Roll thicker, larger diameter of the cylinder or
material strength of the larger piece should be a small decline, and after moving several times
roll forming.6, Roll narrower cylinder should be placed in the middle of roll.7, the work piece
into the roll, it should be to prevent the hands and clothes were involved in the rolling rollers.
3, stopping Note1, If found abnormal noise when the machine running, should stop
immediately examine and adjust the repair.2, disconnect switch, cut off the power.3,
Stopping the work piece will be placed on designated locations.(Can not stop mc at any
location of work piece which can damage the work piece)
Boring Machine: Safety precautions
Chips are very hot with sharp edges and should not be moved by hands. Chips can cause
burns to the skin or damage to the eyes.Be sure that the insert and component is tight and
secured in its holder to prevent it coming loose during use. Too much overhang can result in
vibration and tool breakage.Use appropriate safety guards or machine encapsulations to
securely collect particles such as chips or cutting elements which may spin off.Make sure the
machine has required torque and power needed for rough boring operations with three cutting
edges, large depths of cut or large diameters.
S A F ET Y O PE R ATI N G PR OCE D U RES

Milling Machine
DO NOT use this machine unless a teacher has instructed

30
 you in its safe use and operation and has given
permission.
Safety glasses must be worn Long and loose hair must be
at all times in work areas. contained.

Sturdy footwear must be Close fitting/protective

worn at all times in work clothing must be worn.
areas.

Rings and jewellery must not Gloves must not be worn when
be worn. using this machine.

PRE-OPERATIONAL SAFETY CHECKS

1. Ensure no slip/trip hazards are present in workspaces and walkways.
2. Locate and ensure you are familiar with the operation of the ON/OFF starter and E-Stop
(if fitted).
3. Do not leave equipment on top of the machine.
4. Check that machine guards are in position.
5. Ensure cutter is in good condition and securely mounted.
6. Check coolant delivery system to allow for sufficient flow of coolant.
7. Faulty equipment must not be used. Immediately report suspect machinery.
OPERATIONAL SAFETY CHECKS
9. Keep clear of moving machine parts.
10. Never leave the machine running unattended.
11. Follow correct clamping procedures- keep overhangs as small as possible and check work
piece is secure.
12. Set the correct speed to suit the cutter diameter, the depth of cut and the material.
13. Before making adjustments and measurements or before cleaning swarf accumulations
switch off and bring the machine to a complete standstill.
HOUSEKEEPING
4. Switch off the machine.
5. Remove milling cutters and store them safely.
6. Leave the machine and work area in a safe, clean and tidy state.
POTENTIAL HAZARDS
◼
Sharp cutters ◼ Skin irritation
◼ Moving components - ◼ Metal splinters and burrs
hair/clothing entanglement ◼ Flying debris
◼ Eye injury
Associated hazards and their prevention:
Milling machines require special safety precautions while being used.
Do not make contact with the revolving cutter. Place a wooden pad or suitable cover
over the table surface to protect it from possible damage. Use the buddy system when
moving heavy attachments.

31
Do not attempt to tighten arbor nuts using machine power. When installing or removing
milling cutters, always hold them with a rag to prevent cutting your hands. While setting up
work, install the cutter last to avoid being cut. Never adjust the work piece or work mounting
devices when the machine is operating. Chips should be removed from the work piece with
an appropriate rake and a brush. Keep in mind these key points: Never use a horizontal
milling machine without an effective cutter guard. Always fix the work piece in a balanced
position on the table. If a vice is used it should be of robust construction and securely
attached to the table. Never remove safety limit stops or use them as length trip stops.
Always ensure that cutters are rotating in the correct direction Always stop the cutter spindle
when not actually cutting Always isolate the machine when changing a cutter or arbor use an
arbor support when required Handle milling cutters carefully - they have sharp edges
Always replace the gear train cover on a dividing head after adjustment Use knee braces
when required Never use a milling machine cutter with even one damaged tooth Never use
damaged adaptors, taper sockets, taper shanks, etc. Never remove a component from the
table by inserting the fingers in a tenon or tee slot. Always ensure that the draw bolt on a
vertical milling machine is properly engaged or tightened. NOTE Chip rake should be
fabricated to the size of the T-slots. As the professional manufacturer of complete sets of
mining machinery, such as jaw crushers, Henan Hanging is always doing the best in products
and service. hut the machine off before making any adjustments or measurements. When
using cutting oil, prevent splashing by using appropriate splash guards. Cutting oil on the
floor can cause a slippery condition that could result in operator injury.

Hand Tools and Power Tools

Causes and Control of Tool Accidents:
Causes of tool accidents and their safety aspects including ergonomic design are
important -
Main Causes of Tool Accidents:
Table 5.8 in Chapter-5 states that in India, injuries due to Hand Tools were 9 fatal and
10571 non-fatal i.e. total 8.25% in 1990 and 5 fatal and 3314 non-fatal i.e. total 5.47% in
1991.
Table 5.20 states 9 & 12 fatal accidents due to hand tools in Gujarat in 1996 .& 1997.
This comes to 4.91% & 4.89% respectively.
The last raw of Table 5.22 indicates that hand tool accidents (Causation No. 124)
were 4.52% (710 out of 15683) in Gujarat in 1994. Thus hand tools accidents vary from @ 4
to 8% each year which need to be controlled.
USA figures of deaths due to cutting or piercing instruments or objects were 103, 108
and 132 in the year 1994, 1993 and 1992. Percentage wise these were 0.11, 0.15 & 0.15
respectively. (Accident Facts, 1997, NSC).

32
 The causes and effects of hand tools accidents are eye injuries due to flying chips
from tools, puncture wounds and infections, cut injuries due to knives, chisels and hammers,
bone fractures due to defective or slipping wrenches and scratches due to scrap etc., cutting
of fingers, tendons and arteries, contusion etc.
Poor maintenance, incorrect tool, wrong use, carelessness, bad storage and poor
material are main causes of tool accidents.
Prevention & Control of Tool Accidents:
The main control measures are:
1 The right tool for the right job: Wrong methods are: To use file instead of pry,
wrench instead of hammer, pliers instead of wrench etc. This may cause accident. Therefore
it should be avoided.
2 Tools in good condition : Examples of poor condition are : Hammers with loose
handles, screw drivers and cutting tools with broken points or broken handles, wrenches with
cracked or worn jaws, dull saws, and flexible electric cables with splint insulation, broken
plugs, unearthed ground wire etc. Such conditions should be removed.
3 Tools used in the right way: Wrong ways are: Screw drivers applied to job (e.g. to
open a lid, to remove bearing), knives pulled toward the body and failure to ground electrical
equipment. Tools should be used in right way.
4 Tools kept in a safe place and safe way: Unsafe practices are: Tools kept overhead
so as to fall; chisels and other sharp tools kept in pocket or left in tool boxes with cutting
edges exposed. They should be kept in a proper way.
5 Good housekeeping for orderly layout and cleanliness: Haphazard lying of tools
anywhere, leaving tools at the workplace after completion of the job, slippery surface not
cleaned, tools kept in aisles or walkways etc. are common causes of tool accidents. Tools
should be kept orderly.
The supervisors and workers should be trained
1. To wear safety goggles, face shield, helmet etc as per requirement.
2. To select the right tools for each job and their right use. To return the tools after
use.
3. To guard, inspect, repair and maintain tools in safe condition.
4. To use the proper storage facilities in the too room and on the work place.
5. To put the tools in such a way that they can be readily available.
6. To scrap and replace the tools when worn.
7. To check out tools at cribs.

33
 8. To store in safe condition when not in use.
Centralized and Personal Tool Issue System:
The main advantage of such tool control is the uniform inspection and maintenance of tools
by a trained man. It facilitates the effective records of tool failure, accident causes and
suggestions for improvement. It provides positive control than scattered storage. Tools are
well maintained and less exposed to damage, deterioration .and falling hazards.
The central tool control room attendant can advise and issue the right type of tool, ask to
return the damaged or worn tool and encourage the safe use of tools. He can also suggest the
appropriate type of personal protective equipment at the time of issuing the tool and make
arrangement to get clean and to well maintain the tools after and before issue.
Methods of service repair and reconditioning should be established. Supervisors should
frequently, at least weekly, inspect all tools and remove from service those found damaged. A
checklist of inspection can also be designed and used.
It is the employer's responsibility to see that the employees are provided with and use the safe
tools in safe methods.
Purchase, Storage and Supply of Tools:
Careful purchase of hand tools can eliminate hazards from beginning. Standard (IS & others)
and approved type of tools should be ordered for purchase. Material of construction, quality,
durability, ergonomic design, good handle and insulation, effective cutting edge and electrical
safety with electrical tools are some of the points for better selection. Purchase of tool boxes,
chests, cabinets, belts and pouches also needs attention. In-
charge of a central purchase department should fix the criteria
or guidelines for best quality tools. Advice of the safety
committee and experienced supervisors and workers should
also be taken.
Storage of tools should be in a dry cool place and away from
any chemical effect. Tools should be kept in a tool box. Proper
cupboard, rack or shelves should be used to put tool boxes.
Shelves may be movable so that workers can reach all sections to get their tool boxes out.
Tool boxes should be used to put and carry the tools. A tool box should have handle, catch or
a hasp and locking arrangement. Bigger tool boxes having more drawers or trays are called
tool chests. Mobile tool cabinets are bigger tool chests and move on wheels. Depending on
size, weight and number of tools, proper type of tool box, chest or cabinet should be selected.

34
Supply of tools may be from a central tool room or through supervisors on need-base system
or allotted to the worker to keep with him in his tool box. It should be ensured that the tool
should be of good quality and in safe and good working condition. Supply includes
replacement of damaged or worn tools. A record of purchase date, service condition, repair
and maintenance can be useful in this regard.
Tools should be in sufficient number so that it can be supplied or replaced individually and
work is not suffered because of any waiting time. If this is not possible, working time of the
tool should be so scattered and planned to minimize the waiting period. Time of supply
should be during working hours and suitable to the workers.
Inspection, Maintenance and Repairs of Tools :
The tool room attendant or tool inspector should be qualified by
training and experience to pass judgement on the causes or defects
of tool failure stated above and condition of tools for further use. No
dull or damaged tools should be given for work.
Efficient tool control requires periodic inspection of all tool
operations. Responsibility for such periodic inspection should be
placed with a top man, preferably the department head and should not be delegated by him..
Hand tools receiving the heaviest wear, such as chisels, wrenches, hammers, sledges, star-
drills, blacksmith's tools and cold cutters require frequent maintenance on a regular schedule.
Repair facilities require work benches, vices, hardening or tempering furnace or forge,
tempering baths, goggles, repair tools, grinders, fasteners and good lighting. Enough stock
should be maintained to replace and issue safe tools.
Tempering, Safe Ending, Dressing and Handles of Tools :
Tempering of Tools: Hammer-struck and striking tools (chisels, stamps/punches,
cutters, hammers, sledges and rock drills) should be made of carefully selected steel and heat-
treated so that they are hard enough to withstand blows without mushrooming excessively
and yet not be so hard that they chip or crack.
For safety, it is better that shock tools, some of which can be dressed frequently, be a
little soft rather than too hard, because a chip may fly from an excessively hard tool without
warning when the tool is struck with a hammer or sledge.
Forming and tempering of tools is a skilled operation. Before heat-treating any tool,
the exact analysis of tool or recommendations for its proper heat treatment should be
obtained.
Safe-ending of Tools : Hammer-struck tools, such as chisels, rock drills, flatters,
wedges, punches, cold cutters and number dies should have heads properly hardened by a
qualified workman. The hazard of burred heads can be reduced by safe-ending the tool. This
can be quickly and economically achieved by grinding or flame cutting a shoulder recess
about 1/8 inch wide and 1/4 inch deep into the tool head and then bronze-welding it. The
proper base-metal temperature for bronze-welding is 1600° to 1700° F. The correct

35
temperature is indicated by a bright red colour when the tool is looked at through dark glasses
in the light of oxyacetylene flame.
Short sections of tight-fitting rubber hose can also be set flush with the striking ends
of hammer-struck tools to keep chips from flying.
Dressing of Tools: Shock, cutting and pointed tools require regular maintenance of
their edges or striking surfaces. Once the cutting or striking surfaces have been properly
hardened and tempered, only an emery wheel, grindstone, file or oilstone need be used to
keep the head in shape and the edges clean and sharp. Proper precautions should be taken
before grinding hardened tools. They should not be ground until they have been drawn or
tempered. Grinding should be done in easy stages with no attempt to take off much metal at
one time. While grinding, the tool should be kept as cool as possible with water or other
cooling medium. The manufacturer's recommendations for type and kind of grinding wheel
should be followed. Each cutting edge should have the correct angle according to its use and
be finished off with a file.
Redressing of Tools: Redressing or reshaping of tool edges or surfaces which are
badly damaged is not recommended. It should be discarded.
Procedure for correct redressing of dull cutting edges is as under :
1. The tool edge should be supported firmly.
2. File or stone away from the cutting edge. Do not use a grinding wheel.
3. Restore the original contour of the cutting edge.
Handles: The handles of the tools should be of the best straight-grained material.
Fitting of handles is very important. Poorly fitted handles make it difficult for the worker to
control the tool. Design criteria for handle are its shape, diameter, length, angulations, texture
and ergonomic aspects for convenience and safe use.
Handles should be fitted or replaced by an experienced person. Long use or shrinkage
can loosen the handle. Wedges can be inserted in gap, tool head can be further driven in the
handle with wedges reset and the protruding end of the handle cut off. If this is not possible a
new similar handle, should be fitted after removing the old one.
Selection, Inspection, Maintenance and Repairs :
Information and training to select right tool for the right job is necessary. If a small
hole is to be drilled and if it is easily possible by a hand drill, power drill is not necessary.
Manual hazards are less serious than the power hazards.
Tool supplier should be given complete information about the job for which a tool is
required so that he can recommend the most appropriate tool for that job.
Normally portable power tools are to be used on light or home work. For continuous
operation and production service or heavy work, 'industrial duty' tools are selected.
Periodic inspections are necessary to find defects and to keep the tool in good
working condition. Then it serves the purpose of preventive maintenance. It prevents hazards
and costly breakdowns. Defective tools should be tagged and repaired.
Record of date of inspection, fault noticed and date of repair is necessary. Cause of
fault and detail of repair carried out can also be added to such record.

36
 Workers should be trained to inspect tools, identify defects, report and repair. They
should be warned not to do makeshift repairs and to do no repair work unless authorised.
For cleaning purpose non flammable and nontoxic solvent should be used.
Inspection Checklist
General: Low voltage equipment used in tanks and wet area? Tools well maintained?
Motors in good condition? Approved tools used in explosive atmosphere? Tools left where
they cannot fall?
Cords: Insulation, plugs and sockets unbroken? Cords protected against trucks & oil?
Cords not in aisle?
Grounding: Ground wire fastener in safe condition? 3-wire plug extension cord?
Defects or minor shocks reported?
Guarding: Guards used on grinders & saws? Movable guards operate freely? Eye &
face protection worn?
Use of Personal Protective Equipment:
Gloves, loose clothing and jeweler should not be worn by workers using revolving
tools such as drills, saws and grinders. The weight of most power tools makes it advisable for
users to wear safety shoes (with steel toe) to reduce chances of injury, if the tool falls or
drops.
While working at overhead places with power tools, the operator should wear a safety
belt and use a good platform or support.
Dust type respirators should be worn on buffing, grinding or sanding jobs which
produce harmful dusts. Ear protection is necessary at high noise levels.
Safety goggles or face shields should be worn for work on grinders, buffing wheels
and scratch brushes because the unusual positions in which the wheel operates will cause
particles to be thrown off in all directions. For this reason, protective equipment is even more
important than it is for work on stationary grinders.
Eye protection equipment (safety goggles or face shields) is a must in all operations
where hardened metal tools are struck together, where wood working or other cutting tools
are used, where anything is struck by a metal hand tool, or where the cutting action of a tool
causes particles to fly. Clothing should be free of oil, solvents or frayed edges to minimise
fire hazard from sparks.
Tempering, Safe Ending, Dressing and Handles of Tools :
Tempering of Tools: Hammer-struck and striking tools (chisels, stamps/punches,
cutters, hammers, sledges and rock drills) should be made of carefully selected steel and heat-
treated so that they are hard enough to withstand blows without mushrooming excessively
and yet not be so hard that they chip or crack.
For safety, it is better that shock tools, some of which can be dressed frequently, be a
little soft rather than too hard, because a chip may fly from an excessively hard tool without
warning when the tool is struck with a hammer or sledge.
Forming and tempering of tools is a skilled operation. Before heat-treating any tool,
the exact analysis of tool or recommendations for its proper heat treatment should be
obtained.

37
 Safe-ending of Tools : Hammer-struck tools, such as chisels, rock drills, flatters,
wedges, punches, cold cutters and number dies should have heads properly hardened by a
qualified workman. The hazard of burred heads can be reduced by safe-ending the tool. This
can be quickly and economically achieved by grinding or flame cutting a shoulder recess
about 1/8 inch wide and 1/4 inch deep into the tool head and then bronze-welding it. The
proper base-metal temperature for bronze-welding is 1600° to 1700° F. The correct
temperature is indicated by a bright red colour when the tool is looked at through dark glasses
in the light of oxyacetylene flame.
Short sections of tight-fitting rubber hose can also be set flush with the striking ends
of hammer-struck tools to keep chips from flying.
Dressing of Tools : Shock, cutting and pointed tools require regular maintenance of
their edges or striking surfaces. Once the cutting or striking surfaces have been properly
hardened and tempered, only an emery wheel, grindstone, file or oilstone need be used to
keep the head in shape and the edges clean and sharp. Proper precautions should be taken
before grinding hardened tools. They should not be ground until they have been drawn or
tempered. Grinding should be done in easy stages with no attempt to take off much metal at
one time. While grinding, the tool should be kept as cool as possible with water or other
cooling medium. The manufacturer's recommendations for type and kind of grinding wheel
should be followed. Each cutting edge should have the correct angle according to its use and
be finished off with a file.
Redressing of Tools : Redressing or reshaping of tool edges or surfaces which are
badly damaged is not recommended. It should be discarded.
Procedure for correct redressing of dull cutting edges is as under :
1. The tool edge should be supported firmly.
2. File or stone away from the cutting edge. Do not use a grinding wheel.
3. Restore the original contour of the cutting edge.
Handles : The handles of the tools should be of the best straight-grained material.
Fitting of handles is very important. Poorly fitted handles make it difficult for the worker to
control the tool. Design criteria for handle are its shape, diameter, length, angulations, texture
and ergonomic aspects for convenience and safe use.
Handles should be fitted or replaced by an experienced person. Long use or shrinkage
can loosen the handle. Wedges can be inserted in gap, tool head can be further driven in the
handle with wedges reset and the protruding end of the handle cut off. If this is not possible a
new similar handle, should be fitted after removing the old one.
Types and Safe Use of Hand Tools:
(A) Metal Cutting Tools :
These are chisels, stamping and marking tools, tap and die work, hacksaws, files, hand snips
and cutters.
Factors of selection and safe use are : Materials to be cut, size and shape of the tool,
depth of cut, sponge rubber shield or combination of rubber hand grips and shields on
hammer struck tools, use of chisel holder or tong, safety goggles, vice, wrench, right type of
file with smooth handle, lubrication on cutters etc.

38
 The flat chisel should have its cutting edge slightly convex. All chisels (flat, cold,
diamond point or cape type) should be strong enough so as not to bend when struck. Striking
face of the hammer should be slightly larger (9 mm by dia) than the struck face of the chisel.
Bull chisel should be held by tongs or chisel holder to save the holder from injury.
Stamping and marking tools should be held by tool holder to keep fingers away
from the tool being struck.
In tap and die work, hands should be kept away from broken tap ends and threads
being cut.
Hack saws should be properly tightened in the frame to prevent buckling and
breaking. Select proper blade (teeth per inch) for the proper metal (hard or soft) to be cut.
Pressure should be applied on forward stroke only. Cutting speed of 40 to 60 strokes per
minute is proper.
Selection of correct file for the job can prevent injuries, increase production and file life. A
file should

not be hammered or used as a pray. It should not be used as a punch, chisel or other tool
because the hardened steel may fracture in that way.
39
 Jaws of hand snips should be kept tight and well lubricated. Do not hammer on the
handles or jaws of the snips. Safety goggles and leather or canvas gloves are necessary.
Cutters should be used to cut at right angles only. They need frequent lubrication and
should not be used as nail pullers or pray bars.
(B) Wood Cutting Tools :
These are wood chisels, saws, axes, adzes and hatches.
Factors of safe use are : Proper method of holding and using the tool, splinters free
handles, nail detection, sheath or metal guard on axe blade, use of safety goggles, sharp and
proper cutting angle. Do not drop the tools.
The wood to be cut should be free of nails to avoid damage to the cutting edge. A
wood chisel should not be used as a pry or wedge, otherwise the hard steel may break.
Proper saw (crosscut or ripping) should be selected. When not in use, saws should be
wiped off with an oily rag and kept in racks or hang by handle. Nails should ,be cut by metal
cutting saws.
Axes and hatches are designed to cut, trim or prune trees and soft wood. Their cutting
edges should not strike against metal, stone or concrete. A narrow - bladed axe is used for
hard wood and a wide axe for soft wood. Safety shoes, goggles and thick pants should be
worn while using an axe.
Adzes are hazardous tools and should be used by trained workers only. Safety shoes,
shin guards and safety goggles are necessary. When not in use, it should be set aside in a safe
place with its cutting edge covered or left stuck in the timber.
(C) Material Handling Tools :
These are crow bars, jacks, hooks, shovels and rakes.
Factors of safe use are : Proper size and type of the tool and its handle, solid footing and'
lubricating of jack, shielded point of the hook, trimmed edges and polished handles of
shovels.
A crowbar has a point toe to grip the object to be moved and a heel to act as a pivot or
fulcrum. Sometimes a wooden block may be placed -under the heel to prevent the crowbar
from slipping and injuring hand.
Hooks should be sharp so that they should not slip when applied. Handles should be strong
and properly shaped and attached.Shovels should be used by proper leg positions so as not to
lose balance. Edges should be trimmed and handles without splinters.
(D) Hand feed tools:
To protect hand and fingers while working with power presses, rolling mills, press
brakes, banding machines and other machineries and also working with hot matels, hand feed
tools are used. They are shown in fig. 17.2.
(E) Torsion Tools:
These are adjustable wrenches (spanners), pipe wrenches, pipe tongs, machine
wrench, torque wrenches, socket wrenches, open end or box wrenches, pliers, tongs, special
cutters, nail band crimpers and screw drivers.
Factors of safe use are:Sharp jaws of wrenches, inspection of adjusting nut of the
wrench, correct size of the wrench and not to change its dimension, insulated handles of
electricians' pliers and screw drivers and screw driver not using for other purposes. A screw

40
driver tip must be properly ground. The user should not lose balance on slipping of tool or the
job.
Box and socket wrench (spanner)
completely encircles the nut, bolt or
fitting and grip it at all corners as
opposed to the two corners grip by an
open-end wrench. They cannot easily
slip.
Wrench capacity should not be
overloaded by using pipe extension on
the handle or striking the handle as
normally bus drivers do. For heavy duty
work, sledge-type box wrenches are
available. Penetrating oil (kerosene)
should be used first to loosen tight nuts.
The use of the wrong size wrench
can round the corners of the bolt or cause
slippage and. make its subsequent use
difficult. Makeshift approach is not
good.
Adjustable wrenches should be
used for light duty jobs where no fixed
spanner is available.
For the reason of safety,
wrenches should be pulled toward the
self and not pushed.
Pipe wrenches should be prevented from slipping and falling. Its adjusting nut should
be checked frequently. If it is cracked, the wrench should be withdrawn from the use. A pipe
wrench should be used for pipes and their fittings only and not for nuts and bolts because
their corners can break the teeth of the wrench, thereby making it unsafe to use later for pipe
work. It should also not be used for soft metal (brass, copper) valves or fitting which can be
crushed or bent out of shape.Pliers are meant for gripping and cutting operations and should
not be used as wrenches. A guard cover on cutting edge of side-cutting pliers can prevent
flying short ends. Pliers for electrical work must be insulated and simultaneous use of
electrician's shock-proof gloves is also necessary.
Pullers are used to pull out gear, wheel, pulley, bearing etc. from a shaft. Prybars and
chisels should not be used for this purpose.
Screwdriver tip must be properly ground to fit the slot and it should be of the correct
size for the head. Handle should not be hammered. For electrical work, handle should be
insulated. Screws should not be over tightened to avoid slipping.
(F) Shock Tools:
These are hammers, sledge hammers, riveting hammers, carpenter's or claw hammers.
The handles should be smooth and of proper size.

41
(G) Non-Sparking Tools for Hazardous area :
Such tools of non-ferrous (Beryllium, copper alloy, brass, copper, lead, plastic,
rubber) materials are used where flammable gases, volatile liquids and explosive substances
are stored or used. They should be kept free of picked up foreign particles to avoid friction
sparks.
Hazardous area classification (Part 8.1 of Chapter II) should be known first before
selecting hand tools. In most hazardous area where high risk of fire or explosion exists, non
metalic ie. wood, rubber or plastic tools should be used if possible and proper earthing of
equipment should be ensured. There should be flameproof electric lighting arid if hand lamp
is to be used, it should not be of more than 24 V. Working in day lighting should be
preferred.
For use of welding/cutting tools, statutory provisions (viz. Sch. 24 of GFR) should be strictly
followed.Necessary PPE for working in hazardous area should also be used.
They cannot be used to apply heavy stroke. Therefore careful use is necessary. It should be
properly selected.
(H) Miscellaneous Cutting Tools :
Planes, scrapers, bits, drawknives, ice picks and brad awl are used for special
purposes.
Knife accidents are many. A handle guard or finger ring on the handle of knife and
the cutting stroke away from the body are desirable. Knives should be carried over the right
or left hip toward the back. This will prevent severing a leg artery or vein in case of fall.
Knives should not be kept mixed with other tools. Knives should not be used in place of
screwdrivers, can openers or ice picks.
All such tools should be kept sharp and in good condition. When not in use, they
should be placed in a rack on the bench or in a tool box in such a way that will protect the
user as well as the cutting edge.
Carton cutters are safer than hooked or pocket knives for opening cartons as they
eliminate deep cuts that could damage inner contents.
While walking or climbing on ladders, workers should use a strong bag, bucket, tool
hoist belt or pouch to hold tools safely and to keep both hands free for safe moving and
working. Sharp tools should not be put in pockets. Tools shall never be thrown on ground.
Tools should not be put on vibrating or slippery overhead surfaces, ladder step, scaffold
plank, overhead piping or part of any structure or machine from .which they can easily fall or
hurt.
While giving tool to another person, the handle should be toward the receiver. While
turning around, care should be taken not to strike others.
Misuse of hand tools can cause injuries. Use of hand tool with power driven
machinery (e.g. lathe) should be controlled. Training is necessary for their safe handling and
use. Use of safety goggles and setting up a shield or screen to prevent injury to others from
flying particles, sparks, excessive light, radiation etc. are also required.
Causes of Tool Failure:
Root causes are : overheating or under heating while forging of steel when it was
hardened, cracks from improper forging, improper tampering, failure to relieve stresses in
forging, improper quenching, incorrect angle of cutting edge or steel of poor quality.

42
 Defects of these types will be found in tools of inferior construction, which, because
of breakage and inefficiency, are more expensive in the long run than are tools of the best
quality obtainable.
Detectable causes are:
• Inadequate dimension of the work- • Handle loose to hold the head of the
bench to facilitate all operations. Hammer
• Working without concentration (Day • Blunt edge of Screw driver & Chisel
Dreaming) • Throwing tools instead of handovering
• Tools not kept in it‘s designated proper to an operator
place (Tool box) • Speeding of grinder over Safe working
• Drill not inserted Systematically in the speed
chunk of Drilling machine • Cracks on the grinding wheel
• Using Chisel with Mushroomed head.
Power Tools:
Tools working on electric power can be termed as shock tools
SAFETY SWITCHES ON SHOCK TOOLS
1. Momentary contact "on-off" control switch: Ondrills, tappers, fastener drivers,
horizontal, vertical and angle grinders with wheels larger than 2 inches in diameter,
disc and belt sanders, reciprocating saws, saber saws, and other similar tools.
2. Positive "on-off" control switch: On disc sanders with discs 2 inches or less in
diameter; grinders with wheels 2 inches or less in diameter; platen sanders, routers,
planers, laminate trimmers, nibblers, shears, scroll saws and jigsaws with blade
shanks one-fourth of an inch wide or less.
3. Constant pressure switch On circular saws having a blade diameter greater than 2
inches, chain saws, and percussion tools without positive accessory holding means
must be equipped with a constant pressure switch that will shut off the power when
the pressure is released.
ELECTRIC TOOLS (e.g. Drill)
The most serious danger from electric tools is the possibility of
electrocution.
Hazards of electric-powered tools
• burns
• Slight shocks which can lead to injuries
• Heart failure. even a small amount of current can result

43
 infibrillation of the heart and eventual death.
• User to fall off a ladder or other elevated work surface.
Protection: To protect the user from shock, tools must have
• Three-wire cord pin with ground and be grounded.
• Double insulated wires
• Powered by a low-voltage isolation transformer.
• Three-wire cords contain two current-carrying conductors and a grounding conductor.
• One end of the grounding conductor connects to the tool's metal housing.
▪ The other end is grounded through a prong on the plug which should never be
removed from the plug.
▪ Electric tools should be operated within their design limitations.
▪ Gloves and safety footwear are recommended during use of electric tools.
▪ When not in use, tools should be stored in a dry place.
▪ Electric tools should not be used in damp or wet locations.
▪ Work areas should be well lighted.
POWERED ABRASIVE WHEEL TOOLS(e.g. grinding, cutting, polishing, buffing)
Hazard:
• Powered abrasive wheels may throw off flying fragments during operation if cracks
are developed
Protection:
• Before an abrasive wheel is mounted, it should be inspected closely and sound- or
ring-tested to be sure that it is free from cracks or defects. To test, wheels should be
tapped gently with a light non-metallic instrument. If they sound cracked or dead,
they could fly apart in operation and so must not be used. A sound and undamaged
wheel will give a clear metallic tone or "ring."
• To prevent the wheel from cracking, be sure that it fits freely on the spindle.
• The spindle nut must be tightened enough to hold the wheel in place, without
distorting the flange.
• Follow the manufacturer's recommendations.
• Care must be taken to assure that the spindle wheel will not exceed the abrasive wheel
specifications(viz. Speed)

44
 • Due to the possibility of a wheel disintegrating (exploding) during start-up, the
employee should never stand directly in front of the wheel as it accelerates to full
operating speed.
• Portable grinding tools need to be equipped with safety guards to protect workers not
only from the moving wheel surface, but also from flying fragments in case of
breakage.
In addition, when using a powered grinder:
▪ Always use eye protection.
▪ Turn off the power when not in use.
▪ Never clamp a hand-held grinder in a vise.
GENERAL SAFETY PRECAUTIONS
General Hazards:
Employees who use hand and power tools and who are exposed to the hazards like
• falling,
• flying, abrasive and splashing objects,
• exposed to harmful dusts, fumes, mists, vapors, or gases
Protection:
Hazards involved in use of power tools can be prevented by following five basic safety rules:
▪ Keep all tools in good condition with regular maintenance.
▪ Use the right tool for the job.
▪ Examine each tool for damage before use.
▪ Operate according to the manufacturer's instructions.
▪ Provide and use the proper protective equipment.
Employees and employers have a responsibility to work together to establish safe working
procedures. If a hazardous situation is encountered, it should be brought to the attention of
the proper individual immediately.
What is a "non-sparking" tool?
"Non-sparking", "spark reduced", "spark-resistant" or "spark-proof" tools are names given to
tools made of metals such as brass, bronze, Monel metal (copper-nickel alloy), copper-
aluminum alloys (aluminum bronze), or copper-beryllium alloys (beryllium bronze).
Titanium tools are ideal for service engineers working regularly on magnetic resonance
scanning equipment and also equipment in the nuclear industry
"Non-sparking" metals have less tensile strength than steels usually used to make tools. A
lower tensile strength means the metal has less strength or resistance to tearing apart when

45
 stretched under test conditions. It also means that these tools are softer, wear down more
quickly than ordinary steel tools, and have to be dressed more frequently.
What is the most important thing to know about "non-sparking" tools?
Non-sparking tools also generate sparks sometimes referred to as ―cold sparks‖. These cold
sparks have a low heat level and do not ignite carbon disulfide, which has the lowest ignition
point. The name "non-sparking" is misleading. The term "reduced-sparking tools" is proper.
Non-metals like wood, leather, and plastic do not pose a friction spark hazard are suitable for
some tools like shovels, scrapers or scoops
Non-sparking tools provide protection against fires and explosions in environments where
there is a concern about sparks igniting flammable solvents, vapors, liquids, dusts or residues.
There are many standards and recommendations that have been published by OSHA
(Occupational Health and Safety Administration) and NFPA (National Fire Protection
Association) that advise the use of non-sparking tools in hazardous environments.
What are the hazards of both "sparking" and "non-sparking" tools?
1. Ignition by friction, on each other or on steel or concrete, in which an "ordinary"
(mechanical or frictional) spark is generated. All tools can ignite flammable mixtures by
sparks generated by friction or impact. However, this is true only when the generated spark is
incendive: that means a spark that has to have enough heat content (i.e., enough mass and
sufficiently high temperature) and has to last long enough to heat a flammable air-vapour
mixture above its ignition temperature. This is more likely in the case of sparks formed when
using a metal grinder that a spark generated when a hammer strikes some metal.
2. Ignition by a chemically-generated spark, caused by impact between certain metals
and some oxygen-containing substances (such as rust, which is iron oxide).
How should you use and maintain "non-sparking" tools?
Follow the guidelines below to reduce the risk of explosion and fire.
• Make sure all "non-sparking" tools are kept clean and free from ferrous or other
contaminants, which may hamper the non-sparking properties.
• Do not use non-sparking hand tools in direct contact with acetylene, which may form
explosive acetylides, especially in the presence of moisture.
• Use local or mechanical ventilation systems as appropriate to remove hazardous
materials, dusts and vapors from the workplace.
• Follow normal safety procedures when sharpening non-sparking tools such as the
provision of eye and face protection, adequate extraction and dust collection facilities.
What is the best safeguard against accidental explosions?

46
Follow safe work procedures. Use proper tools and equipment that eliminate ignition such as
electric motors as "explosion proof" & non-sparking tools with proper use and maintenance. In
any work where flames are used, or sparks are produced, make sure that an explosive
atmosphere does not develop. Such atmospheres include flammable vapour-air mixtures and
organic dust clouds like flour or coal dust. Isolation, ventilation and purging are methods of
insuring a safe working atmosphere. Use explosimeters (to ensure Explosive Limit of the
atmosphere to protect those working in hazardous environments.

Spark Resistant & Non Magnetic Tools Industries We

Non Sparking Tools
Safety Tools supply a comprehensive
range of intrinsically safe Spark
Resistant hand tools for use in all
ATEX
category zones. Sometimes referred
to as
Non Sparking or Non Spark tools,
they
are designed for use in hazardous and
potentially explosive areas where
sparks
could ignite volatile materials,
chemicals
or gases.
Spark Resistant or Non Sparking
tools
are available in Beryllium Copper,
Aluminium Bronze and for more
specific
applications such as wire brushes
Phosphor Bronze is also used. Due to
their special composition, these tools
also exhibit excellent resistance to
corrosion in chemical, acidic,
alkaline
and atmospheric conditions that can
compromise the performance of steel
or
Beryllium Copper also exhibits excellent
Supply
non-magnetic qualities and can be used in
The use of Spark Resistant or
areas where eddy currents and magnetic
Non Sparking hand tools is
fields can interfere with today's
not limited just to the
sophisticated instrumentation. Beryllium
Offshore Oil and Gas
Copper tools are used in Explosive
industry. Many modern
Ordnance Disposal (EOD) toolkits when
industrial processes now
dealing with unexploded bombs and
require the use of Spark
devices.
Resistant tools either during
Non-Magnetic tools made from Titanium
production or when carrying
are also available. Not only are they lighter
out routine maintenance.
than conventional tools but also harder
Other industries include
wearing than copper based non-magnetic
refineries, breweries and
tools.
distilleries, explosives and
Titanium tools are ideal for service
pyrotechnics, natural gas
engineers working regularly on magnetic
plants, nuclear industry, paint
resonance scanning equipment and also
and varnish manufactures,
equipment in the nuclear industry.
pharmaceuticals, power
Insulated Tools generation plants for use in
Also available is a large range of insulated areas where hydrogen is
tools designed and tested to meet the present and the water supply
requirements of IEC 60900:2004 for 1,000 industry for use in areas
volt safe working on live line electrical where methane gas is present.
equipment. Wherever undesirable sparks
Stainless Steel Tools are to be avoided, spark
resistant hand tools offer an
A range of Stainless Steel tools has recently
effective and economical way
been introduced for use in the food
of protecting operatives and
industry, marine environments and for use
expensive plant and
with Stainless Steel fixtures and fittings.

47
iron based tools. equipment from the risk of
fire an explosions.

Causes and Control of Tool Accidents:

Causes of tool accidents and their safety aspects including ergonomic design are
important -
Main Causes of Tool Accidents:
Table 5.8 in Chapter-5 states that in India, injuries due to Hand Tools were 9 fatal and
10571 non-fatal i.e. total 8.25% in 1990 and 5 fatal and 3314 non-fatal i.e. total 5.47% in
1991.
Table 5.20 states 9 & 12 fatal accidents due to hand tools in Gujarat in 1996 .& 1997.
This comes to 4.91% & 4.89% respectively.
The last raw of Table 5.22 indicates that hand tool accidents (Causation No. 124)
were 4.52% (710 out of 15683) in Gujarat in 1994. Thus hand tools accidents vary from @ 4
to 8% each year which need to be controlled.
USA figures of deaths due to cutting or piercing instruments or objects were 103, 108
and 132 in the year 1994, 1993 and 1992. Percentage wise these were 0.11, 0.15 & 0.15
respectively. (Accident Facts, 1997, NSC).
The causes and effects of hand tools accidents are eye injuries due to flying chips
from tools, puncture wounds and infections, cut injuries due to knives, chisels and hammers,
bone fractures due to defective or slipping wrenches and scratches due to scrap etc., cutting
of fingers, tendons and arteries, contusion etc.
Poor maintenance, incorrect tool, wrong use, carelessness, bad storage and poor
material are main causes of tool accidents.
Prevention & Control of Tool Accidents:
The main control measures are:
1 The right tool for the right job: Wrong methods are: To use file instead of pry,
wrench instead of hammer, pliers instead of wrench etc. This may cause accident. Therefore
it should be avoided.
2 Tools in good condition : Examples of poor condition are : Hammers with loose
handles, screw drivers and cutting tools with broken points or broken handles, wrenches with
cracked or worn jaws, dull saws, and flexible electric cables with splint insulation, broken
plugs, unearthed ground wire etc. Such conditions should be removed.

48
 3 Tools used in the right way: Wrong ways are: Screw drivers applied to job (e.g. to
open a lid, to remove bearing), knives pulled toward the body and failure to ground electrical
equipment. Tools should be used in right way.
4 Tools kept in a safe place and safe way: Unsafe practices are: Tools kept overhead
so as to fall; chisels and other sharp tools kept in pocket or left in tool boxes with cutting
edges exposed. They should be kept in a proper way.
5 Good housekeeping for orderly layout and cleanliness: Haphazard lying of tools
anywhere, leaving tools at the workplace after completion of the job, slippery surface not
cleaned, tools kept in aisles or walkways etc. are common causes of tool accidents. Tools
should be kept orderly.
The supervisors and workers should be trained
1. To wear safety goggles, face shield, helmet etc as per requirement.
2. To select the right tools for each job and their right use. To return the tools after use.
3. To guard, inspect, repair and maintain tools in safe condition.
4. To use the proper storage facilities in the too room and on the work place.
5. To put the tools in such a way that they can be readily available.
6. To scrap and replace the tools when worn.
7. To check out tools at cribs.
8. To store in safe condition when not in use.
Centralized and Personal Tool Issue System:
The main advantage of such tool control is the uniform inspection and maintenance of
tools by a trained man. It facilitates the effective records of tool failure, accident causes and
suggestions for improvement. It provides positive control than scattered storage. Tools are
well maintained and less exposed to damage, deterioration .and falling hazards.
The central tool control room attendant can advise and issue the right type of tool, ask
to return the damaged or worn tool and encourage the safe use of tools. He can also suggest
the appropriate type of personal protective equipment at the time of issuing the tool and make
arrangement to get clean and to well maintain the tools after and before issue.
Methods of service, repair and reconditioning should be established. Supervisors
should frequently, at least weekly, inspect all tools and remove from service those found
damaged. A checklist of inspection can also be designed and used.
It is the employer's responsibility to see that the employees are provided with and use
the safe tools in safe methods.

49
Purchase, Storage and Supply of Tools:
Careful purchase of hand tools can eliminate hazards from beginning. Standard (IS &
others) and approved type of tools should be ordered for purchase. Material of construction,
quality, durability, ergonomic design, good handle and insulation, effective cutting edge and
electrical safety with electrical tools are some of the points for better selection. Purchase of
tool boxes, chests, cabinets, belts and pouches also needs attention. In-charge of a central
purchase department should fix the criteria or guidelines for best quality tools. Advice of the
safety committee and experienced supervisors and workers should also be taken.
Storage of tools should be in a dry cool place and away
from any chemical effect. Tools should be kept in a tool box.
Proper cupboard, rack or shelves should be used to put tool
boxes. Shelves may be movable so that workers can reach all
sections to get their tool boxes out.
Tool boxes should be used to put and carry the tools. A
tool box should have handle, catch or a hasp and locking
arrangement. Bigger tool boxes having more drawers or trays are
called tool chests. Mobile tool cabinets are bigger tool chests
and move on wheels. Depending on size, weight and number of
tools, proper type of tool box, chest or cabinet should be
selected.
Supply of tools may be from a central tool room or through supervisors on need-base
system or allotted to the worker to keep with him in his tool box. It should be ensured that the
tool should be of good quality and in safe and good working condition. Supply includes
replacement of damaged or worn tools. A record of purchase date, service condition, repair
and maintenance can be useful in this regard.
Tools should be in sufficient number so that it can be supplied or replaced
individually and work is not suffered because of any waiting time. If this is not possible,
working time of the tool should be so scattered and planned to minimize the waiting period.
Time of supply should be during working hours and suitable to the workers.
Inspection, Maintenance and Repairs of Tools :
The tool room attendant or tool inspector should be
qualified by training and experience to pass judgement on the
causes or defects of tool failure stated above and condition of tools
for further use. No dull or damaged tools should be given for
work.
Efficient tool control requires periodic inspection of all
tool operations. Responsibility for such periodic inspection should
be placed with a top man, preferably the department head and
should not be delegated by him..
Hand tools receiving the heaviest wear, such as chisels,
wrenches, hammers, sledges, star-drills, blacksmith's tools and cold cutters require frequent
maintenance on a regular schedule.

50
 Repair facilities require work benches, vices, hardening or tempering furnace or forge,
tempering baths, goggles, repair tools, grinders, fasteners and good lighting. Enough stock
should be maintained to replace and issue safe tools.
Tempering, Safe Ending, Dressing and Handles of Tools :
Tempering of Tools: Hammer-struck and striking tools (chisels, stamps/punches,
cutters, hammers, sledges and rock drills) should be made of carefully selected steel and heat-
treated so that they are hard enough to withstand blows without mushrooming excessively
and yet not be so hard that they chip or crack.
For safety, it is better that shock tools, some of which can be dressed frequently, be a
little soft rather than too hard, because a chip may fly from an excessively hard tool without
warning when the tool is struck with a hammer or sledge.
Forming and tempering of tools is a skilled operation. Before heat-treating any tool,
the exact analysis of tool or recommendations for its proper heat treatment should be
obtained.
Safe-ending of Tools : Hammer-struck tools, such as chisels, rock drills, flatters,
wedges, punches, cold cutters and number dies should have heads properly hardened by a
qualified workman. The hazard of burred heads can be reduced by safe-ending the tool. This
can be quickly and economically achieved by grinding or flame cutting a shoulder recess
about 1/8 inch wide and 1/4 inch deep into the tool head and then bronze-welding it. The
proper base-metal temperature for bronze-welding is 1600° to 1700° F. The correct
temperature is indicated by a bright red colour when the tool is looked at through dark glasses
in the light of oxyacetylene flame.
Short sections of tight-fitting rubber hose can also be set flush with the striking ends
of hammer-struck tools to keep chips from flying.
Dressing of Tools: Shock, cutting and pointed tools require regular maintenance of
their edges or striking surfaces. Once the cutting or striking surfaces have been properly
hardened and tempered, only an emery wheel, grindstone, file or oilstone need be used to
keep the head in shape and the edges clean and sharp. Proper precautions should be taken
before grinding hardened tools. They should not be ground until they have been drawn or
tempered. Grinding should be done in easy stages with no attempt to take off much metal at
one time. While grinding, the tool should be kept as cool as possible with water or other
cooling medium. The manufacturer's recommendations for type and kind of grinding wheel
should be followed. Each cutting edge should have the correct angle according to its use and
be finished off with a file.
Redressing of Tools: Redressing or reshaping of tool edges or surfaces which are
badly damaged is not recommended. It should be discarded.
Procedure for correct redressing of dull cutting edges is as under :
1. The tool edge should be supported firmly.
2. File or stone away from the cutting edge. Do not use a grinding wheel.
3. Restore the original contour of the cutting edge.
Handles: The handles of the tools should be of the best straight-grained material.
Fitting of handles is very important. Poorly fitted handles make it difficult for the worker to

51
control the tool. Design criteria for handle are its shape, diameter, length, angulations, texture
and ergonomic aspects for convenience and safe use.
Handles should be fitted or replaced by an experienced person. Long use or shrinkage
can loosen the handle. Wedges can be inserted in gap, tool head can be further driven in the
handle with wedges reset and the protruding end of the handle cut off. If this is not possible a
new similar handle, should be fitted after removing the old one.
Selection, Inspection, Maintenance and Repairs :
Information and training to select right tool for the right job is necessary. If a small
hole is to be drilled and if it is easily possible by a hand drill, power drill is not necessary.
Manual hazards are less serious than the power hazards.
Tool supplier should be given complete information about the job for which a tool is
required so that he can recommend the most appropriate tool for that job.
Normally portable power tools are to be used on light or home work. For continuous
operation and production service or heavy work, 'industrial duty' tools are selected.
Periodic inspections are necessary to find defects and to keep the tool in good
working condition. Then it serves the purpose of preventive maintenance. It prevents hazards
and costly breakdowns. Defective tools should be tagged and repaired.
Record of date of inspection, fault noticed and date of repair is necessary. Cause of
fault and detail of repair carried out can also be added to such record.
Workers should be trained to inspect tools, identify defects, report and repair. They
should be warned not to do makeshift repairs and to do no repair work unless authorised.
For cleaning purpose non flammable and nontoxic solvent should be used.
Inspection Checklist
General : Low voltage equipment used in tanks and wet area? Tools well maintained?
Motors in good condition? Approved tools used in explosive atmosphere? Tools left where
they cannot fall?
Cords : Insulation, plugs and sockets unbroken? Cords protected against trucks & oil?
Cords not in aisle?
Grounding : Ground wire fastener in safe condition? 3-wire plug extension cord?
Defects or minor shocks reported?
Guarding: Guards used on grinders & saws? Movable guards operate freely? Eye &
face protection worn?
Use of Personal Protective Equipment:
Gloves, loose clothing and jewellery should not be worn by workers using revolving
tools such as drills, saws and grinders. The weight of most power tools makes it advisable for
users to wear safety shoes (with steel toe) to reduce chances of injury, if the tool falls or
drops.
While working at overhead places with power tools, the operator should wear a safety
belt and use a good platform or support.
Dust type respirators should be worn on buffing, grinding or sanding jobs which
produce harmful dusts. Ear protection is necessary at high noise levels.
Safety goggles or face shields should be worn for work on grinders, buffing wheels
and scratch brushes because the unusual positions in which the wheel operates will cause

52
particles to be thrown off in all directions. For this reason, protective equipment is even more
important than it is for work on stationary grinders.
Eye protection equipment (safety goggles or face shields) is a must in all operations
where hardened metal tools are struck together, where wood working or other cutting tools
are used, where anything is struck by a metal hand tool, or where the cutting action of a tool
causes particles to fly. Clothing should be free of oil, solvents or frayed edges to minimise
fire hazard from sparks.
Tempering, Safe Ending, Dressing and Handles of Tools :
Tempering of Tools: Hammer-struck and striking tools (chisels, stamps/punches,
cutters, hammers, sledges and rock drills) should be made of carefully selected steel and heat-
treated so that they are hard enough to withstand blows without mushrooming excessively
and yet not be so hard that they chip or crack.
For safety, it is better that shock tools, some of which can be dressed frequently, be a
little soft rather than too hard, because a chip may fly from an excessively hard tool without
warning when the tool is struck with a hammer or sledge.
Forming and tempering of tools is a skilled operation. Before heat-treating any tool,
the exact analysis of tool or recommendations for its proper heat treatment should be
obtained.
Safe-ending of Tools : Hammer-struck tools, such as chisels, rock drills, flatters,
wedges, punches, cold cutters and number dies should have heads properly hardened by a
qualified workman. The hazard of burred heads can be reduced by safe-ending the tool. This
can be quickly and economically achieved by grinding or flame cutting a shoulder recess
about 1/8 inch wide and 1/4 inch deep into the tool head and then bronze-welding it. The
proper base-metal temperature for bronze-welding is 1600° to 1700° F. The correct
temperature is indicated by a bright red colour when the tool is looked at through dark glasses
in the light of oxyacetylene flame.Short sections of tight-fitting rubber hose can also be set
flush with the striking ends of hammer-struck tools to keep chips from flying.
Dressing of Tools: Shock, cutting and pointed tools require regular maintenance of
their edges or striking surfaces. Once the cutting or striking surfaces have been properly
hardened and tempered, only an emery wheel, grindstone, file or oilstone need be used to
keep the head in shape and the edges clean and sharp. Proper precautions should be taken
before grinding hardened tools. They should not be ground until they have been drawn or
tempered. Grinding should be done in easy stages with no attempt to take off much metal at
one time. While grinding, the tool should be kept as cool as possible with water or other
cooling medium. The manufacturer's recommendations for type and kind of grinding wheel
should be followed. Each cutting edge should have the correct angle according to its use and
be finished off with a file.
Redressing of Tools : Redressing or reshaping of tool edges or surfaces which are
badly damaged is not recommended. It should be discarded.
Procedure for correct redressing of dull cutting edges is as under :
1. The tool edge should be supported firmly.
2. File or stone away from the cutting edge. Do not use a grinding wheel.
3. Restore the original contour of the cutting edge.

53
 Handles : The handles of the tools should be of the best straight-grained material.
Fitting of handles is very important. Poorly fitted handles make it difficult for the worker to
control the tool. Design criteria for handle are its shape, diameter, length, angulations, texture
and ergonomic aspects for convenience and safe use.
Handles should be fitted or replaced by an experienced person. Long use or shrinkage
can loosen the handle. Wedges can be inserted in gap, tool head can be further driven in the
handle with wedges reset and the protruding end of the handle cut off. If this is not possible a
new similar handle, should be fitted after removing the old one.
Types and Safe Use of Hand Tools:
(A) Metal Cutting Tools :
These are chisels, stamping and marking tools, tap and die work, hacksaws, files,
hand snips and cutters.Factors of selection and safe use are : Materials to be cut, size and
shape of the tool, depth of cut, sponge rubber shield or combination of rubber hand grips and
shields on hammer struck tools, use of chisel holder or tong, safety goggles, vice, wrench,
right type of file with smooth handle, lubrication on cutters etc.
The flat chisel should
have its cutting edge slightly
convex. All chisels (flat, cold,
diamond point or cape type)
should be strong enough so as
not to bend when struck.
Striking face of the hammer
should be slightly larger (9 mm
by dia) than the struck face of
the chisel. Bull chisel should be
held by tongs or chisel holder to
save the holder from injury.
Stamping and marking
tools should be held by tool
holder to keep fingers away
from the tool being struck.In tap
and die work, hands should be
kept away from broken tap ends
and threads being cut.Hack
saws should be properly
tightened in the frame to
prevent buckling and breaking.
Select proper blade (teeth per
inch) for the proper metal (hard
or soft) to be cut. Pressure
should be applied on forward
stroke only. Cutting speed of 40
to 60 strokes per minute is

54
proper.Selection of correct file for the job can prevent injuries, increase production and file
life. A file shouldnot be hammered or used as a pray. It should not be used as a punch, chisel
or other tool because the hardened steel may fracture in that way.
Jaws of hand snips should be kept tight and well lubricated. Do not hammer on the
handles or jaws of the snips. Safety goggles and leather or canvas gloves are necessary.
Cutters should be used to cut at right angles only. They need frequent lubrication and
should not be used as nail pullers or pray bars.
(B) Wood Cutting Tools :
These are wood chisels, saws, axes, adzes and hatches.
Factors of safe use are : Proper method of holding and using the tool, splinters free
handles, nail detection, sheath or metal guard on axe blade, use of safety goggles, sharp and
proper cutting angle. Do not drop the tools.
The wood to be cut should be free of nails to avoid damage to the cutting edge. A
wood chisel should not be used as a pry or wedge, otherwise the hard steel may break.
Proper saw (crosscut or ripping) should be selected. When not in use, saws should be
wiped off with an oily rag and kept in racks or hang by handle. Nails should ,be cut by metal
cutting saws.
Axes and hatches are designed to cut, trim or prune trees and soft wood. Their cutting
edges should not strike against metal, stone or concrete. A narrow - bladed axe is used for
hard wood and a wide axe for soft wood. Safety shoes, goggles and thick pants should be
worn while using an axe.
Adzes are hazardous tools and should be used by trained workers only. Safety shoes,
shin guards and safety goggles are necessary. When not in use, it should be set aside in a safe
place with its cutting edge covered or left stuck in the timber.
(C) Material Handling Tools :
These are crow bars, jacks, hooks, shovels and rakes.
Factors of safe use are : Proper size and type of the tool and its handle, solid footing
and' lubricating of jack, shielded point of the hook, trimmed edges and polished handles of
shovels.
A crowbar has a point toe to grip the object to be moved and a heel to act as a pivot or
fulcrum. Sometimes a wooden block may be placed -under the heel to prevent the crowbar
from slipping and injuring hand.
Hooks should be sharp so that they should not slip when applied. Handles should be
strong and properly shaped and attached.
Shovels should be used by proper leg positions so as not to lose balance. Edges should
be trimmed and handles without splinters.
(D) Handfeed tools :
To protect hand and fingurs while working with power presses, rolling mills, press
brakes, banding machines and other machineries and also working with hot matels, hand feed
tools are used. They are shown in fig. 17.2.
(E) Torsion Tools:
These are adjustable wrenches (spanners), pipe wrenches, pipe tongs, machine
wrench, torque wrenches, socket wrenches, open end or box wrenches, pliers, tongs, special
cutters, nail band crimpers and screw drivers.

55
 Factors of safe use are : Sharp jaws of wrenches, inspection of adjusting nut of the
wrench, correct size of the wrench and not to change its dimension, insulated handles of
electricians' pliers and screw drivers and screw driver not using for other purposes. A screw
driver tip must be properly ground. The user should not lose balance on slipping of tool or the
job.
Box and socket wrench (spanner) completely encircles the nut, bolt or fitting and grip
it at all corners as opposed to the two corners grip by an open-end wrench. They cannot easily
slip.
Wrench capacity should not be overloaded by using pipe extension on the handle or
striking the handle as normally bus drivers do. For heavy duty work, sledge-type box
wrenches are available. Penetrating oil (kerosene) should be used first to loosen tight nuts.

The use of the wrong size wrench can round the corners of the bolt or cause slippage
and. make its subsequent use difficult. Makeshift approach is not good.
Adjustable wrenches should be used for light duty jobs where no fixed spanner is
available.
For the reason of safety, wrenches should be pulled toward the self and not pushed.
Pipe wrenches should be prevented from slipping and falling. Its adjusting nut should
be checked frequently. If it is cracked, the wrench should be withdrawn from the use. A pipe
wrench should be used for pipes and their fittings only and not for nuts and bolts because
their corners can break the teeth of the wrench, thereby making it unsafe to use later for pipe
work. It should also not be used for soft metal (brass, copper) valves or fitting which can be
crushed or bent out of shape.Pliers are meant for gripping and cutting operations and should
not be used as wrenches. Aguard cover on cutting edge of side-cutting pliers can prevent
flying short ends. Pliers for electrical work must be insulated and simultaneous use of
electrician's shock-proof gloves is also necessary.
Pullers are used to pull out gear, wheel, pulley, bearing etc. from a shaft. Prybars and
chisels should not be used for this purpose.
Screwdriver tip must be properly ground to fit the slot and it should be of the correct
size for the head. Handle should not be hammered. For electrical work, handle should be
insulated. Screws should not be over tightened to avoid slipping.
(F) Shock Tools:
These are hammers, sledge hammers, riveting hammers, carpenter's or claw hammers.
The handles should be smooth and of proper size.
(G) Non-Sparking Tools for Hazardous area:

56
 Such tools of non-ferrous
(Beryllium, copper alloy, brass,
copper, lead, plastic, rubber)
materials are used where
flammable gases, volatile liquids
and explosive substances are
stored or used. They should be
kept free of picked up foreign
particles to avoid friction sparks.
Hazardous area
classification (Part 8.1 of Chapter
II) should be known first before
selecting hand tools. In most
hazardous area where high risk
of fire or explosion exists, non
metalic ie. wood, rubber or
plastic tools should be used if
possible and proper earthing of
equipment should be ensured.
There should be flameproof
electric lighting arid if hand lamp
is to be used, it should not be of
more than 24 V. Working in day
lighting should be preferred.
For use of
welding/cutting tools, statutory provisions (viz. Sch. 24 of GFR) should be strictly followed.
Necessary PPE for working in hazardous area should also be used.
They cannot be used to apply heavy stroke. Therefore careful use is necessary. It
should be properly selected.
(H) Miscellaneous Cutting Tools :
Planes, scrapers, bits, drawknives, ice picks and brad awl are used for special
purposes.
Knife accidents are many. A handle guard or finger ring on the handle of knife and
the cutting stroke away from the body are desirable. Knives should be carried over the right
or left hip toward the back. This will prevent severing a leg artery or vein in case of fall.
Knives should not be kept mixed with other tools. Knives should not be used in place of
screwdrivers, can openers or ice picks.
All such tools should be kept sharp and in good condition. When not in use, they
should be placed in a rack on the bench or in a tool box in such a way that will protect the
user as well as the cutting edge.
Carton cutters are safer than hooked or pocket knives for opening cartons as they
eliminate deep cuts that could damage inner contents.
While walking or climbing on ladders, workers should use a strong bag, bucket, tool
hoist belt or pouch to hold tools safely and to keep both hands free for safe moving and

57
working. Sharp tools should not be put in pockets. Tools shall never be thrown on ground.
Tools should not be put on vibrating or slippery overhead surfaces, ladder step, scaffold
plank, overhead piping or part of any structure or machine from .which they can easily fall or
hurt.
While giving tool to another person, the handle should be toward the receiver. While
turning around, care should be taken not to strike others.
Misuse of hand tools can cause injuries. Use of hand tool with power driven
machinery (e.g. lathe) should be controlled. Training is necessary for their safe handling and
use. Use of safety goggles and setting up a shield or screen to prevent injury to others from
flying particles, sparks, excessive light, radiation etc. are also required.
1 Welding, Gas Cutting
Welding and cutting operations are frequently used in construction, demolition, repair
and maintenance works. The equipment may be
permanently installed or portable. Hazards of
permanent installation .can be minimised by safe
design and therefore a fixed welding shop is
more desirable than portable moving welding
work. Where the work pieces are very heavy or
not movable or at height or depth etc. portable
equipment is the only convenient device.
Welding, Gas Cutting
Welding is a process to unite pieces of
metal at joint faces by heat or pressure or both
and sometimes use a filler material. Cutting is a
process to remove the metal by the chemical reaction of the metal at high temperature. In
both these operations, the common factor is high heat energy and high temperature for
melting or fusing of metals.
The three common sources of heat are:
1. Flame produced by combustion of flue gas with air or oxygen (Gas Welding)
2. Electric arc, struck between an electrode and a work piece or between two
electrodes (Electric or Arc Welding)
3. Electrical resistance offered to passage of current between two or more work
pieces (Resistance welding including spot, steam, projection and butt welding).
Other processes are atomic hydrogen welding, electron beam welding, electro slag
welding, flash welding, friction welding, laser welding and drilling, metal spraying, plasma
arc welding, plasma arc spraying, tungsten arc cutting, spark erosion machining, stud welding
and thermit welding.
Welding and Fire Safety:
Nearly six percent of all industrial fires are started because of unsupervised welding
repair jobs without a permit-to-work system.Common Causes of Fires in Welding and
Cutting
Fire originates from a heat source and feeds of combustible materials. Welding
operations produce sparks which can travel long distances, particularly if the welding torch is

58
not adjusted properly. The hot slag of burning metals may drop down as globules which
retain their heat for a very long period and can start a fire long after the welding job is
completed. Similarly, application of heat during welding to a closed vessel, pipe or tank can
result in an explosion if the vessel contains flammable liquids or gases. An empty vessel that
had contained a flammable material is more dangerous than one fully filled with flammable
material, because it may be full of invisible vapours.
Electric arc welding involves passage of very large quantities of current, often
running into hundreds of amperes. The passage of electric current itself creates heat and
therefore cables, junctions, switches and other electrical appliances must be of adequate
current carrying/breaking capacity.
Precautions for Preventing Welding Fires:
(A) Before Welding-
1. Work Permit: Make a thorough inspection of the workplace. Ensure that it is
safe for welding operations. Issue a written permit as shown below for commencement of
welding work, especially when contract workers are involved.
Permit for Cutting and Welding with Portable Gas or ARC Equipment

Date
Building
Department Date
Place or Location
Work to be done

Special Precautions
Is fire watch required?
The location where this work is to be done has been examined, necessary precautions
taken, and permission is granted for this work.
Permit expire
Signed
(Individual responsible for authorising welding and cutting)
Time started Completed
2. Check if the area contains flammable liquid/ gases. Ensure that there are no
floor openings, open windows nearby or any such ready access through which sparks can
pass and fall on combustible materials. (In one such case, flammable vapours on the ground
floor 7 mt below, were ignited due to a welding spark fallen from that height and the welder
died due to burn injury).
3. Examine whether the job can be welded outside the premises and brought back.
4. If not, remove all combustible materials to a safe distance of at least 20 feet.
5. Sweep the floor and the area nearby and remove all waste materials.
6. If any of the combustible materials cannot be removed, cover it with non-combustible
coverings like metal sheets or asbestos curtains.
7. If the floor itself is combustible, cover it likewise and wet it before starting welding
work.

59
 8. In case welding or cutting has to be done on a vessel, pipe or other container which
contains or had earlier contained flammable liquids, ensure that a detailed 'permit-to-work'
procedure involving isolation, blanking, purging, inerting methods is followed. Consult the
Indian Standard 3016 for additional details.
(B) During Welding
1. Use portable screens, booths or partitions to minimise the spread of sparks.
2. Keep an observer ready with a portable extinguisher (dry powder), water buckets
etc.
3. Ensure that gas cylinders, hose pipes, torches and other appliances are properly
selected, installed and used.
4. In case of electric welding, check the connections, cables and earthing in particular.
5. Ensure that the welder uses appropriate personal protective equipment like
goggles, gloves, boots, spats and if necessary an approved respirator.
6. Do not leave electric circuits on, or blow-torches burning when the welder has to take
a tea break or has to be away for any reason.
(C) After Welding
1. Inspect the area for sparks or smouldering materials. If you find any, remove and
extinguish them.
2. If any portable extinguisher has been used, replenish it.
3. Gas cylinders, blow-torches etc. should be returned to the stores or kept at the
authorised place.
11.2 Precautions in welding, gas cutting, brazing, soldering, and other operations.
Gas Welding and Cutting :
In gas welding, oxygen or air and a fuel gas (acetylene, hydrogen, LPG or propane,
butane, coal gas, natural gas or their combination) are fed to a blow pipe (torch), usually hand
held in which they are mixed prior to combustion at the nozzle. The heat melts the metal
faces of the parts to be joined causing them to flow together. A filler metal or alloy is
frequently added at a lower melting point than the parts to be joined and in that case (below
fusion temperature of the parts to be joined ) the process is also known as brazing or
soldering. Chemical fluxes may be used to prevent oxidation and facilitate joining.
In gas cutting, the metal is heated by a flame and a jet of pure oxygen is directed on
the point of cutting and moved along the line to be cut.
In gas pressure (high or low ) welding, the parts are heated by gas jets under pressure,
and become forged together.
Safety in handling Cylinders :
1. Do not tamper with the numbers or marks stamped on the cylinders.
2. Do not drop cylinders or let them strike violently.
3. Do not lift cylinders with an electro-magnet. In case cylinders are to be lifted by
lifting device, they are to be slung in suitable cradles or platforms. Do not use slings.
4. Do not tamper with the safety device in the valves or cylinders.
5. Do not use oil or grease as lubricants on valves or attachments.
6. In case the regulator or cylinder valves have frozen, wash with hot water, never by a
flame.

60
7. Never transport cylinders with regulator and hose attached unless a proper trolley or
carrier is used. While transporting, the cylinder valves should be shut.
8. Do not drag cylinders. They may be rolled on the bottom edge.
9. When the cylinder is not in use, keep the metal cap in place to protect the valve.
10. Before returning empty cylinders, mark them EMPTY
11. Always consider cylinders full, if not definitely known.
12. When in doubt about the proper handling, consult supplier.
Safety in Storage of Cylinders :
1. Ensure that the cylinders are stored properly. Store rooms should be dry, well
ventilated and away from oil, or other flammable substances.
2. Store empty and full cylinders separately.
3. Store room should be fire proof and the lighting or electrical switches should
of flame- proof type.
4. Oxygen cylinders should be stored away from the cylinders containing
combustible gases, preferably in separate rooms. If stored in the same room, they should be
kept far apart (6m) or have a non-combustible barrier in between of at last 2 mt height.
5. Acetylene cylinders should always be stored upright.
6. Cylinders are not designed for temperatures in excess of 55 ° C (130 ° F).
Accordingly, they should not be stored near the sources of heat, such as radiators, furnaces,
etc.
7. Cylinders stored in the open should be protected from the effects of sun
and rain to prevent corrosion.
8. Cylinders should be stored away from elevators, stairs, or other such places
where they can be knocked down or damaged by passing or falling object.
The Gas Cylinder Rules and following IS should be followed.
IS:818 Code of practice for safety and health
requirement in electric and gas welding
and cutting operations.
IS: 1179 Equipment for eye and face protection
during welding.
IS: 3016 Fire precautions in welding.
UK HMSO Booklet Welding and Flame-cutting
using compressed gases.
Safety in Regulators and Hose connections:
Regulators or reducing valves are used on both oxygen and fuel gas cylinders to
maintain gas supply to the torches at correct pressure. Care has to be taken to see that the
regulator chosen is the correct one for the gas contained in the cylinder. In order to prevent
attachment of oxygen regulators to the fuel gas cylinders or vice-versa, the connection for
oxygen cylinders are made with right hand threads and those for acetylene cylinder with left
hand threads. A regulator is a delicate instrument and has to be handled carefully and not
dropped. Leaky regulators should be withdrawn from service immediately.
Oxygen and fuel gas hoses should be of different colour or otherwise identified and
distinguished from each other for proper connection on the torches. Red is generally

61
 recognised for fuel gas and green or black. hose is used for oxygen. One type of gas regulator
should not be used for another type of gas.
Safety in using torches :
1. Set the regulators to the recommended working pressure.
2. Keep the blow pipe nozzle away from any source of ignition until the fuel gas
is flowing 'freely from the nozzles.
3. A spark lighter is recommended for lighting purposes.
4. Clean the torch at regular intervals.
Sometimes a protective system is provided in the fuel gas piping to prevent -
• Back flow of oxygen into the fuel gas supply system
• Passage of a flash back into the fuel gas supply system
• Excessive back pressure of oxygen in the fuel gas supply system. Such system
(back pressure valve, non return valve) must be checked for its effective working.
Schedule-24, Rule 102, Gujarat Factories Rules, 1963 :
Welding/Cutting Operation with the use of LPG/ Acetylene/Argon:
Safety measures prescribed in this Schedule are:
1. Gas cylinders, filled or empty, shall not be stored in a room where welding or cutting
work is to be carried out.
2. Cylinder in use shall be kept in vertical position and tied to prevent its fall.
3. Source of ignition including smoking is prohibited near flammable gas cylinder
except which is in use.
4. Cylinders shall be stored at more than 10 m from source of ignition or excessive heat.
5. Standard pressure regular and second non-return valve to prevent back flow shall be
used.
6. Standard torch with non-return valve shall be used.
7. Suitable fire extinguishers shall be kept ready near welding/cutting place and gas
cylinder storage.
8. Pipe lines shall be colour painted for identification of each gas.
9. Welding/cutting is prohibited in explosive atmosphere.
10. Welding/cutting zone shall be cordoned by screens of 7 ft (2.15 m) height where
persons other than welders and their helpers are working or passing.
11. All welding/cutting equipment shall be examined by a competent person in a period
of 15 days.
12. Welding/cutting work shall be carried out by specially trained workers.
13. A log book of examination of equipment and a register of trained workers shall be
maintained in the forms directed by the Inspectors.
Arc Welding (Electric Welding) :
In this process, an arc is struck between an electrode and the work pieces, which are
connected to an AC or DC supply. In this usual process, the welder 'strikes an arc' by
touching his electrode to the work piece and causes a "short-circuit" stripping electrons from
gases in the surrounding air, ionizing it and producing the arc. A temperature of about
4000°C is obtained and the work pieces fuse together. In this type of welding, new metal is
fused, either by melting the electrode or by melting a filler rod which does not carry any

62
current. Sometimes some inert gas or a solid flux is also used to shield the weld from
oxidation. The operations also include chipping of slag, etc. from the weld.
The current used for electric arc welding may be direct or alternating but the voltage
has to be low and consistent. The voltage of 100 between electrode and work should not
exceed for hand welding. The supply of current for electric welding would require a
generator or transformer of suitable voltage. The commercial 'main supply' (230V) is not
suitable on account of the voltage and also it may not be permissible to earth the circuit at
points other than approved by the supply authority. Any transformer used for giving supply
of current for welding should be double wound to ensure complete isolation of welding
circuit from the main supply. The current used, with small diameter electrode on thin sheets
for manual arc welding varies I between 10-50 Amps. With larger diameter electrodes, the
current used is more. For manual welding, the welder should be able to withstand the heat
and as such the current value should not exceed 500-600 Amps.
Hazards : The operations of welding and cutting are carried out at high
temperatures which are source of "Fire" or Explosion. The liberation of the heat and energy
into the work place can cause chemical and physical reactions which do not normally take
place at room temperature. The reactions include the various types of radiation and release of
various toxic gases, vapours, fumes, etc., which may affect the health of the workers engaged
in the process and near by. Some hazards are :
• Flying metallic sparks and molten metal. Some of these sparks consist of tiny shreds
of extremely hot metal, sometimes molten, which may be hotter than 1000° F and
may cause painful burns on exposed skin. These sparks are also source of fire or
explosion hazard, in case flammable materials are near by.
• Hot surfaces of the work pieces after welding or cutting may cause harms to
unsuspecting persons.
• Flying materials while chipping the weld.
• Enrichment of Oxygen (due to leakage from Oxygen cylinder) radically changes
flammability.
• Glare which comes when the arc is struck or the torch is lit. It affects the optic nerve
at the back of the eye. Special eye glass (screen) is required.
• Thermal heat radiation from welding can cause headache, fatigue and eye damage.
• Infra red radiation. Some of the IR is stopped by the upper layer of the skin but part of
the radiation penetrates the exposed skin and may cause serious skin burns or
pigmentation. Since eye has no absorbing layer, it can be severely damaged by this
and may cause "heat cataract".
• Ultra-violet radiation may cause skin burns and prolonged exposure may lead to skin
tumours. Inert gas shielding is a strong source of UV radiation.
• Workers on the shop floors may be exposed to noise due to welding, cutting or
chipping operations.
• Fall of materials and equipments during operation.
Electrodes and Holders :
Electrode holders are used to connect the electrode to the welding cable supplying
secondary current. In order to prevent accidental striking of an arc they should be fully

63
insulated. Holders should be capable of handling the maximum current required by the
electrode. Electrode holders are liable to become hot during welding operations if they are
not designed for the purpose, i.e. holders for light jobs are used for heavy work or if there is a
loose connection. In case the correct size of holder is not available an additional holder
should be provided so that one can cool while the other is in use. Dipping of hot electrode
holders in water should be prohibited as it may expose the worker to electric shock.
Electric Shock :
The work set up is such that the work is grounded and if the worker is not careful, he
can receive electric shock. A welder may be exposed to the open circuit voltage while
changing electrodes, setting up work, or changing working position. Danger is more in humid
environment or if the welder is "sweaty". The risk of shock can be reduced by providing an
insulating barrier between the worker and the ground of nearby metal objects, while changing
electrodes. Dry leather gloves act as good insulator. It is also advisable to use shoes with
rubber soles. The electrode holder should be sufficiently insulated between the handle and the
bare part that grips the electrode. The welding cables should be of good quality to resist hard
wear and inspected for insulation defects. Joints between cables should be by insulated
connectors of equivalent capacity. The welding equipment must be safely earthed. There
should be two distinct and different earthing circuits so that, in case if one fails, the other will
afford protection.
Indoor Exhaust Ventilation :
Local exhaust or positive ventilation is not required in the spaces of 1400 m3 or over,
provided: (a) Welding bays have unrestricted cross ventilation (b) Work is not carried out
inside restricted spaces such as tanks and boilers (c) Every welder has about 280m3 space.(d)
Ceiling heights are more than 5m. (e) Process does not require the use of inert gas.
In case the above conditions are not met, mechanical ventilation at the minimum rate
of 56m3/ min of air per welder is to be provided with a velocity in the direction of hood of
30m/min at the point of welding. The duct diameter and air flow volumes that would
produce the control velocity using a 7 cm wide flanged section is given in the following
table:-
Distance from arc or torch, fm., Minimum air flow, m3/ min Duct Diameter
cm.
10 to 15 4.5 7
15 to 20 8.0 9
20 to 25 12.0 11
25 to 30 17.0 13

For hoods without flanges, minimum air flow shall be increased by 60 m"/min. I cm
duct dia is based on relatively 1200 mt/min velocity in pipe.
Personal Protection :
For the safety and health of the workers, precautions have to be taken to safeguard
against the various physical and chemical hazards. Maintenance of the equipment and proper
care in the use, adequate ventilation etc. may reduce some of the hazards, but it may not be
possible to eliminate all the hazards and hence the workers have to be supplied with suitable

64
personal protective equipment. Since a helper is always posted near the place of work, he too
has to be provided adequate protection.
Ordinary clothing may be sufficient to protect against UV and IR radiation, but some
exposed areas such as face, wrist, neck, hands etc. would be affected. Asbestos/leather gloves
may be useful to protect hands from electric shocks, heat and sparks.
Eye protection is the most irritical problem. Hence the measures have to be taken to
stop flying particles, glare and the radiation. Since the welding temperature for various
materials may be different, different types of shades may be needed for different jobs, and at
the same time clear glass may be needed while chipping the weld.
If possible the welding operation in a shop floor be isolated and screened so that other
workers engaged nearby are not affected. However, measures should be taken to protect the
crane drivers and others from the hazardous fumes, rays etc., of welding operation.
To protect the workers from the toxic fumes, suitable respiratory protection should be
provided.
Cotton apron if used by the workers maybe treated with fire retarding chemicals.
When there is a risk of materials falling on the workers, suitable hard hats may be
provided. While doing electric arc welding, instead of holding the shield in one hand, it is
advisable to wear a welder's helmet which protects the workers in many ways.
Brazing, Soldering and Metalising Operations :
Such operations involve metal fumes because of heating. Inhalation of fumes (toxic or
irritating) should be removed by local exhaust ventilation. Lead oxides and chlorides are
released when soldering with lead-tin solder and zinc chloride flux. Lead oxides and
formaldehyde are released when soldering with rosin core solder. Hazards of different types
of solder should be known before starting work.. Hazardous contaminants should be
measured by air sampling. Lead solder particles should not be allowed to accumulate on the
floor or work tables. For protection against spattering of solder or flux, workers should wear
faceshield or do the work under a transparent shield.
Respirators are required to protect against metal dust or fume while metalising or
burning of metal. Hand gloves can protect against burns. Insulated, noncombustible holders
can protect against fire and burns. Table cover should be heat resistant.
Finishing Operations like Polishing, Buffing, Cleaning, Shot Blasting :
Polishing wheels are made of leather faced wood or stitched canvas disks or similar
material coated with abrasive glue on the periphery of the wheels.
Buffing wheels are made of disks of canvas, linen or felt with a coat of mild abrasive,
tripoli or rouge.Brush or scratch wheels are made of protruding wires and used to remove
burrs, scale, sand and other materials.
While cleaning or finishing rough or ground jobs by air, sand or shot (metal) blast
cleaning or polishing and buffing by rotating wheels, main hazard is dust (abrasive or metal)
generation during such operations. It should be removed from the point of origin by an
efficient exhaust system. Room dust (flying) should be collected by wall exhaust fans. Dust
collectors should be cleaned regularly.
Shot blasting by small metal balls (ferrous or nonferrous) is done through an air gun
(jet). Pressurized air is passed through metal balls and they are shot blasted on metal plate,
rough casting or any job requiring such shot blast cleaning. Because of air jet (force) surface

65
is cleaned (corrosion removed) but metal and other dust is heavily generated. It can spread
and fly nearby. Therefore a close chamber is constructed and worker does this operation
inside. For dust collection, powerful exhaust system with blower and dust collection chamber
is required. The worker (blaster) wears full face protection and also use air line respirator to
inhale clean air coming through it. Blasting chamber door should have glass window to watch
worker inside. In case of difficulty he should come out. His medical examination for dust
exposure and chest X-ray are necessary.
Sand blasting is prohibited:
Workers should wear eye protection and dust filters rather full face protection."
By pre cleaning of casting or machined part by keeping it in a rotating barrel, mill or
abrasive chamber in close condition, subsequent dusting can be minimized.
The space around dust generating or cleaning process should be kept dry, clean and
free from obstructions.
Solvent cleaning of metal parts pose fire and toxic hazard. Non-toxic or non-
flammable solvents or cleaning agents like alkaline solutions are safe in this regard. Oil and
grease should not be allowed to mix with cleaning compounds. Carbon tetrachloride and
petrol are banned for cleaning purpose. Ventilation is needed to remove vapors.
Polishing and buffing wheels require:
• Substantial stands and rigid mounting of wheels.
• Guards to avoid contact with protruding nuts and the ends of the spindles.
• Exhaust hoods to drive away the dust and flying particles. More than one branch pipe
may be provided depending upon the shape and size of the pieces being worked.
• Speed within the limit (15 to 35 m/s) when variable speed motors are used.
• Avoidance of hand gloves.
• A jig to handle the work against the wheel.
• Not more than 3 mm clearance between the work rest and the wire brush wheel and
use of leather or heavy canvas aprons, gloves and face shield while working on wire
brush wheels.
• Monitor procedures same as for grinding wheel.
• No smoking while buffing or polishing as a spark pulled into the exhaust system
might cause a fire.
• No common exhaust systems for polishing, buffing and grinding operations because
of the fire hazard.
Selection, Care and Maintenance of Equipment and Instruments:
Equipment and instruments for welding and cutting, brazing, soldering, metalizing
and finishing operations like cleaning, polishing and buffing require careful selection, use and
maintenance for avoidance of hazards and accidents.
For protection against hot sparks, arc radiation and glare, fumes and gases,
compressed gases, chipping slag, metal and abrasive dust and electric shock, goggles, helmets
and shields should be worn by operators, welders and their helpers. These equipment should
conform to IS. Welder's handbook SP-12, welding equipment for eye and face protection
1179, protective filter 5983 and IS guides for selecting the correct filter lens for welding and
cutting operations, dust filters, gas respirators, breathing apparatus, protective clothing and

66
other personal protective equipment must be referred. See Chapter-25 for such PPE and
Chapter-26 for the First-Aid.
Sampling, identification and safe removal of gases, fumes and dusts by proper
instruments and exhaust ventilating equipment are required first. Such instruments should be
of good quality, well calibrated and properly maintained. They should be handled by trained
personnel. Selection is dependent on job to be carried out, toxicity and concentration of gas
or dust and working environment.
Welding equipment (e.g. torch) should not be used in a confined space. Welder's safe
breathing zone requires at least 280 M3 space per welder and ceiling height more than 5 m. If
natural cross ventilation is not sufficient, mechanical ventilation (local exhaust, local forced,
roof or wall exhaust fans etc.) is necessary. They should be maintained efficient and with
sufficient capture velocity. Welding partitions may be used to protect eyes of surrounding
people.
As oxygen alone cannot burn, acetylene, hydrogen or other fuel gases are used with
torches. For example, propane, propylene and their mixtures are used in gas cutting. Such
gases are filled with pressure in metal cylinders. Therefore they should be safely handled.
Foregoing Part 7.1.2 contains safety precautions for handling and storing of gas cylinders.
See Part 8.4 of Chapter-18 also.
Manifolds are used to centralise gas supply at a rate higher than that of a single
cylinder. Regulators, headers and distribution pipes are used therewith. They should be
properly designed, erected and colour-coded. Oxygen manifolds should be located away from
the source of ignition or flammable material. Leak detectors with alarm are desirable in
manifold room.
Hoses and hose connections should be fully safe. Colour coding (e.g. red for fuel gas,
green for oxygen and black for inert gas, see IS booklet) should be followed to avoid wrong
connection. Special torch connectors with built-in-shut-off valves are available. Connections
should be of ferrule or clamp type. Special tools for special threads should be readily
available. External metallic covering on hose pipe is not desirable. Flashback devices (NRV)
between torch and hose can prevent flashback into hoses and regulators. Burned hose section
should be replaced by new one.
Gas torches should be of approved type. Cutting torches differ from welding torches
in jet and valve design. Select proper welding head for mixture, tip or cutting nozzle
according to the charts and screw it firmly into the torch. Do not use matches to light torch.
Use a lighter. Safe operating procedure should be followed for welding or cutting.
In resistance or spot welding, point of operation should be guarded by enclosure, gate,
two-hand control or similar safety guard. Back doors of machine and panels should be locked
or interlocked. Control circuit should operate at low voltage (24 to 36 volts). A flash welding
machine should have a shield or hood to control flash and fumes and a ventilating system to
carry off the metal dust and oil fumes. Air or electrical foot switches should be guarded to
prevent accidental operation.
In electric arc welding machine (AC or DC) current values should be kept minimum
to avoid heating. Electric cables should be well insulated and automatic voltage controller
should be used.

67
 Electrode holders should be fully insulated to avoid shock or arc burn. Proper holder
should be selected (heat resistant) depending on light or heavy work. Connections between
cable and holder should not be loose. Hot holder should not be dipped in water for cooling.
Bare electrode or holder should not touch the skin or wet clothing.
Holders for brazing and soldering operations should be made of noncombustible
material and insulated to avoid fire and burn hazards. The best holder completely encloses the
hot surface and so inclined that the weight of the iron prevents it from falling out.
Exhaust hood, duct, dust collector, fan etc. should be regularly inspected for choking,
velocity, leakage etc. and kept clean for good working.
Gloves should not be worn by polishers and buffers to avoid dragging of hand. If the
motors that drive polishing/buff ing wheels, have adjustable speed controls, the controls
should be kept in a locked box and the speed shall be changed only by an authorised person.
While working on wire brush wheels, leather gloves, leather or canvas aprons and
face shield should be worn.
Equipment and instruments should always be used in accordance with the
manufacturersForging :
Forging retunes to the production of those parts which must be heated in a closed
furnace. The portion of a work in which forging is done is termed the forge and the work
mainly performed by means of heavy hammers, forging machines & presses. Forging
processes are among the most important manufacturing techniques since forged items are
used in the small tools, rail rout equipments, automobiles & parts etc.,
The stocks are heated to the correct forging temp in a smith‘s health or in a furnace
located near the forging operations. Gas oil or electric resistance furnaces or induction
heating classified as open a closed hearths can be used.
Forge furnaces are built so as to ensure a temp. up to 1350 degree C. in their working
chambers. They should be sufficiently large to allow proper combustion of the fuel & to
obtain uniform heating by the work piece.
Several types of furnaces are used for heating the
1. Bus or Batch type furnaces
2. Ratacy Health furnaces
3. Continuous or conveyen furnaces
4. Induction furnaces
5. Resistance furnaces.
Two methods of firing a smiles forge in common use 1.) open fire and 2) stock fire.
Forging temps :-
The temp to begin the forging in soft, low carbon steel is 1250 to 1300 degree C. the
temp to finish engine is 800 to 850 degree C. The respective temp. for hard high carbon &
allay steels are 1100 degree C to 1150 degree C and 825 to 875 degree C.
Hand forging :-
The forging is done by hammering the piece of metal when it is heated to the proper
temp. on an anvil tongs hand hammer, sledge hammer fuller hat chikes, punches are used
shape small number of light forging chiefly in repair shap.
Power Forging :-

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 Large machine parts cannot be inged by hand, macovn hand forging is a lengthy
process and requires repetitive hearing. This has led to the use of power hammer and
processes for forging.
Machines which work on forgings by blow are called hammers while those working
by pressure are called processes.
Power Hammers :-
All power hammers employ the same principle of operation a falling weighs stiking
the blow with the entire energy being absorbed by the work. Where further blows are
necessary the striking weighs is called for the succeeding blow. The energy released depends
on weigat of hammer is driven by mechanical means hammers are classified as mechanical
and air and steam hammers.
Power Press :-
In press forging pressure or squire is applied to the raw material & the intensity of
this pressure increases as the plastic metal de formation.
Impression die forging :-
More complex shapes of greater accuracy cannot be formed by open-die forging
techniques commonly know as die forging or drop forging, impression die forging makes use
of cavities in specially prepared dies to produce forged shapes in large quantities.
Since the die is not closed, it should properly be called on impression die.
A complex shape cannot befilled simply by forging around a rectangular bar into the
die cavity, and some performing steps are necessary, to permit the change from the original
forging stock to the finished forging without mechanical
After the forging operation. The part must be trimmed to remove the flash. The flash
is removed cold.
Forging Dies :-
Forging dies are constructed from high grade carbon must resist heat abrasion and
pressure. They must with stand.
The dies are often made in sections, called inserts titter into the die block. This is
economical as the blacker section may last several times as long as the finish forging section.
Types of Hammers :-
Three types of drop hammers are used in making drop forgings. They are board or
gravity hammer air lift hammer, and pawaer drop hammer or what is usually called steam
hammer.
Non-destructive Testing :-
Use of X-ray equipment for non-destructive tests of castings is an old procedure. A
permanent well-shielded location for such tests is necessary. All personnel should wear film
badges against X-ray expouser.
Because of the different absorption values of different materials, radiographs can be
made of objects through the use of X-ray, radium and cobalt-60. The activiyof radioactive
materials is measured in curies.
One millicurie is defined as 3.7 X 107 disintegration‘s of radioactive atoms per
second. Radiation is measured by the amount of ionization it produces in air and its unit is
roentgen or mill roentgen. Permissible dose limits should not be exceeded.

69
 The pocket dosimeter shows the dosage the person has received during any work
period. The film badges and dosimeters both must be used for protection against radioactive
tests.
Through washing with soap and water, protective equipments and never using
contaminated clothing into clean areas are desirable for safety. Non-destructive testing is
mainly used for detecting cracks or determining the thickness or the quality of metal parts.
The methods used are magnetic particle, penetrate, radiographic, ultrasonic and other
types. Detailed information on the theory and practice of non-destructive testing methods.
Model Rule 116 :
Shedule XXVII for operations suggest stringent provisions in a legal form. It defenes
foundry, knock-out operations, pouring aisle and dressing or fettling operations. Its major
provisions are:
1) Prohibition of material containing more than 5% silica by weight
2) Arrangement and storage for safety and cleanliness
3) Floors of even surface and hard material except where sand is necessary
4) Cleanliness of indoor workplaces upto the height at least 4.2 m.
5) Adequate and unobstructed working space for molten metal area
6) Gangways and pouring aisles of prescribed widths
7) Safe distance for work near cupolas and furnaces viz. 4 m from ladle
8) Prohibition of use of open coal, coke or wood fire, control of injurious fumes.
9) Knock-out, dressing or fettling operations in a separate part with local exhaust
ventilation
10) Maintenance and examination of exhaust plant
11) Protective equipments viz. hand gloves for hot work, cut or abrasion,
respirator, suitable footwear, gaiters, screens against flying materials and storage to put such
PPE
12) Washing and bathing facilities
13) Disposal of dross and skimming
14) Disposal of waste
15) Safe means of access
Medical facilities and test records and medical examination by Certifying Surgeon.
Importance of IT :
The developments in information technology have enabled it to make serious inroads
in the field of materials handling. Areas such as inventory data and similar other information
have benefitted immensely by applying advanced database management techniques.
Data collection equipment such as bar code scanners and radio-frequency data
collection (RFDC) systems make counting inventoty manually a thing of past.
To contribute to productivity, much of this data must flow electronically in step with
the flow of materials and products throughout the manufacturing, assembly, warehousing, or
distribution process.
Due to IT, the inventory accuracy levels, that were virtually unreachable a decade ago
are now viewed as commonplace.
Even a 99 per cent accuracy rate can trigger panic amongst mangers who are used to
base their decisions on real-time, extremely accurate, readily accessible data.

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 It systems such as warehouse management systems (WMS) help manage inventory,
people, and equipment resources to expedite order fulfillment and shipment.
Experts expect greater supply chain efficiencies when WMS is fully integrated with
other types of execution and planning software.
These include transportation management system (TMS) order management software,
manufacturing execution system (MES), and advanced planning and scheduling (APS)
software, IT has truly enabled efficient materials handling.

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 Chapter 2

Material Handling and storage of materials :

Manual :
Kinetics of Manual Handling:
In manual material handling human body acts as a machine (lever mechanism) and
undergoes forces and torque. Therefore stress and strain occur and if work goes beyond one's
capacity, pain, fatigue or injury results.
Types of adverse effects or injuries associated with manual material handling are
strain, sprain, back pain, cuts, bruises, burns,
fracture and non traumatic injuries occurring
after a long time. Therefore it needs to
understand kinetics of manual material
handling. Lifting and carrying exert strains to
the body. The body can be kept erect only by
tensing muscles. Even while walking on
slopes or stairs, considerable effort is
required. 'Carrying load imposes a static
strain on muscles of arms and trunk and also
on back and heart. Muscles are also engaged
while holding the load and cause fatigue.
Serious fatigue results in reduced output and
may cause accident.
Clinical investigations carried out by Schroter on groups of manual handling workers
and office workers shown effects on skeletal system such as in the spine elbow joints, knee
joints etc. While lifting load, lumber discs are affected much.
The lifting system of the spine can be represented as a double armed lever
arrangement in which the force of the back muscles is applied to the ends of the spinous
process, which are about 5 cm long. According to the principles of levers, the force exerted
by the back muscles must be 8 or more times the resistance represented by the load. The
strain borne by the disc exceeds that exerted by the back muscles by an amount equal to the
weight of the load. It has been noticed that on men between 20 to 35 years, a disc stress of
over 30 kg/ m2 can be damaging. Lifting lighter loads with jerks is also harmful and may
cause spinal pain.
To be corrected as per M F Rules 1963
Maximum Liftable Loads:
Permissible Max. Weight
Person
(Kg) To be changed
Adult male 50
Adult Female 30
Adolescent male 30

72
 Adolescent female 20
Male child 16
Female child 13
Two adult workers working together
500
for carrying load by handcart

Rule 62 of the Gujarat Factories Rules prescribes the following maximum loads that
could be manually carried or lifted (Notification dated 7-6-2001)
Rule 38 of the Building and other Construction Workers Central Rules, 1998 also
prescribes the same limits for building workers. See Part 7.2 of Chapter-28.
It is also clarified that no adult male, adult woman, adolescent or child shall engage,
in conjunction with others in lifting, carrying or moving by hand or on head, any material,
article, tool or appliance if the weight thereof exceeds the lowest weight fixed by the above
table for any of the persons engaged multiplied by the number of persons engaged. Thus two
male children cannot be engaged to lift mdre than 16 x 2 = 32 Kg, five adolescent females
cannot be engaged to lift more than 20 x 5 = 100 Kg and so on. Actually this should be still
less considering 'coordination losses'.
However, it is true that looking to the variety of differences in persons of the same
age and same sax, they differ in their capabilities. Personal and climatic factors also have
effect (e.g. heat stress, cold stress, discomfort etc) on them of the same age and sex, different
persons can lift different amounts of weight because of their body built, practice, height,
weight structure etc. Work load condition, shape, size (job safety analysis) and personal
health should also be considered in deciding lifting standards.
Nevertheless, from safety and legal point of view, it is necessary to prescribe some
reasonable safe limits based on scientific criteria. Otherwise exploitation of workers requiring
them to lift any amount of load is possible. This may result in accidents, injuries, absenteeism
and leaving the job.
Lifting and Carrying of Different Objects: Their methods are briefly as follows :

1. Boxes and Cartons: Grasp them at opposite top and bottom corners. Draw a comer
between legs.
2. Barrels and Drums: Two men stand on opposite side. Grasp both chimes near the high
point - up and while pressing down the bottom and straighten up with the drum.
Handling on incline - Use ropes and tackles. To control motion, pass a rope around a
drum. One end of the rope should be fastened to the platform at higher level. A worker
keeps a firm grip on the free end, then gradually lower or raise the drum along the
risers.
3. Sheet Metal: Handle with leather gloves, hand leathers or gloves with metal inserts
because of sharp edges and corners.
4. Sheet Glass: Handle with gloves or hand leather. Cover wrists and forearms with long
leather sleeves Leathers, or canvas apron and guards for feet and ankles should be worn.
Carry the glass sheet with the bottom edge resting in a palm turned outward and with

73
 die other hand holding the top edge to steady it or balance it. Never carry glass sheet
under the arm because fall might sever an artery.
5. Long Objects: Long pipes, bar stock, lumber should be carried over the shoulders, with
the front end held as high as possible to prevent striking. Other employee should guide
when going around corners.
6. Irregular objects: If it is difficult to handle because of its shape or weight, assistance
should be given.
7. Metal Scrap: Wear goggles, gloves or hand leathers, safety shoes and skin guards.
Workers should Cautioned against tripping or slipping on objects which may roll or
slide under feet. Mechanical handling of this commodity (magnetic lift crane) is
preferable.
Heavy machines, round, flat objects etc. need specially trained workers. Specially
designed truck, trolley or device is required.
Safety in Storage of Materials:
1. Bagged Materials: Cross ties with mouths inside.
When pile is five feet high, step back by one row for each
additional three feet. Do not remove a bag from a lower row
first Prevent fire risk.
2. Pipe and Bar Stock: Consider strength of the floor.
Pile in layers with strips of wood or iron between layers.
Strips should have block at one end or one end turned up.
Bar steel stock would be stored in racks inclining towards
the back to prevent rolling. The stack height should be
limited to 2 mt. Buttons should be placed between tire of bundles to facilitate slinging.
Heavier bars should rest on rollers. Light bars may be stored vertically in a rack.
3. Barrels and Drums: - Pyramid shape is safe Bottom row should blocked when
stacked on sides. If piled on ends. i.e. up right, planks should be laid between rows. Strength
of the drum, its size, shape and weight should also be considered.
4. Metal Sheets and Plates : If the sheets are i bundles and of fairly standard size, they
can be safely stacked upto 2 mt height with buttons between each bundle. Sheets of random
size should be stored in toast racking form. Heavy steel plates of more than 4 feet width
should be laid horizontally. With plates of varying sizes, the largest ones should be at the
bottom and the smallest on the top. Use leather gloves or
gloves with metal inserts to hold sharp edges and corners.
5. Long Objects : A pile of lumber (bamboo, timber)
should not be more than 20 feet high. Tie pieces are needed
not only to stabilize the pile but also to provide air
circulation. These pieces should not extent much into
gangways.
6. Cartons : Loaded cartons should be stored on
platforms or shelves to protect against moisture or
breakage. When the sides are of unequal size, the tires
should be so laid as to give natural bonding and provide

74
stability. If natural bonding is not possible provide artificial bonding by a sheet or a wrapping
paper placed between two layers.
7. Paper Reels : Fork lift can be used to store reels
on ends. For stacking on ends, a well leveled floor is
essential and the reels should be of the same diameter.
Reels may be stored in horizontal position in nesting tires.
Then the first or bottom row should be blocked to prevent
the rolls from shifting.
8. Liquid Chemicals : Portable containers such as
drums, barrels and carboys should be stored and handled
carefully. Store room should have
impervious walls and floors and provision
for safe disposal of spillage. Before
handling, check corrosion of nails or
weakening of packing by the chemical. For
transporting carboys use a carboy trolley.
Safe way to empty a carboy is to move
liquid by suction from vacuum pump or start
the siphon by means of rubber bulb.
Properly designed carboy inclinators are
also satisfactory. Before piling empty
carboys should be thoroughly drained and
stoppers replaced.
9. Gas Cylinders:
1. Cylinders may be rolled on the bottom edge but never dragged.
2. Carry cylinder in a cradle or in a suitable type of carrying device.
3. Do not permit them to strike each other violently. Tie vertical cylinder by chain.
4. While returning empty cylinders or when not in use, close the valve and replace valve
protection cap.
5. Always consider cylinders as full and handle them with care. Do not store gas
cylinders in the sun or excess heat.
6. Follow the Gas Cylinder Rules 2004, IS:5903 and other Indian Standards.
10. Handling of Hazardous Material / Dangerous Substances/Chemicals:
USA Code (Title 49, Code of Federal Regulations) defines hazardous material as "Any
substance which has been determined to be capable of imposing an unreasonable risk to
person or property". It further states that "No person may offer or accept a hazardous material
for transportation in commerce within the United States unless that material is properly
classed, described, packaged, marked, labelled and in good condition for shipment.
1. Dangerous substances should be handled and stored under the supervision of a
competent person who is familiar with the risks and the precautions to be taken.
2. In case of doubt as to the nature of the risk or the precautions to be taken, the
necessary instructions should be obtained from the MSDS and the competent authority.

75
3. When dangerous substances are to be handled or stored, the workers concerned
should be given adequate information concerning their nature and the special precautions to
be observed in handling them.
4. Special precautions, such as the provision of mats, sling nets, boxes and high sided
pallets should be taken to prevent breakage of or damage to containers of dangerous
substances. 5. If containers of dangerous substances are broken or damaged to a
dangerous extent, work should be stopped and the workers concerned removed to a safe place
until the danger has been eliminated.
6. When highly flammable material is being handled, special measures should be taken
to ensure that an incipient fire can be
controlled immediately.
7. When necessary, non-sparking
tools should be provided and used in
explosive atmosphere.
8. Where corrosive substances are
handled or stored, special precautions
should be taken to prevent damage to the
containers and to render any spillage
harmless.
9. Workers handling harmful
substances should thoroughly wash their
hands and face with soap and water
before taking any food or drink.
Safety in Stacking and Un-stacking:
Neat and orderly stacking or un-stacking minimize hazards and conserve space.
Materials piled haphazardly increase accidents and damage to materials. Planned material
storage reduces time to bring raw materials into production and to remove finished products
from production. The warehouse supervisor should direct the proper stacking and un-
stacking.
Adequate ceiling clearance under the sprinklers, side clearance to keep free and clear
the electrical panel boxes, switches and other controls and unobstructed access (passageways)
to fire hoses and extinguishers must be maintained. All the exits and aisles should be kept
clear. Codes on installation of sprinkler systems should be referred for clearance between the
storage and the sprinkler heads.
Loading and unloading areas and aisles should be kept clear i.e. no material should be
stacked there. Aisle width should allow for the turning radius of any power truck to be used.
These areas must be marked or painted with lines.
Racks, stands, shelves, platforms and bins should be provided to facilitate storage and
reduce hazards, e.g. bromine bottles on shelves. Damaged racks should be repaired soon.
Workers should not climb racks.
Height indicating line should be painted on wall to show maximum limit of stacking.
This helps keep the floor load within limits and sprinkler heads in the clear.

76
 High rack (bay) storage requires unique, specially designed and high lift handling
equipment. Upto 30 ft (9 mt) heights manually operated and for more height computer
controlled equipment are available. Audible and visual warnings on moving equipment are
necessary.
Toxic materials should not be stacked with flammable materials. Volatile material
should be kept in a cool shed. Boxed carboys should not be stacked higher than 3 tiers and
those of strong oxidising materials, not more than 2 tiers. Incompatibility should also be
checked. Proper and sufficient fire fighting arrangement should be provided in and around the
storage.
Lifting hoist cage should have safe lift way. It should be so enclosed that material
cannot fall on Workers. Landing platforms must have safe guard rails to prevent material to
fall from opening.
If two overhead travelling cranes are operated at the same height and on the same
rails, limit switches, buffers and alarms must be provided to maintain their safe inter distance
and Driver's cabins should face each other.
Paper or cloth rolls, barrels, cylinders and materials which may roll or slip must be
stacked safely. Begs and boxes must be kept cross tied and not overhang. Containers must be
well marked with the content to avoid mistake in their identification.
Proper ladders, platform and inters tacking containers should be used.
Floor and Lay-out Conditions:
1. Floors : Depending upon the load and type of operations, the conditions of the floor
such as (a) Cleanliness (b) Absorptive qualities (c) Marking (d) Colour (e) Non-sparking of
static disseminating properties and (f) Durability will give great effect on material handling.
Floor used for stacking should be of sound construction, well maintained, leveled and
facilitating drainage. Ground should withstand all weather conditions for the load to be
imposed. Stacks should not be built close to railway tracks or in the vicinity of vibrations or
possibility of fire.
2. Walls : Generally walls are not retaining walls. Therefore load should not be stacked
against walls or leaning to wall. A clearance of 18" from wall facilitates inspection of stacks
and avoids stacks touching the walls.
3. Construction of Stacks : Height base ratio, size, shape, bulk, weight, type, rigidity
and fragility of materials and availability of space influence the size of stacks. Normally
height should not exceed three times the narrower width.
Bonding articles in the stack is useful for me stability. Interlocking provides natural bonding.
Artificial bonding uses materials like battens, canvas sheets etc. between the tires.
Stacking should not obstruct fire alarm boxes, sprinklers, controls, fire extinguishers, first-aid
boxes, switches, fuses, lights etc. Exits and aisles must be clear. Clearance below sprinkler
heads should be more than 2 ft. It should be large enough if the material being stored is
inflammable.
Aisles having one way traffic should be more than 3 feet wider than the widest vehicle when
loaded. If the material is to be handled from aisles, turning radius of the power truck should
also be considered. Marking line on wall to indicate maximum height of stacking keeps the
floor load within limit and the sprinkler heads with clearance,

77
 4. Lighting: Inadequate light is a factor behind many slips, falls and injuries. There are
various types of light fittings available and these should be selected and used for specific
work or areas. The required levels of illumination for different operations are given in
Chapter-9. All stores, godowns, yards, workrooms and places of material handling should be
properly illuminated.
5. Ramps: Ramp gradient should not exceed 1 in 10. It should not be slippery, uneven
or broken. It should have sufficient width.
6. Obstructions : Pipes, conduits, drains, valves, fire apparatus,
etc., are necessary parts of plant structures, yet they often cause
hazards. In planning the plant, such parts should be so placed that
they may cause minimum interference with persons or materials.
7. Ladders: Do not climb on stock-piles. Use ladders. Fixed
ladders are preferable. If the height exceeds 2 m provide railing and
hand-tools pocket for the ladders. Portable ladder should have non-
slip base or its bottom should be held, tied or securely anchored to
prevent slipping.
8. Bridge plates:Bridge plates should be of adequate strength
and they should always be properly anchored.
Ergonomics of Manual Handling and Storage:
Ergonomics, human factors or human engineering is the study of human
characteristics for the appropriate design of the living and work environment. Human
characteristics include capabilities, limitations, motivations and desires. Hence, ergonomics is
human-centred, trans-disciplinary and application oriented science. Scientific principles,
methods and a variety of data are used to develop systems more suitable to people and
successful application is measured by improved productivity, efficiency, safety and
acceptance of the resultant system design. The user-oriented design philosophy considers
human variability as a design parameter and incorporates built-in safe guards to avoid or
reduce the impact of unpredictable human error.
Psychology, physiology, biomechanics, anthropology, science and engineering are the
main disciplines to be considered in ergonomics.
Work physiology takes into account capacity for physical work. and its energy cost,
heart rate at work, matching people and their work, rating the perceived effort, work/rest
cycles and fatigue.
Anthropometry ' measures human body dimensions for work and biomechanics
explains strength of human body in mechanical terms. It considers muscle strength and its
method of working. It is this muscular strength which is mainly used in manual material
lifting and handling.
Four keys 'explained by Kroemer (1984) for ergonomics of manual handling are as
follows : 3
1. Improved facilities of good layout provides safe and efficient material transfer.
2. Job or task design should consider stress on the worker and should decide whether to assign
certain tasks to a person or a machine.

78
3. Selection, use and improvement of equipment, machines and tools strongly affect material
handling requirements. Space requirement, control device, visibility, colour and sign coding
etc. should be considered.
4. System must be designed for people as they are king pins of material handling. Their body
size, strength and energy capability should be considered.
These four keys provide systematic analysis of material handling problems and many
of the risks and strains can be avoided or reduced by intelligent job design, selection and use
of equipment and well designed facilities.
3.1.2 Mechanical :
Safety in Design, Construction and Operation of Lifts & Hoists:
General requirements are as under:
1. Hoist limit switch to cut of power and apply brakes when hook/cage rises to a
predetermined level to prevent over-winding.
2. Limit switches to prevent over travelling and over transferring. These limit switches
should automatically reset within a reasonable distance travelled in' the opposite direction.
3. Emergency push button for prompt use.
4. Isolation switch to cut off all power except lighting. Proper earthing.
5. Off position interlocking to prevent the circuit breaker from being closed unless all
controllers are in off position.
6. Screen on bare conductors.
7. Pilot lamp (red lens) to indicate on or off condition.
8. Hand lamp of 25 volt DC or AC.
9. Earthing as per Electricity Rules.
10. Means of anchoring when the hoist/crane is left unattended or under storm conditions.
11. Others : Sheaves guard to retain ropes in grooves, safe means of access, ladders and
guards on moving/rotating parts. Examination for wear, malfunction, damage and proper
operation of hooks, ropes, brakes, clutches and limit switches.
12. Safety points for operation : No loading over SWL. Marking of SWL and load
indicators for varying SWL. Pick up load only when it is directly under the hook, otherwise
stresses will develop. Full vision in driver's cabin. Fire extinguishers, warning device, safe
operating precautions for raising and lowering loads, moving loads over workers working
underneath and duties of drivers while leaving the cabin, should be prescribed and followed.
People should not be lifted or transported by hoist or crane.
Safety Aspects of Lifts or Elevators: (Use &Care)
Following are the specific safety aspects for safe design and operation of lifts or
elevators:
1. Lift Wells : No projection inside, sufficient space for repairs and maintenance, fire
proof to the maximum extent.
2. Lift Well Enclosures : Enclosed construction, if wire mesh, opening should not be
more than 32 mm. Clearance between moving car and the platform sill or wall shall
not be more than 25 mm to avoid trapping.
3. Lift Pit : It should be waterproof to disallow water from outside.
4. Top & Bottom Clearance : Minimum I mt in the top and I mt in the bottom.

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5. Landing Gate & Doors : Landing door should cover the full size of the car gate
opening and if it is collapsible, grill opening should not be of more than 6 cms wide
and if it is solid, it should have a vision panel of not more than 25 mm width. Solid
door is safer.
6. Interlocked Gates & Doors : Lift car shall not, move until all landing doors are
closed and they will not open till the car is moving, except by a special key.
Automatic door-closures are useful.
7. Lift Cars : Enclosed type, smooth and non-slippery floor, alarm and push button,
light, ventilation, plug-socket on car top to take power supply for maintenance work,
factor of safety more than 5, marking of 'persons' capacity' (base 68 kg per person)
8. Counter Weight : Should be in a steel frame, secured by two tie rods to prevent fall
and travel in rigid steel guide.
9. Buffers : Spring or hydraulic type, of adequate strength, on the pit floor to absorb
shocks if the car falls.
10. Suspension Ropes : 3 independent ropes for traction drive and 2 ropes with
drum drive each rope separately and independently fixed to car and counter-weight,
ropes free from joints and factor of safety more than 12 based on static contact load +
weight of car and accessories.
11. Emergency Safety Device : Safety gear Instantaneous type. Gradual Wedge
clamp or Flexible guide clamp - to retard the speed if it exceeds I m/s and operating
on both the guides.
12. Over Speed Governor : It prevents the car from falling or overspeeding downwards. If
speed exceeds the normal design speed, the governor applies brakes on the car driving
mechanism and also releases safety clamps against the guide rails to bring the car to a
smooth sliding stop.
13. Slack Rope Switch : If the car is obstructed while descending and the rope becomes
slack, this switch will stop the machine.
14. Machine Room : Height should be more than 2 m, space around m/c more than 60
cm, hand lamp provided and room locked with a key, with the authorised person.
15. Machine Supports : Supporting beams shall be of steel or RCC. The factor of safety
shall be 5 for steel and 7 for RCC.
16. Final Limit Switches : Upper and lower ultimate switches to stop the car
automatically within the top and bottom clearances independently of the normal
operating device and the terminal limit switches.
Testing, Inspection and Maintenance:
Testing includes insulation tests for electric wiring. Test voltage should be DC (more
than twice the rated voltage) and insulation resistance of each wiring circuit should be more
than 2 m ohms.

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 Tests for satisfactory operation of each controller, switch, contactor, relay, interlocks,
sequence of operation, protective devices. Tolerance on specified speeds at full load shall be
within 10%.
Overload test by 125% of the working load. Proof (test) load may vary from 1.5 to 4
times of the SWL as mentioned in Part 3.3.3. Sample of wire ropes should be tested.
Periodic inspections to detect unsafe conditions, warn or damaged parts, wear and
other defects in wire and fibre ropes, lifting gear, tyres etc. are necessary.
Gear wheels and pinions should be maintained in good condition, properly keyed and in their
correct gear mesh. Gear wheels and pinions with broken teeth or cracked areas, rims or
bosses should be discarded and replaced. The faces of all ratchets, jaw clutches, gear locks
and collars should be kept in their correct relationship to ensure safety in use.Repairs shall be
carried out by 'permit to work' system. All power shall be disconnected while doing such
work.Notices like 'under repair' 'out of order' 'don't' . start' etc. shall be displayed.
Signaling :
Importance of proper signalling for co-operation between the hoist/crane operator and
the slingers/ signallers or the motion indicators should be recognised, a code of practice
should be developed and followed.
Signaller (hook-on person) should be
thoroughly acquainted with the standard hand
signals, the operation of the lifting equipment,
the correct methods of securing, handling,
stacking and piling loads and should be
completely responsible for arranging slings or
other hook-on devices and giving the signals
that direct the equipment operator during the
moving of the load.
The crane operator shall respond to
signals only from the appointed (trained)
signaller but shall obey a stop signal at any
time from any body.
Safe Use of Accessories for Manual Handling:
Each tool or other device should be kept in good repair and used for the job for which
it is designed.

81
(1) Hooks : Danger of glancing off hard objects. When carried in a belt, the point should be
covered. Sharp point necessary for handling bags, logs, crates, boxes etc. should be protected.
(2) Crow Bar : Main hazard is slipping. Point or edge should have a good bite. Proper position
of hand and body to minimise chances of
hand pinching or worker falling if the
bar slips. Never work astride a crow bar.
When not in use, keep on a rack.
(3) Rollers : Heavy or bulky objects are
often moved on the rollers. Main hazard
is fingers or toes getting pinched or
crushed between the roller and the floor
or the roller and the object, when the
direction of the roller is changed. To move a roller under load, use a sledge or a bar, never
hand or foot.
(4) Hand truck and wheel barrow : It has mostly 4 or more wheels.
1. Knuckle guards to protect jamming of hands against door frames or other
obstructions.
2. Wheel should be under the truck if possible to save injuries to toes and feet. Wheel guards are
preferable.
3. Provide brakes to avoid holding a truck with a foot on wheel or axle.
4. Inspect daily and keep in good repair.
5. No one truck is right for handling all types of material. Select appropriate one.
6. Loaders should keep their feet clear of wheels. Load should be so placed that it will not shift,
fall off or block clear view ahead.
7. On two wheelers, centre of gravity of load should be placed well forward.
8. Four-wheelers should be pushed and not pulled.
9. Avoid collisions especially at blind corners. Use
mirror at corner.
10. Do not. park trucks in aisle ways so as to obstruct
traffic or causing stumbling hazards.
(5) Hand Trolley: It has mostly 3 to 4 wheels.
1. Cover floor holes or remove bumps and make it even to
prevent trolley from jumping.
2. Provide rubber tyres on wheels to minimise noise and damage to flooring.

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 3. Load should be evenly distributed to prevent tilting.
4. Don't overload trolleys. It is unsafe.
5. Load height on trolley should not obstruct vision.
6. Secure load on trolleys with ropes, stay blocks etc. wherever necessary.
7. While going up on slope, pull up the trolley and while going down on the slope push down
the trolley.
8. Trolley handles should be held at the front artd not on the sides to avoid knuckles getting
bruised due to contact with wall or machine etc. If the trolley handles are to be held on sides,
provide knuckle guards.
9. Pathways should be clearly marked in white or coloured lines.
10. Park trolleys in such a way that they do not obstruct passageways.
(6) Jack:
An identifying plate showing lifting capacity should be visible. It
should be painted or marked on it and never be exceeded. If hydraulic
fluid leaks, that jack should be removed from use. Jacks should be
lubricated only at points required. They should not be thrown or dropped.
The resting floor should be checked for load bearing capacity and level.
A hard wood insert should be used between the jack head and the load to
avoid metal to metal contact. After the load is raised, metal or heavy
wooden stands should be placed under it for support and risk of lack
slipping or falling. To raise a large sized load, two or more jacks should
be used, but they should be equally raised. Workers should wear safety
shoes. Oil spillage should be cleaned before and after the work.

83
 Chapter 3
Plant design and Housekeeping
PLANT DESIGN AND LAYOUT
Components in Design Process:
If components of any structure, vessel, equipment etc. are weak or not properly
designed, they may fail. Therefore a component should-be designed to withstand (1) static
loads (2) dynamic loads (3) internal and external pressure (4) corrosion & erosion 11(5) loads
due to large differences in temperature / pressure and (6) loads due to external impacts (wind,
settlement, earthquakes etc.).
Selection of proper "factor of safety' and proper material of construction (MOC) are
important form design point of view.
These loads may be included in the design process. It is of more importance for
pressure plant containing flammable, explosive or toxic substances or liquids above their
flash points or boiling points.
Components of control systems (manual or automatic) should be properly integrated
with necessary safety devices, trips and alarms, interlocks, pressure reducing valve (PRV),
non-return valve (NRV), excess flow valve (EFV) and automatic process controllers etc.
Reliability of components of main and sub-systems (parts) is important. See Part 5 of
Chapter-19 for reliability aspect.
Load and pressure testing of components i.e. testing of the assembled systems, piping
and joints, valves and fittings is also necessary.
6.2 Travel Chart:
Travel chart is a simple and useful, method to analyze deficiencies in the layout of a
factory and in planning a good layout.
The deficiencies in a poor layout are :
1. Congestion on the shop floor.
2. Excessive waiting time of machines and materials.
3. Poor space utilisation.
4. Absence of easy access to machines, tools and materials.
5. Excessive handling of materials.
6. Irregular flow of process and materials.
7. Back tracking and zigzag movements.
8. Absence of necessary aisles and routes.
9. Unbalanced activities resulting in poor utilisation of men, machines and materials,
and
10. Inflexibility of layout allowing no scope for expansion or alteration needed with time.
The travel chart technique detects above deficiencies to improve the plant layout and
suggests follow-up action necessary. It is a mathematical approach which measures
quantitatively the movements of materials and in-process work. The purposes of such
measure are :
1. To assess the quantities and the nature of materials flowing from area to area and from
machine to machine.

84
 2. To reduce movements to minimum. .
3. To relocate contributing and user areas on the basis of percentage contribution, and
4. To arrange operations in each section for self sufficiency.
Unit movement is noted by multiplying distance and frequency. From the data of
number of components, their weights, distances travelled, frequency of trips etc., templates
for the machines and equipment and other details, the travel charts are prepared.
The study of travel chart suggests improvements in materials handling methods and
machines in operation, types of containers, aisles, travel routes etc.
Planning, Design and Layout:
Plant or factory premises vary in size and manpower employment. There are giant
petrochemical and fertilizer plants on one end and small factory in a single room on the other
end. Under the Factories Act, more welfare facilities are required from bigger factories
depending on number of workers arid male-female employment. Stringent safety provisions
are applicable to chemical plants and major hazard (MAH) installations. Before starting a
factory permission from local authority and other related government departments is also
required. Where pollution is possible, permission from State/Central Environment
Department and Pollution Control Board is also necessary.
Definition of a 'factory' is given under the Factories Act 1948 and it is the main Act
(together with State Factories Rules) applicable to the layout, design, construction and
working of a factory.
A plant should be located after considering siting criteria mentioned in Part-4, and be
constructed by considering statutory requirements mentioned in Part-2.
General Principals of Planning and Design
1. Siting criteria as mentioned in Part 4.
2. Good transportation facilities.
3. Safe handling and storage facilities.
4. Personal and Welfare facilities.
5. Engineering, utility and safety facilities.
6. Walkway, stairs, .platform, ramps etc.
7. Good lighting and ventilation.
8. Elevators and lifting machines.
9. Boilers and pressure vessels.
10. Fixed and portable machinery and equipment.
11. Electrical installation.
12. Fire protection.
13. Other provisions for health and safety, viz. effluent disposal, water, firs-aid, emergency
power, equipment and emergency planning etc.
General principles of any workplace design:
1. Plan the ideal, then the practical.
2. Plan the whole, then the detail.
3. Plan the work process and equipment around the system requirements.
4. Plan the workplace layout around the process and equipment.
5. Plan the final enclosure around the workplace layout
6. Use trials to evaluate alternatives and to check the final design.

85
 Design aspects should include proper buildings and roads layout, storage & process
layouts, proper heights, lights, depths, spacing and dimensions considering ergonomic
requirements, loads and climatic factors and specific process hazards.
Some notable points for good planning and design are:
Sound foundations, stable construction and loading, non-congested machinery layout
(safety distance 1 m), no overcrowding (otherwise claustrophobia is possible), minimum
floor area per worker (1 to 2 m2), minimum alley width, safe roadways, walkways, yards etc.,
prescribed ventilation area (15% of floor area), sufficient natural and mechanical ventilation,
humidity control, sufficient natural and artificial lighting, open plant for chemical processes,
dykes, boundaries and blast walls (to' withstand 7 kgf/cm2 force), safe layout and erection of
chemical vessels and equipment, ergonomic considerations, segregation of noisy and dusty
processes, fencing and covering of water-ways, reservoirs, ditches, floor openings, gutters
etc., separate entrance and exit gates, parking plots, safe layout of control room, provision of
fire prevention and protection systems, safe storage of flammable, explosive and toxic
materials, waste disposal T arrangements for solid, liquid and gaseous wastes, ; effluent
treatment plant (ETP), scrubbers, incinerators, flare or exhaust as per requirement, safe :
discharge of smoke, fumes, dusts, gases etc., ' maintenance of separation distances mentioned
in Part-4.4, proper layout of utilities (water, power, steam, air, oil, inert gas etc.) and ancillary
services, : safe transportation and security arrangement, hazards identification and removal,
safe pipe work, follow-up of standards, codes and reliability criteria, \ limitation of inventory,
fail-safe design, built-in safety devices etc.
General Principals of Plant Layout
General Layout : Size, shape, location, construction, buildings layout and other
facilities should permit efficient utilisation of machines, processes and materials. Need and
possibility of one storey or multi-storey structure should be decided.
Layout should be properly planned to allow smooth flow and efficient use of men,
materials, methods, processes, time cycle etc. and should allow good and .safe working
conditions to prevent any accident or risk.
Some General Principles for good Layout arc:
1. Enough work space (2 m2 per 'person) should be provided for workers to work without
restriction.
2. Proper roads, walkways, tracks, alleys, catwalks etc. should be provided for free passage
of men and materials to avoid delay and obstruction.
3. Sufficient doors, windows, ventilators and open space must be provided for good
ventilation and lighting.
4. Installation of machinery, floors, stairs, lifting machines, electric wiring etc. must be
done to ensure safety. Allow at least I m space around each machine.
5. Keep the handling of materials to the minimum. Use mechanical means to reduce
manual strain.
6. Provide safe means of access to all work places.
7.Provide safe transport facilities for men and materials.
8.Provide adequate emergency exits.
9. Purchase and arrange in orderly manner machines and equipment with built-in safety.

86
 10. Isolate high noise, vibration, fire, explosion and toxic hazards. Design a work bench,
table, booth, roof, ladder, platform, sheet, support etc. with safety standards to avoid
such hazards.
11. Allow space for future expansion.
12. Provide repair and maintenance workshop, welfare facilities and education and
training facilities.
13. Use appropriate colours, notices, signs, labels, posters etc. for safety.
14. Provide easy locations of fire alarms, fire fighting equipment, personal protective
equipment, emergency assembly points, medical centre, safety office etc.
15. Provide and maintain good housekeeping.
Other factors of plant layout and design from safety point of view are:
1. Safe design and construction using safety standards and good engineering practices.
2. Statutory requirements for plant layout and design.
3. Containment of leakage and accidents.
4. Segregation of different risks.
5. Safe storage, process, utilities and waste disposal design.
6. Safe control room location & design.
7. Emergency control devices.
8. Fire fighting and gas leak control facilities. Ample water storage.
9. Auto controls, alarms, trips, interlocks and necessary safety devices.
10. Railings and guarding at chances of fall, cross over and on moving machinery.
11. Roads of sufficient width and signs.
12. Safe loading, unloading, transport and piping facilities.
13. Security round the clock.
14. Wind direction and speed indicator with recorder to know wind direction and speed.
15. First aid centre and ambulance van.
The site layout is prepared first, then the plot and equipment layouts. Site is subdivided into
blocks or plots. Equipment layout includes P & I diagrams and fire equipment layout. This is
as under –
Plant layout

Site layout Plot layout Equipment layout

Preliminary layout General General

Main layout considerations considerations
Segregation Hazards materials
Separation Fire fighting P.&I.
distances Escape diagram
Fire Construction Fire equipment
containment Operation layout
Services/ Maintenance
Utilities
Effluents
Transport of
materials
Emergencies
Security

87
Factory Building and Internal Layout
IS:875, 1904 and 1905 for structural safety and IS:8089 and IS:8091 for layout safety
are important.
For approval of drawings under the Factories Act and Rules see foregoing Part 2.
Location of Buildings : Segregation of raw material storage, process building,
finished product storage and storage of hazardous materials, flame or ignition sources is
necessary. Statutory specifications for storing flammable liquids shall be followed. Fire
resistant wall is required between flameproof and non flame proof area. A detailed flow sheet
shall be used for layout. The cross flow of materials and/or pedestrians should be minimised.
All buildings and parking plots should be located near periphery to limit internal
traffic. The entire parking area should be fenced. White lines 10 to 15 cm wide, standard
stalls of 5 m x 6 m, driveway of 8 m, for two-way traffic and unobstructed viewing are
desirable. Separate entrances for incoming and outgoing vehicles and night light of about 100
lux m2 at a height of 1m should be provided. Buildings having more people should be away
from hazardous areas. Production building should have roads and access for fire fighting,
maintenance, vehicles, lifting machines etc. The flow of materials should be such that its
length of travel and frequency of handling are minimised. Cooling towers should be so
located to minimise mist and ice hazards.
Ventilating, heating and air-conditioning are needed for personal comfort and
sometimes for process conditions. Extra ventilation should be provided where heat or bad
fumes are generated. Boilers, fans and air-conditioning equipment should be located in
separate rooms for their fine adjustment and confinement of noise. Boilers should receive
adequate air and combustion by-products should be exhausted safely. Location of incinerator
should ensure that negative pressure differential in a building does not cause an incinerator
stack to serve as an air source.
Space for storing supplies, tools, frequently used equipment, racks, bins, shelves etc:
should be provided. Waste storage and additional required facilities should also be
considered.
Rail, Road and Footpaths: Good design for railway sidings is necessary. Provisions
for piping, valves, pumps, derails etc. to unload or load tank Wagons, guarding of side track
and public thorough fares and clearance (distance) from main plant are necessary.
Roads should be carefully laid out, substantially constructed, well surfaced, drained
and kept in good condition. Road should be at least 11 m. away from buildings. Heavy duty
truck hauling requires road up to 16 m. wide for two-way traffic with ample radii curves.
Gradient up to 8% and slight crown for drainage with ditches to carry off water are necessary.
Traffic signs, markings, speed breakers should be provided.
Good footpaths with shortest distance should be .provided to
discourage short cutting Concrete is preferred for footpaths.
Floors, Platforms and
Catwalks: The floor area
should be sufficient to allow
men, machines and materials
without any obstruction and

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 STUDY MATERIAL BY MR. AVIKUMAR SHINDE MOB. 7218850888 / 9422562886

overcrowding. As per Section 16 of the Factories Act, 14.2 m3 breathing space per worker
limited to a height of 4.2 m is necessary. The minimum floor area per worker in power and
non-power factories should be 3.3 sq. m. (36 sq. ft.) and 2.3 sq. m. (25 sq. ft.) respectively.
Minimum roof height should be as mentioned in Part 2.1(A). The floor should be non-skid
type of sound construction, easily cleanable, free from moisture retention and well
maintained. Other factors of floor viz. load bearing (strength), durability, noise, drainage,
resilience, appearance, light reflection, dustiness, chemical composition and reaction, heat
and electrical conductivity and maintenance should be considered for proper selection.
Marble, slate, asphalt, tile, linoleum, cement and wood are reasonably safe, provided their
surfaces are properly maintained. Welding floor should be of noncombustible material.
Spark-proof and conductive flooring such as magnesium and conductive rubber are good
where flammable air mixture is likely to be ignited by a friction or static charge.
Floor openings and floor holes, wall opening and wall holes, open-side floors, platforms and
catwalks shall be guarded with railings and guards as mentioned in IS:4912. General height
of railing is 100 cm maximum and 75 cm minimum with minimum distance between its
members (posts) as 20 cm and capable of withstanding a point load of at least 90 kg in any
one direction. Floor covers should withstand a truck load of 9 to 15 tonnes.
The gangway should be at least 1 m wide and firm to withstand movement of a trolley, hand
truck. Catwalk is a passage way for persons elevated above the ground or any floor level
such as foot walk along shafting or a walkway between buildings. Every catwalk should be
al least 42 cm wide and guarded by a tow guard
(a vertical barrier erected along exposed edges of a floor
opening, platform, -catwalk, ramp etc., to prevent falls)
of 15 cm nominal height. Ramps slope should not be
more than 15°.
Stairs, ladders
and Scaffolds: Stairs are
safer than ladders.
Circular stairways should
be avoided. Stairway slope
should be 30° to 35° from
the horizontal. The
maximum height of a staircase should be 3.7 m (12') with
riser height between 13 cm to 20 cm and tread width 23 cm
(9") or more. The width of the staircase should be 1.12 m
(44") or more and load bearing i strength of 500 kg./sq. I m.
(100 lb./sq. ft.). Two \ distant staircases are j needed at
hazardous
Scaffold and its supporting members should
be designed to support a given load with a factor of
safety at least 4 No plank less than 5 x 25 cm should be
used for scaffold plains. Their overlap distance should
be at least 30 cm. Tubular steel scaffolds designed,

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 STUDY MATERIAL BY MR. AVIKUMAR SHINDE MOB. 7218850888 / 9422562886

tested and built by experts are more preferable over built-on-the job wood scaffolds. Their
advantages are: safety of worker, lower cost, lowered fire hazard and good appearance.
15:2750, 3696 and 4014 are on scaffolding.
Exit, Doors and Windows: Maximum distance between two exits should be 20m in
high hazard factories and 30 to 50m in low hazard factory. They should be as per
requirement. Exit doors should be clearly visible and open outwards. The standard size for a
door and window are 200 x 120 cm and 150 x 90 cm respectively. A sill level of a window
from working floor is 1 m. For every 9.35 sq. m. (100 sq. ft.) wall area one window of
standard size should be provided. Normal distance between two windows (centre to centre)
should not exceed 2.4 m. (8'). The window shutters should also open outwards. Ventilators
should be provided SOT a height above 3.5 m.
Stores: Mechanical handling should be preferred. All bunds or dykes should have
good drainage. Local stores and stocks should not cause obstruction. Inventory and site of
hazardous materials should be limited. Stocks, racks, shelves, stacks, electrical machinery
etc. should be protected from rain or water.
Loading-unloading should be so located to minimise disturbance to traffic. Storage of
explosive, reactive, unstable, flammable and toxic materials should be so designed to
maintain sufficient distances within the storage area and between other areas. Maximum limit
per unit area should be decided so that if larger quantities are to be stored, new store area well
separated from the first may be provided.
Safe storage of flammable, explosive, toxic and radioactive materials should be
ensured. Flameproof electric fitting, fuming (low Boiling Point) chemical in AC room, closed
(pipe) transfer, safe pumping, local exhaust etc. are necessary.
Engineering workshop: Clear gangways around dangerous machines, separate
welding bays with shielding, ventilation and fume extraction, outside racks and chains for gas
cylinders, permanent lifting gear at correct place for all foreseeable loads, machine to
machine or machine to wall distance of at least 1 m., clothing and tool cupboards, and first-
aid box etc., need good planning.
Layout of equipment: Various methods are used to determine the safest and efficient
layout of production machines and equipment. Threedimensional models made to scale can
be rearranged on a scaled floor plan to determine such layout. Congested area should be
anticipated and avoided. A vertical distance of at least 2.2 m is generally specified between
passage stairways and overhead structures to provide ample clearance (head room). Overhead
cranes and conveyors require at least 60 cm of vertical and horizontal clearance. Aisles for
two-way traffic should be more than I m wider than twice the width of the widest vehicle. For
heavy traffic, aisles from 4 to 6 m wide are specified. Aisles should have a 2 m radius for
truck turn and should have no blind corners. Where ramps are needed, a I m wide walk-way
should be provided.
All hot parts should be lagged to avoid burns. Operations of ignition sources (welding-cutting
etc.) should be located away from use or store of flammable materials. Toxic operations
should be kept away from a populated area.
Tool Housekeeping:
Disorderly placed tools or absence of holding device is a common phenomenon.
Orderly arrangement of tools in crib (rack or box) or in a tool room and regular checking of

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 STUDY MATERIAL BY MR. AVIKUMAR SHINDE MOB. 7218850888 / 9422562886

tool condition and necessary repairing are most essential. Necessary tool box, pens, holders,
racks, shelf etc. should be provided with the machine and also in the tool room.
A fixed tool holder (tray) with machine or a movable trolley holding a set of tools,
jigs, parts etc. should be provided.
Tools placed at their proper place do not waste time in searching them. The workers
and supervisors should insist for such habit.
Planning and Follow up :
Merely wishing good housekeeping is not sufficient. Certain policy must be established and
followed. Aids and equipment necessary for good housekeeping must be purchased. The
management must understand the results of bad housekeeping and must accept responsibility
for good housekeeping
Planning and follow-up should include -
1. Deciding policy and technique for good house keeping.
2. Proper layout of work area.
3. Marking of aisles, ways and storage areas.
4. Cabinets and holders for tools and equipment.
5. Storage arrangements for materials.
6. Containers for materials in process.
7. Efficient sequence of operations to avoid bottlenecks.
8. Anticipation of waste, scrap, dust, spillage, splashes etc., and inclusion of methods of
their control stated in Part 5.2.
9. Efficient transportation of raw material, finished:; products and refuse. Use of
mechanical feeding belt conveyor etc..
10. Efficient cleaning methods including vacuum cleaners etc., and without interrupting
the production schedule.
11. Necessary training of workers.
This is a sample list which may be modified according to the particular requirements of a
plant.
Good housekeeping cannot be left to the unplanned activities of persons employed. It is a
management technique and it should be laid out in such a way that it is easy for order and
cleanliness to be observed.
A good housekeeping committee, competition, rewards and individual and group incentives
for good housekeeping play an important role to increase and maintain motivation for
housekeeping.
Use of Colour as an Aid :
The subject of colour is separately dealt with lighting in the next Chapter. It is
important to note here that proper colour selection for walls, ceiling, passageways, machines,
piping, railings, fencing, guards, boundaries, fire equipment, lifting machines, warning signs,
danger zones etc., play vital role in improving housekeeping and safety. Statutory or IS for
colour-code, if any, should be followed, otherwise the selection should be based on the best
effect and necessary contrast.
EFFECTS OF COLOUR ON SAFETY

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 STUDY MATERIAL BY MR. AVIKUMAR SHINDE MOB. 7218850888 / 9422562886

What is more perceived? Colour or light? What the eyes see is colour and colour
contrast, rather than light.
Lighting and colour are complementary and their effects are interdependent.
Therefore, they are considered together in this Chapter.
No lighting scheme can be fully effective unless supplemented by well chosen and
well maintained coloured surfaces.
Need of Colours :
Environments for work, play or relaxation have to be created and maintained. The colour and
lighting influence vision and contribute to ' the wellbeing, morale, attitudes, housekeeping,
quality, productivity, health and safety. In industry colours are used to :
1. Improve lighting conditions.
2. Decorate the environment.
3. Increase efficiency and productivity.
4. Improve quality of workmanship and normal skill.
5. Improve labour morale and interest in work.
6. Reduce accidents and increase safety.
7. Reduce 'rejects'.
8. Reduce absenteeism.
9. Raise standard of good housekeeping..
10. Improve building and machinery maintenance.
11. Reduce hidden costs of dull and gloomy atmosphere, and
12. Improve overall psychological and physiological effects on workers for better work
performance.
Reflection Factors (LRV) :
A surface reflects light. The amount of light reflected will depend on the colour
scheme of the surface. Pure white will reflect 100% and pure black 0% of light falling on
them and reflections factor of other colours will fall in between. The recommended reflection
factors, also known as light reflectance value (LRV), for interiors are :
Part Colour LRV
Ceiling White 80-90%
Walls Light colour 50-75%
Furniture, equipment,
Light to medium colours 30-50%
machinery, desk etc.
Floors Medium to dark colours 15-30%

Light reflectance values (LRV) of some colours are as follows :

Colour Percentage of reflected light

White 85 to 90
Yellow Light 75 medium 65
Grey Light 75 medium 55 dark 30

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 STUDY MATERIAL BY MR. AVIKUMAR SHINDE MOB. 7218850888 / 9422562886

Green Light 65 medium 52 dark 7

Blue Light 55 medium 35 dark 8
Ivory Light 77 over green or white stippled 40
Cream Light 66
Buff Light 56
Brown Dark 10

Appropriate colour should be selected from above two tables which conclude that
ceilings and walls should have light colours for more reflection and floors, furniture and
equipment should have medium to dark colours for less reflection. Colour can be used as a
factor to reflect light to increase it.
Colour Code and Safety :
Indian Standards :
IS to be followed are : Code of practice for safety colours and safety signs 9457,
Pipelines, identification, colour code 2379, Standard colours for building and decorative
finishes 1650, pipelines in thermal power plants 9404, Identification for canisters and
cartridges 8318 and Gas cylinders and related medical equipment 3933.
Colours to Identify Hazards :
Colour coding is most desirable and useful for safety purposes. Standard colours are
used to identify hazards as follows :
- Fire protection, prohibition, danger, emergency stops on machines, red
cross on medical facilities.
- Risk, danger or caution, hazards of slipping, falling, striking etc.,
flammable liquid storage, yellow band on safety cans, material handling equipment viz. lift
trucks, cranes, crane hooks, caution, transport equipment, obstructions, change in floor
level, stair nosing etc.
- Safety equipment not identified elsewhere, safety board, safe condition.
- Warning and information signs, bulletin boards, rail road uses. It
indicates safety colour only if used with a circular sign.
- Dangerous parts of machines or energized equipment such as exposed
edges of cutting devices, inside of movable guards, enclosure doors, transmission guards,
electric installations.
Purple - Radiation Hazards
Black & White - Housekeeping and traffic markings. Also used as contrast colours.

White is a contrast colour for red, green and blue. Black is a contrast colour for
yellow.

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 STUDY MATERIAL BY MR. AVIKUMAR SHINDE MOB. 7218850888 / 9422562886

The piping in a plant may carry harmless or hazardous contents. Therefore it is highly
desirable to identify them. Some standard colour coding is as follows:
Content in the piping Colour
Flammable or water for fire protection Red
Dangerous (hazardous chemical) Yellow
Safe (water, air) Green
Protective material (inert gas) Blue

The proper colour may be applied to the entire length of the pipe or in bands 20-25
cm wide near valves, pumps and at repeated intervals along the line. The name of the specific
material should be stencilled in black at readily visible locations such as valves and pumps.
Piping less than 3/4 inch diameter is identified by enamel on metal tags. Anti-resistant
colours should be used where acids and other chemicals may affect the paints.
Following colour coding is also useful in identifying pipelines (IS:2379):
S. No. Material Colour
1. Water Sea green
2. Steam Aluminum, IS 2339
3. Air Sky blue
4. Acids Dark violet
5. Alkalis Smoke grey
6. Gases Canary Yellow
7. Hydrocarbons/ organic compounds Dark admirality grey
8. Mineral, vegetable and animal oils, combustible liduids. Light Brown
9. Other liquids / gases which do not need identification Black
Entire length or a portion, more than 30 cm, of a pipeline should be painted so that it
should not be mistaken for a colour band. The colour bands are superimposed on the ground
colour, applied at start, near valves, joints, bends and end points. For a longer pipe, interval
may be 50 m. Minimum width of colour band should be as under :
Accident Prevention Signs :
Accident prevention signs arc most widely used safety measures in industry. Their
uniformity in the colour and design of sign are essential. Employees may be unable to read
English or may be colour-blind and yet react correctly to standard sign. Following colours are
normally used for signs:-
Sign Colour
Danger Red oval in top panel; back or red lettering in lower
Immediate and grave danger or peril. panel.
Caution
Yellow background colours; black lettering.
Against lesser hazards.
Green background on upper panel; black or green
General Safety
lettering on lower panel.
White letter on red background. Optional for lower
Fire and Emergency
panel; red on white background.
Information Blue for bulletin boards.

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In-plant Vehicle Traffic Standard highway signs.

Exit Marking See Life Safety Code, NFPA 101, Section 5-10.
Different types of Accident prevention signs are shown in fig. 9.1. See Fig. 18.1 in Chapter
18 also.
Painting of Plant and Machinery :
No lighting scheme can be fully effective unless well-chosen (and well-maintained)
finishes are provided on main interior surfaces such as ceilings, walls, plant and equipment.
The main object is to use colours which will reflect rather than absorb light. Diffused light
thrown back in this way can contribute substantially to the total illumination on the work. It
also improves the quality of the lighting by softening shadows and minimising harsh
contrasts in the field of view, thus contributing to visual comfort and efficiency.
Because of full reflection of light, to paint the plant and everything by white colour is
not advisable, because 'only white' .premises and equipment cause fatigue and boredom and
are no incentive for active or creative work if there is no combination of other colours. Any
extreme should also be avoided.
For ceilings, the reflection factor should be at least 75% which means white or near-
white. A matt finish is preferable.. Aluminium paint is not recommended.
Walls are best finished in light pastel colours in the 50-75% range, except in the case
of very brightly lit walls (e.g. those adjacent to a large window) which may need toning down
to 40% or less to prevent them from becoming too glaring. Conversely, walls containing
windows (but which receive no direct light themselves) cannot often be painted white with
advantage.
Furniture should preferably have a reflection factor of at least 20%, and the modern
blond (pale yellow) wood finishes and light grey paints for steel cabinets are preferred to the
old-fashioned dark stained wood and dull olive green finishes. On desk and table tops which
form a background to the work, it is important to guard against distracting reflections.
Floors should not be too dark. Practical considerations usually govern the nature of
the floor finish, but 20-25% or so is. generally a satisfactory figure. Floor finishes which are
very much lighter than this should be treated with caution since they can sometimes cause
glare (e.g. particularly well-lit office interiors).
A well painted machine inspires feeling of personal pride and proper maintenance is
encouraged. Under the General Code of Practice for Machine Guarding it has been provided
that:
Colour schemes for machines be so selected as to cause least visual disturbance to the
operator. Colour schemes should provide quite finishes of medium reflectance and should
separate critical from non-critical areas of the machine. Critical 'areas are those which might
constitute danger points or which need to be instantly visible. These should be painted in
local colours i.e. colours which command attention (Red, Orange, Yellow). Non-critical
areas are those which should be kept in the background. These should be painted in "Static"
colours (Cream, Stone Grey, Pale Green, Pale Blue). Control areas should be painted in
suitable colour to provide a neutral background for coloured indicator plates.
Guards should be regarded as part of the machine and should be painted in the same
colour as the colour of the machine. Colouring recessed surface of machines with lighter

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shade than used for the outer surfaces help to minimise the effect of shadows on the inner
surfaces (Example : Static grey for outer surfaces, static stone for recessed surfaces).
Identification colours on machines should be reserved for things which really matter,
such as stop buttons and other safety tripping devices which must be found quickly in an
emergency. "Safety colours" must also be used with great restraint. Dangerous moving parts
should be guarded, not coloured, and when guarding is impossible, colour should be used to
highlight the actual hazard and not merely as a general warning.

FigAccident Prevention Signs : (a) Prohibitory (b) Warning (c) Mandatory

(Legal) (d) Safe Condition

Psychological Effects of Colour :

They are as follows :
Colour & other parameter Psychological Effects
Red Stimulates, activates, energises
Yellow Bright, Gray, Fresh like sunshine
Orange Tension producing
Light Green Relaxed feeling, improve morale

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Light Blue
Purple Feeling of depression
White Stimulating if it is used with warm colours
Black Not depressing if it is used with other colours
Size Green and Blue objects look larger than Yellow and Red
Green and Blue surfaces record. Red and Yellow come
Space
forward.
Red and Yellow give warm feeling. Blue and Green
Temperature
give cool feeling.
Weight Bright colours make objects look lighter.

Red, orange and yellow (light) are warm colours. Blue, turquoise and green are cool
colours. Off-whites and pastel tints are light colours. Black, grey and deep tones are dark
colours and red, yellow, yellow green, orange and red-orange are considered bright colours.
Warm colours may be used to obtain activation and relaxation effects i.e. energy
input. Cool colours are aid to energy output. Bright colours give an impression of useful
place and lightness and produce calm and peaceful effect. Dark colours may have a cheerless
and depressing effect.
In selecting colours following guideline is useful -
1. Natural white or light colours are safe and render all colour shades in true proportions.
2. Cool colours on objects give good effect. Therefore they are called safe object
colours.
3. Bright colours should 'be preferred as background colours. More saturated richer colours
should be preferred for objects. The sensation of colour of an object depends on the colour of
the background.
4. Sources emitting warm colour of light, render warm colours of objects. The proportion of
short-wave radiation makes cold colours ineffective.
5. Yellow seen against a black background will be luminous but will loose its luminosity when
seen against white. This effect (simultaneous contrast) is true with all colours and shades.
6. When seen against black, every colour becomes brighter and against white paler. This is
called successive contrast.
7. Colours can affect their background also (Bezoll's effect).
These rules emphasise importance of and interaction between light and colour. The
appropriate light has to be chosen with colour and vice versa.
While designing colour schemes for plant and equipment, these factors are to be taken
into consideration.
This discussion concludes t1iat the question of colour may not just be left to the
painter, nor the question of light to the electrician. Scientific knowledge of combined effects
of lighting and colour should be properly utilised.
Colour liking may change with time and fashion but safety aspect should not be
forgotten.

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Cleaning Methods:
Normally employed cleaning methods are cleaning by broom or brushes, vacuum
cleaning, washing by water or steam, air-jet cleaning, super-sucker to suck spillage, blockade
or choking etc.
Broomstick cleaning's useful for a limited area and where no much dust is
accumulated. Air-jet cleaning is also not desirable in open workplace, though it is effectively
useful to clean inner sides of any vessel, pipe, tube, equipment etc. But while doing so, air-
pressure should be regulated (controlled) dust masks must be worn and proper dust collector
should be provided.
Brushes are useful to clean sticky material. Wire brushes are employed to clean hard
and metal surfaces or deposits. Soap or detergent powder may be used with water.
The best cleaning method is by
vacuum cleaning because it does not push
or cause to fly dirt or dust here and there
but pulls inside the dust chamber which
can be emptied at a desired place. This
method has the least health hazard as it
does not allow dirt or dust in atmosphere.
It can suck dust from air also. Vacuum
cleaners are available of different sizes
and capacities. They may be portable or
fixed for particular location, machine or
system.
Local exhaust ventilation (LEV) is
an improved design of vacuum cleaning
device and effective engineering control
to collect dust or waste from near the source of generation. Its application in industry is very
wide and instead of cleaning device it is considered as an integral part (safety device) of .the
machine or equipment to which it is attached. Carding machine (textile), buffing and
polishing machine, grinding wheels and many dust or gas generating processes (e.g. acid
cleaning) are provided with such local exhaust ventilation or dust collectors. See Table 18 in
Chapter-32 for guide to select dust collectors.
In chemical and metal industry, special cleaning agents - HGI, H,O,, HP etc. -
decreasing agents and organic solvents are used .to clean metal surfaces and piping. Purging
by air or nitrogen is also utilised to clean vessel, equipment,
pipeline etc.
Trolly mounted portable cleaning device is available to clean
floors, walls, vehicles, storage vessels, machine tools, construction
machinery, factory shade etc. High pressure jets are used to clean
effectively. It removes dust, scale, oil, grease, rust etc from the
surfaces. Plain water or water mixed cleaning agent can be used.
Parts washer is also available to clean small parts of
labouratories, auto mobiles, metal, plastic and glass, general

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machinary, service stations etc. Cleaning is done in enclosed chamber. It removes oil, grease,
rust, dirt, paint, scale, scrap, burrs etc. Washing pressure is kg/cm2.
METHODS OF GOOD HOUSEKEEPING:
After knowing the benefits of good housekeeping ' as above, the methods of good
housekeeping are to be devised. Such methods are many. A few are given below:
General Considerations :
The 25 items listed in Part 4.3 suggest general considerations or essentials for good
housekeeping in a factory. In short, they should include proper placement and use of hand
tools, materials, equipment, clear and unobstructed workplaces, aisles stairs etc., speedy
disposal of waste, scrap, splashes and obstructions, safe means of handling goods or articles,
fenced platforms, floor-openings and wall openings to prevent fall accidents, removal of
possibilities of falling bodies, provision of sufficient containers for waste collection,
avoidance or fencing of sharp edges, corners etc., safe and efficient cleaning methods, good
lighting, colour and ventilation, proper marking and identification, protective equipment to
cleaners and maintenance men, special areas for storage of raw materials, finished product,
tools and accessories, racks for hand tools or implements above work-benches, under bench
drawer for storage of small personal possessions, devices on machines to prevent deposit of
oil, water etc., cleanliness of surrounding floors, drainage, channels etc, special cleaning
gangs with necessary cleaning materials and equipment, daily and weekly cleaning schedules,
regular arrangements for removal of waste and emptying of waste containers, prevention of
debris and clutter under benches and machine parts and special precautions depending upon
the nature of industry.
Disposal of Scrap and Trade Wastes :
This is the major part of good housekeeping. Estimation of probable wastes in
advance and planning for suitable means of their collection and disposal in the most
economical and efficient way is desirable. Separate sweeping service, sweepers with
equipment, waste and scrap receptacles with cover, overflow pans, chip screens, chip
catchers, chutes, exhaust and dust collection systems, drain for liquid splash, vacuum
cleaners, waste containers, methods of their transport and disposal, schedules of daily, weekly
and special cleaning need attention. Such general service is not expected to pick up scrap,
spoiled work, refuse, processed parts or tools. The plant workers are responsible for keeping
such items off the floor. The supervisor/foreman is responsible for orderliness and cleanliness
of his area. Instructions regarding hazard of cleaning up in Part 6.4 should be followed.
Hazardous waste should be disposed of with care. Fire hazards of combustible
waste should be prevented. Chemical wastes should be rendered harmless before being
disposed or dumped. Strong acids should be neutralised and not poured in open. Poisonous
materials, explosives, radioactive waste requires special procedures for safe disposal. The
workers should be properly trained for safe disposal.
HOUSEKEEPING AND SAFETY:
Statistics of accidents suggest the items of bad or poor housekeeping and from them
we infer the methods to improve housekeeping. Therefore they are considered first.
Typical Accidents due to Bad (poor) Housekeeping:

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Statistics : See Table 5.8 in Chapter-5 for injuries in India in 1990 & 1991. Causation
No. 10 to 15 give accidents due to (a) Hand tools (b) Falling bodies (c) Persons falling (d)
Stepping on or striking against object (e) Handling goods/ articles and (f) Others. Thus total
84386 out of total 128099 (in 1990) and 42079 out of 60582 (in 1991) clearly indicate that
more than 65.87% and 69.45% accidents in India were due to the causes of bad
housekeeping.
See in Table of Chapter-5 for industry and cause wise accidents in Gujarat in 1994.
Considering Causation No. 123 to 131, in the last row of total, the accidents figures are as
follows :
SR Causes Total Accidents
Others in machinery not moved by mechanical
1 511
power.
2 Use of hand tools. 710
3 Struck by falling bodies. 980
4 Persons falling from height. 506
5 Persons falling on the flat. 474
6. Persons falling into pits, excavation etc. 338
7. Stepping on or striking against objects. 1472
8. Handling goods or articles. 949
9. Others. 3342
Total 98282
Comparing with the total of all accidents 15683 this gives 59.18%. This clearly
indicates that about 60% accidents in Gujarat (in 1994) were due to the causes of bad
housekeeping.
The Causes of bad housekeeping : These are well evident from above tables. The
causes contributing the maximum accidents are :
1. Stepping on or striking against objects.
2. Handling goods or articles.
3. Struck by falling bodies.
4. Persons falling from height.
5. Persons slipping on the floor.
6. Use of hand tools, and
7. Others or miscellaneous.
sub causes can be had from the actual accident reports. But some are as under :
Accidents due to poor or bad housekeeping i.e. their causes are : Striking against or
falling over machine parts, materials or other obstructions left lying in passageways, cuts
from objects left protruding from benches and especially on construction sites, punctures by
nails protruding from objects or lying anywhere, falls on floor left slippery, greasy or damp,
badly stacked materials, fires due to accumulation of combustible waste or leakage of
flammable materials, cabinet drawers left open, dangerous dust or chemicals on floors and
not cleaning them quickly,, congested aisles, no toe-guards or hand rails, overloaded waste
containers, broken lockers and washrooms, dirty and unsafe walls, ceilings and windows, lint
and dust on bearings of machines, tools left on machines or walkways, poor lighting, unsafe

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handling of chemicals; spillage of oil, grease, acid etc. on floors, pipes of air, water, steam
and oil not properly maintained, no marking of safety and traffic signs, signals, loose or
unsafe wiring etc. These should be the targets of planning for good housekeeping.

Prevention of Spillage
Oil, coolant, water and chemical splashes on floors are routine phenomena in
industries. If they are not quickly and properly cleaned of, they cause slips falls, burns etc. If
the chemical is flammable, explosive, reactive or toxic, additional danger is added. The basic
effort should start from the design of appropriate floor viz. acid proof lining, rubber lining
etc., drainage system for flow collection, covering on gutters, splash guards as on jigger
machines (for dyeing textile), oil or coolant screens and collection trays, drip pans to collect
drippage from leaky valve, line etc. Damage to floors or such devices should be repaired
immediately. Workers should be trained to remove such spillage as early as possible.
Appropriate neutraliser (caustic, lime, soda, sand etc) and absorber should be used.
Marking Aisles and other Locations:
The aisles, gangways, catways, internal roads and passages, stairs, ramps and working
platforms also cause accidents due to improper marking, unsafe condition and frequency of
persons passing on them. Therefore they must be properly marked, equipped with necessary
handrails, footholds, fencing, lighting etc., and kept clean, dry and unobstructed.
Similar marking and up-keeping of other locations such as loading-unloading or
receiving- dispatch points, parking area, store area, electrical switch yard, tool room, rest-
room, lunch-room, sanitary block, washing centre, drinking water centre, first-aid centre,
assembly points, emergency equipment points, fire protection points, environment monitoring

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points, effluent points, scrubbers, dust bins, waste collection centres, dumping yard, scrap
yard, storage tanks etc., also necessary for good housekeeping.
Truck, trolley, cart and moving equipment should not be left on the way to cause
obstruction or harm. Aisle width should be sufficient to contain traffic. Its portion for
pedestrian traffic should be distinctively marked. Bright coloured lines (e.g. zebra strips)
can be used for pedestrian crossing. Yellow strip should be marked on the edge of level
difference. Mirrors should be placed to judge or see the man or material approaching from the
other side not otherwise visible.
Sufficient storage space should be designed and provided to contain full inventory.
Design of chemical stores needs much attention. Orderly locations, placements and marking
help much for better housekeeping.
Tool Housekeeping:
Disorderly placed tools or absence of holding device is a common phenomenon.
Orderly arrangement of tools in crib (rack or box) or in a tool room and regular checking of
tool condition and necessary repairing are most essential. Necessary tool box, pens, holders,
racks, shelf etc. should be provided with the machine and also in the tool room.
A fixed tool holder (tray) with machine or a movable trolley holding a set of tools,
jigs, parts etc. should be provided.
Tools placed at their proper place do not waste time in searching them. The workers
and supervisors should insist for such habit.
Use of Colour as an Aid :
The subject of colour is separately dealt with lighting in the next Chapter. It is
important to note here that proper colour selection for walls, ceiling, passageways, machines,
piping, railings, fencing, guards, boundaries, fire equipment, lifting machines, warning signs,
danger zones etc., play vital role in improving housekeeping and safety. Statutory or IS for
colour-code, if any, should be followed, otherwise the selection should be based on the best
effect and necessary contrast.
Housekeeping Contests :
To stimulate the interest by an element of competition, many times housekeeping
contests are arranged between different departments or groups of a factory or between
different factories on district or state level where organisations like National or State Safety
Councils take interest.
Committees are formed to inspect participating departments. Representatives from
different departments should be co-opted by the safety department.
Inspection may be limited to the period of contest only or it can be made regular by
making it monthly, bi-monthly or quarterly. The visit should be unannounced so that real
picture can be seen and regularity in housekeeping may be developed.
An award, prize or incentive may be given to the winning department (to its leader or
to all employees of that department). Small gifts of attractive or useful nature may also be
given. Such awards should be given m a function of all employees and by the hands of the
top executive. Supervisors of the winning department should be specially complemented.
Their encouragement is most important to get the work done.

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Employees Assignment:
It is the management's responsibility to assign sufficient employees to carry out
routine daily housekeeping job. Mostly such work is given on contract and company
employees believe that housekeeping is not their job. However where this job is assigned to
company employees, the picture is not good at some places. Because of unionism, company
employees are less duty-conscious and not that much regular as the contract workers. Such
tendency is diverting more -and more jobs to contract workers. Housekeeping, gardening,
security, transport, canteen and other welfare activities are such jobs.
Depending on number of latrines, urinals, bathrooms, washing facilities, canteen, rest
room, lunch room, medical centre and size of work areas, compounds, roads, godowns etc.,
sufficient number of employees should be allotted for housekeeping work. If more than one
shift are running, appropriate staff in each shift is necessary.
If sufficient manpower is not assigned looking to the area and hours of work, good
housekeeping cannot be achieved. Economy or shortage in manpower will result in bad
housekeeping. But because of increasing cost of manpower, compulsion of reduction in cost
of production in competitive market and availability of cleaning machine replacing
manpower, proper balance has to be maintained in assigning employees for housekeeping.
However, it should be borne in mind that dirtiness and bad housekeeping create health
and safety problems and may increase medical expenses, absenteeism and HR problems.
Therefore employee assignment for housekeeping job needs careful consideration and due
weightage.
Instead of solely depending on or waiting for employees for housekeeping job, if each
company employee feels his own duty to clean and maintain own workplace, own machine
and own table, it will be more meaningful and useful. 'Housekeeping is everybody's job'
should be the concept. 'Work is worship' is not a slogan, it is to be practised.
Safety Officer's Role :
A safety officer has to play an important role by
1. Suggesting the best housekeeping policy, procedure and equipment to the top
management.
2. Co-operating in finalising the policy and planning including preplanning,
space requirements and facility requirements for good housekeeping.
3. Implementing the policy, procedure and programmes through supervisors,
workers and all concerned throughout the plant.
4. Advising and assisting all plant people for their co-operation in good
housekeeping efforts.
5. Solving the problems by appropriate design, layout, planning and purchasing
equipment for good housekeeping.
6. Arranging supervision, competition, award and incentive schemes to improve
housekeeping and maintain interest.
7. Designing and arranging regular and special inspections, checklists, rating
forms and records for good housekeeping.
8. Paying more attention on all points mentioned in other parts of this Chapter
and particularly on (a) Clean premises, machines, equipment and orderly layout (b) Clean and

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hygienic sanitary facilities, bathrooms, cloak-rooms, mess rooms etc. (c) Storage places for
raw materials properly classified (d) Cabinets and holders for tools and portable equipment
(e) Containers for materials in process and products (f) Prompt removal of dirt, dust, refuse,
splashes, wastes and unwanted 'materials (g) Careful training of workers and (h)
Maintenance of plant 'including lighting, painting and motivation for good housekeeping.
Supervisor's Role:
For good housekeeping the interest and cooperation of the supervisory group
is more important as it is the more responsible group and more close to the working
conditions and workers. All supervisors must provide initiative and leadership for daily
attention of the workers on cleanliness and orderliness of workplace, machine, equipment,
tools, materials etc. in their control.
They have to carry out the management policy, programme and maintenance of good
housekeeping in their areas. They should take part in competition of housekeeping and try to
win awards for that. They can contribute much to boost up workers' morale, attitude and
enthusiasm towards their day to day checking and. efforts for good housekeeping. They have
to obtain co-operation from all workers for their success. If any award for rating standards are
prescribed for their superior performance, they should explain the workers how to achieve
them. They must pay constant attention on all items of removing bad housekeeping and
maintaining good housekeeping.
Workers' Role:
No success is possible without workers' efforts and co-operation for any safety or
housekeeping programme. This should be taught to them from their initial training. Creating
and maintaining their interest is most important. It is the management's skill and workers'
wish to do it. They have to implement the policy and checklist given to them for good
housekeeping. A list of items of daily and periodical checking should be prepared, displayed
and followed up accordingly. It should contain the items given in Part 4.3, 6 & 7 of this
Chapter, but selective for their job and place requirement. To keep their own place of work,
machine, equipment, tool etc., clean and in working order is in their interest. Nobody else can
keep their things so clean and in order as they keep for themselves. Daily they should spare a
few moments for cleaning up.
Hazards of cleaning up in proximity to moving machinery must be informed to
workers. The workers for such work should be well aware of -
1. Risk of entanglement, use of compressed air, electric shock, chemicals, cuts
from scrap metal, swarf or broken glass etc.
2. Skin affections and dermatitis due to detergents, oils and cleaning materials.
3. Need to wear personal protective equipment for protection from striking by
objects, stepping over sharp edges, handling such material or facing dust, fumes, gases,
splashes etc.
4. Need of washing, cleaning, first-aid treatment and vacuum cleaning when
required. To keep top cover and bottom (drain) valve open while cleaning any tank from the
top.

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Role of Maintenance:
The term maintenance maybe mixed with the term good housekeeping and therefore
their difference should be understood.
Maintenance covers the work done to keep building, plant, equipment and machinery
in safe and efficient working order and in good repair, the upkeep of all sanitary and welfare
facilities and the regular painting and cleaning of walls, ceilings and fixtures.
Good Housekeeping includes day-to-day cleanliness, tidiness and good order in all
parts of undertaking. Good housekeeping is not possible without good maintenance and vice
versa. Thus both are complementary.
Preventive maintenance is a scheduled or regular periodical maintenance of plant and
machinery. Its purpose is to prevent sudden or accidental failure, stoppage or breakdown of
plant and machinery. Without waiting for breakdown or failure, periodical oiling, greasing,
tuning, changing of parts, testing and examining keep the machinery in efficient working
condition, smooth running without excessive noise and vibration, leakage etc and it helps to
maintain good housekeeping. Sometime 'shutdown' is planned for such preventive
maintenance.
Productive maintenance is for the purpose of improvement in production. If speed or
output is decreased, noise, vibration, out running, reject, breakage, leakage etc. may increase,
then such maintenance is carried out to remove these losses. Even without such losses or
disorder, modification is carried out to boost up or increase the production rate or to achieve
desired quality or quantity of products.
Breakdown or corrective maintenance is compulsorily required when plant or
machinery stops due to breakdown, sudden failure, stoppage, accident or leakage etc. Then
without urgent repair, restarting is not possible, otherwise it adversely affects
housekeeping.
INSPECTION AND CHECKLISTS
Inspection Rating :
Purpose of housekeeping inspection is to detect the items or causes of bad
housekeeping to remove them. Such inspection may be by an individual such as supervisor,
inspector, plant in-charge, safety officer, superintendent or by a housekeeping committee,
safety committee or team consisting some of them as per requirement. Instead of inspecting
own department it is advisable to inspect other's department to avoid any favour or bias.
Monthly inspection is sufficient. It may be weekly also.
For a systematic inspection, a checklist should be prepared covering our own plant
details and specific requirements. Condition ratings should also be fixed for easy marking or
evaluation. A specimen checklist with score (marks) 0 to 10 is described below:
A. Excellent Housekeeping (Score 10.0 to 8.1) General appearance very neat and tidy.
Gangways very clean. Pieces of cotton waste, papers etc., not seen on the shop floor.
Materials stored in very orderly manner. Portable machines, hand tools, equipment etc., kept
tidily and in orderly manner. No leakage of compressed air, oil or any material. Roofs,
fixtures and fittings etc., free from cobwebs.

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B. Good Housekeeping (Score 8.0 to 6.1) General appearance clean. Gangways and shop
area fairly clean. Most of the materials stored properly. Machines, equipment kept clean. No
cobwebs on roofs, fixtures and fittings.
C Average Housekeeping (Score 6.0 to 4.1) General appearance satisfactory.. Gangways
free from materials, cotton waste or pieces of papers. Cleanliness on the remaining floor area
average. Machines and equipment kept reasonably clean. Roofs, fixtures and fittings not
thoroughly free from cobwebs.
D. Below Average Housekeeping (Score 4.0 to 2.1) General appearance not
satisfactory. Gangways partly blocked with materials. Few pieces of cotton waste seen on the
gangways. Other shops are not clean. Machines and surroundings not clean. Cobwebs on
roofs and walls, fixtures and fittings not clean.
E. Foot Housekeeping (Score 2.0 to 0.0) General cleanliness much below the required
level. Gangways blocked with materials and pallets. Pieces of papers, cotton waste etc, seen
on the floor. Machine and equipment not clean and dripping with oil and grease, etc.
Materials not stacked properly.
Such items and rating may vary. They should be devised according to need.
A.Model Checklist :
Housekeeping checklists are many and they may differ for details. Plant in-charge
should design its own checklist best suitable to it. Such checklist must cover all statutory
points. A sample checklist is given below. Write replies and remedies against each item.
-
1. Plant Layout : (1) Are Size, shape, location, construction and layout of building,
machinery and other facilities permit the most efficient and orderly utilisation of men,
materials and machinery ? (2) No doubt this aspect should be considered at the design stage,
still some improvement can be expected with slight modification and adjustments in die old
layouts. Is such modification necessary for good housekeeping?
2. Storage : (l) Are materials or items stocked too high? (2) Arc stairs, fire escape exits?
Fire extinguishers obstructed? (3) Are aisles free from obstructions? (4) Are items over
hanging or protruding so as to cause injuries? (5) Are bin cards and tally cards displayed
for identification?
3. Interior Arrangements : (1) Are machines, benches, cabinets, racks so arranged as to
facilitate good housekeeping? (2) Are aisleways marked? (3) Are marshalling areas so
located as to encourage their use? (4) Is colour or white washing in attractive and appealing
condition? (5) Are sitting facilities provided and furniture in good condition?
4. Machinery and Equipment : (1) Is machinery/ equipment well maintained and colour
coded? (2) Is there any leakage of gases or spillage of liquids? (3) Is there any deposition of
dust or other contamination on them? (4) Is moving machinery well guarded? (5) Are they
causing noise or vibration ?
5. Electrical fitting and illumination : (1) Are cables or wiring loose or hanging? (2) Are
sockets, plugs provided and cables are of standard requirement? (3) Are all areas sufficiently
lighted to reveal dirt obstructions and hazardous conditions? (4) Are there burned out bulbs or
sockets without bulbs or light shades hanging? (5) Is there dirt or dust on the control panel or
instruments? (6) Are trenches full of rubbish? (7) Are all earthings all right?

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6. Floors, drains, pits and manholes : (1) Are floors uneven and dirty? (2) Are drains full
of waste and choked? (3) Are drams and manholes open? (4) Are floors dirty and slippery?
(5) Are maintenance materials like gaskets, nuts, bolts, nails etc., scattered? (6) Is cotton
waste or oily material thrown on the way? (7) Are pits and opening fully covered or guarded?
7. Platforms and stairs : (1) Are control valves at height provided with platforms and
ladders? (2) Are platforms and staircases provided with hand railings and toe guards? (3) Are
ladders provided with handrails? (4) Is ergonomic design followed ?
8. Sanitation and ventilation : (1) Is ventilation adequate throughout the area? (2) Is
there indication of rodents and insects? (3) Are personnel eating in work areas creating in
sanitary conditions? (4) Are urinals and bathrooms stinking and require white washing and
disinfectant spraying and cleaning? (5) Are unnecessary odour prevalent? (6) Are proper
receptacles provided for the waste?
9. Fire extinguishing System : (1) Are all extinguishers charged of correct type, in
their proper place and readily accessible? (2) Are plant personnel trained in fire fighting?
10. Safety and First-Aid : (1) Are required type of safety appliances available, kept in
proper places and well maintained? (2) Are first-aid boxes or eye irrigators kept at proper
places and well maintained? (3) Are persons trained in the use of first-aid appliances and
first-aid practices?
11. Yard Areas : (1) Is material properly segregated and kept in earmarked areas? (2) Is
proper dunnage and pallets provided wherever required? (3) Are identification boards
displayed on each material? (4) Are areas free from unwanted growth of grass or shrubs?
12. Display and Identification : (1) Are process flow sheets and circuit diagrams
displayed at appropriate places? (2) Are lubrication and maintenance schedules displayed?
(3) Are safety, first-aid and hazard posters and charts displayed? (4) Are equipment identified
properly?
Benefits of Good Housekeeping:

If the need, benefits, usefulness, results, advantages or effects of good housekeeping are
known or explained in the beginning, it helps to provide zeal to maintain it. Therefore they
are explained below. Good housekeeping increases safety and productivity as under:
1. It is an essential routine support to industrial safety and health.
2. A large number and wide range of accidents due to bad housekeeping can be
eliminated by good housekeeping.
3. It aids to good maintenance and working as complementary to it and increase overall
safety and productivity.
4. Clean, hygienic and safe plant environment increases attractiveness and morals of the
employees.
5. Machines, tools and equipment work better in clean condition and boost up the
workmanship.
6. If tools are placed in easy to find manner, job; run smoothly and give good results.
7. Clean and well maintained floors, stairs walkways, doors, windows, lifts, latrines
urinals, washing facilities, furniture, records dresses, first-aid and protective equipment and
proper layout of materials, tools and process flow certainly avoid many accidents.

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8. Constant monitoring and control of hazardous chemicals, their processes and

emission; minimise many hazards.
9. Much floor space or area is utilised because o proper access to machines and
equipment for cleaning and maintenance purpose.
10. The fine and sophisticated instruments equipment and personal protective equipment
give better results when kept in good and deal condition and checked regularly.
11. Accidents due to stepping on or striking against objects or fall of persons and objects,
stumbling tripping, bumping, body caught between object etc. are well controlled.
12. Time spent in locating tools and appliances and wastage of time is controlled resulting
in increase of efficiency.
13. Damage to person and property likely to occur due to disorder is reduced resulting in
loss control.
14. Conservation of materials/property/energy results due to less scrap and spoilage and
improves better capacity utilisation.
15. Loss due to misplacement of costly items would be reduced due to proper placement
and order.
16. Losses due to out break of fires could be controlled to a great extent by proper
housekeeping. Minimisation of losses on this account alone justifies the effort.
17. Values of materials and machines do not get reduced when they are properly
maintained.
18. Overall life and utility of plant, building and equipment are increased due to good
housekeeping.
19. Majority of small fires result from and spread by poor housekeeping
conditions. Sources of ignition due to oily cotton waste, solvent spillage, oil dripping,
friction, sparks, flames, smoking etc. can be prevented by good maintenance and
housekeeping. See Part 6.5.
20. A clean and well maintained plant can be operated at a lesser cost.
21. Production increases due to reduced obstacles and wastage of time and speedy
availability of material, equipment, tools etc.
22. Repair and maintenance work become easy due to easy access and clean space
availability.
23. Aisle traffic becomes smoother and speedy. Truck/trolley collisions become less.
24. Employee moral is boost up due to orderly things, neatness and cleanliness, sufficient
space to work, good lighting, colour and ventilation and mostly due to reduced possibilities of
accidents and injuries.
25. Outside visitors, market people. Government authorities, local community and the top
management are attracted and overall image of the company rises up.
FIVE’S’ SYSTEMS OF HOUSE KEEPING

INTRODUCTION- This system is an unique system in House Keeping ‗5-S‘ is formed from
the initial letter of five Japanese words i.e. ―SEIRI‖, ―SEITON‖, ―SEISD‖,‖SEIKETSU‖
AND ―SHITSUKE‖ which denote simple five actions to be taken for housekeeping.

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It is a scientifically developed system of good housekeeping practice. It goes beyond

physical and environmental clearing of workplace. Adopting this systems, workplace as well
as shop floor could be made comfortable and helpful for work or production to be taken
place.

a) SEIRI: - It is first step towards good housekeeping. It tells about organization of

material. It clears that how material should be arranged systematically, particularly on
shop floor or any part in the facility. There are several things which may be available
there to be used as raw material in production. Tools and equipment may be available
with which production work could be carried out. All such things are needed at some
time or different time. All things are not needed at one time. You can say that need of
anything is related to its use.
1) It can be understood that some items are needed regularly and frequently. Items
must be separated and placed separately. This process is called sorting out things
between ―things needed and things wanted‖. These items after sorting out should
be stored within easy reach so that it could be taken easily for use by the workers.
2) Needs of some items are average. Such items may not be needed for hour to hour
or day to day activities like special tools and gauges etc. These items may be
stored separately and should be brought on shop floor as needed. Keeping such
items around may cause obstacle and hindrance for movement and create
possibility of incidents.
3) Uses of some items are very low. There is no need of keeping items at workplace.
Such items should be kept in warehouse like excess raw material unmoved
finished goods, rejects, scrap etc.
Finally,‖SEIRI‖ would like to indicate that only those items should be kept at
workplace and shop floor which are needed at that times.
b) SEITON. It is the second step of good housekeeping which demotes neatness. It
directs that things to be arranged properly and systematically so that they can be
picked up for use easily.
1) Guiding Principle- There must be place for everything and everything should be
kept at its place. It can save time when items are needed.
2) Certain system should be followed while arranging items. It means items needing
often should be kept near.
3) Storage space- Adequate space should be made available for storage and some
procedure to be followed how the items are kept in store, is an important aspect
related to its use.
4) Shop floor is not meant for storing material and tools. Needed items at particular
time should be brought there.
5) Location of items should be recorded, which helps in identification at short time.
6) Searching of items, wastes time and causes anger and frustration which can be
controlled by following system.
7) Mixing of items may create a lot of problems. There should be some system to
keep the finished goods and other material separately.
8) It highlights the directions of storage systematically.

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c) SEISO- It is known as third step towards good housekeeping and denotes cleaning of
workplace completely. Workplace should be maintained well and properly.There
must not be dirt‘s and dust. Cleanliness is the aim of SEISO. Its directions and
instructions are as follows :-
1) Nobody should be allowed to get the area dirty by any means like spitting,
throwing waste paper/ materials etc. around.
2) Proper and timely cleaning of everything to be ensured
3) Everybody should make habit of wiping hand tools after use.
d) SEIKETSU- It is the fourth step of housekeeping and direct maintaining of high
standard at workplace always. It is a collective responsibility to maintain the standard.
It should not be taken as single isolated activity. SEIKETSU invites attention to
follow systematic and regular maintenance of the workplace by showing ways as
follows :-
1) It calls for visual controls and transparency which mean bringing out short coming
abnormality.
2) Shop floor should be provided, shadow boards, racks etc. to keep hand tools near
to working table or equipment.
3) Storing articles in closed or locked cabinets should be avoided. List of items
inside should be displayed on door.
4) Distinguish marking should be provided on floor or walls for emergency
equipment like portable fire extinguisher etc.
5) Some system to be formulated for collection and disposal of waste.
e) SHITSUKE- It is concluding stage of ‗5-S‘ system. It is after successfully completion
of previous stages. It denotes self discipline, educating and peruing others. It relates
with attitude and habits as given below:-
1) On individual level one should forbid himself to throw. scrap, cigarettes etc.
anywhere in workplace area.
2) Success of accomplishment must be shared with others by conveying positive
result achieved
3) A good housekeeping could be encouraged by doing it.
4) Really ‗5-S‘system is the key of success of an excellent housekeeping.

Preventive Maintenance for repair of guards

Section 21 of the Factories Act states that the guards shall be constantly maintained and kept
in position. Such maintenance is necessary because a machine running without guards or with
inadequate guard can cause Injury. Regular inspection of guards by Supervisor can detect the
guard removed, damaged or requiring repairs. A guard removed for repair should be fitted at
the earliest possible and meanwhile temporary guard should be installed or the machine be
stopped. Good maintenance increases the life of guards and vice versa.
A guard should be so designed or fitted that it is not to be opened for oiling/greasing or
nearby maintenance work. The parts needing regular service should be located outside the
guard. If oil/grease fittings are inside the guard, an extension through the guard should be
provided.

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Interlock type guard ensures that the machine cannot be operated unless all guards are in
position. Such planning helps maintenance without disturbing guards.
If a guard is not able to control flying particles, fume, dusting etc., additional ventilation
should be provided. Large guards should have self-closing doors for cleaning. Space should
be provided in surrounding for repair and maintenance. As a code of Standard & Practice
Dangerous part of the machinery is given red colour whereas Guard is shown by Green
colour. Where green colour is not visible due to less light, yellow colour is preferable.
Work on machinery in motion for maintenance purpose :
Only trained person shall work on machinery in motion for maintenance purpose
During maintenance of a machine, normally a guard is removed and observation for fault,
alignment, repairing or oiling/greasing is carried out in unguarded condition. Such condition
may kill or injure' an untrained or unknowing person. See foregoing Part 1.2, para 'Work on
or near machinery in motion' for statutory requirement u/s 22 of the Factories Act.
Preventive Maintenance work to be carried out in confined space:
Work permit o be drawn before commencing the job
Material creating unwanted, harmful fumes inside the confined space shall be removed.
Oxygen % inside the confined space shall be measured. It shall be same as outside the
confined space in the atmosphere.
Size of manhole shall be adequate to come out of the confined space.
B.A. Set to be provided to a person entering the confined space.
Safety Harness to be provided with a life line to be held by another person outside the
Confined space.
Outside person shall keep watch on the person working inside the confined space with some
signs.
Work shall not be started in the Furnaces until the workplace is much cool to work safely for
a person.
Preventive welding work on fuel tank:
No welding work shall be allowed to be carried out on the tanks containing flammable oils,
fuel unless the material & fumes inside the tanks are completely removed below explosive
limit.
Nylon clothes not allowed. Provide cotton clothes.
Preventive maintenance on electrical Installation:
• Skilled & trained person shall be allowed to work on electrical Installation.
• Do not work on live equipment to avoid electric shock
• For Live line maintenance, follow electrical LOTO system after using rubber shoes,
gloves & mats
• Ensure proper grounding. & earthing
• Switches, Circuit breakers, isolators, shall be locked key should lie with the responsible
person
• Testing equipments shall be calibrated for genuineness.
• No outside material shall be left inside
• During maintenance even a small bolt is to be replaced if missing

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• Damaged insulation has to be replaced

• Insulation is required of proper resistant
• Loose contacts shall be corrected
• Corroded, damaged elements should be changed
• In oil circuit breakers the oil in which the arcing takes place shall be replaced
• Earthing shall be checked for continuity periodically
Emergency Maintenance while working on LPG / CNG installation:
Before commencing any work (including minor repairs) on LPG Lines/Installations, or
opening any LPG Line for the same, the Engineer/Supervisor In-Charge of the work must
ensure that:
The LPG Supply to the line is stopped, the control valve is properly closed & LPG line is
properly and effectively blanked.
The LPG line has been purged / flushed with nitrogen, other similar gas or steam/water, as
the case may be.
The operations involving open flames, sparks, welding etc. are stopped. Hot lines in the
vicinity of the job have been screened. Sigris, burners etc. are removed.
A Fire Fighting Team of two persons with two fire extinguishers is standing-by near the job
site.
After completion of work the LPG valve is opened only by an authorized person.
The provisions of Rule 73-C of the Maharashtra Factories Rules 1963 are fully complied
with.

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Chapter 4
Electrical Hazards
Accidents & Hazards :
Accident tables T 5.7, 5.8, 5.20 and 5.22 given in Chapter-5 reveal that in India and
Gujarat, electrical fatal accidents are @ 2 to 7% of the total accidents. Mode of fatal
accidents due to electricity is increasing. With the constant increase of per capita
consumption of electricity, the chances of electrical accidents may also increase. It is also
important to note that the accidents on low voltage (230 V) working are more than that on
high voltage working, and untrained people are more involved than the trained people.
At Uphar cinema hall in Delhi, 59 died in fire due
to electricity in 1997. Therefore 107 cinema halls,
restaurants and banquet halls were given notices on 2-7-97
by the Delhi Vidyut Board for various deviations from the
17 electrical safety conditions. As per Delhi Fire Service's
report, 70% of more than 2000 fires during that period had
occurred due to short circuits (News 101-98).
Loose Electric wires or cables lying on the road are
crushed by moving vehicles. Allowing them in tapped
condition create hazard. Such condition should be avoided See Fig.
One old Pennsylvania study gives the following break-up for electrical accidents.

Cause %

1. Overloading, Poor arranging. 36

2. Unsafe or improper use of equipment. 31

3. Working on moving or dangerous equipment. 16

4. Unnecessray exposure to danger. 10

5. Not using the personal protective equipment. 5

6. Improper starting or stopping. 2

A study of the electrical equipment industry in Germany shows accident to body sites
as shown in figure

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Toes, 6%

Arms, 6%
Eyes, 4%
Head, 7%
Fi ngers, 33%
Body, 8%

Legs, 10%

Hands, 12% Feet , 14%

Fig: Body site injuries

This percentage is variable, but it indicates the areas of hazards need to be controlled.
Main electrical hazards are:
1. Electric Shock.
2. Electric Burns.
3. Fire and Explosion.
4. Hazards due to Electric Welding and Cutting
5. Hazards due to static electricity.
6. Fall of lightening from the sky.
Shock and burns are injury from direct contact. They cause accidents of three types
(1) Hold-on type (2) Ventricular fibrillation and (3) Respiratory arrest: Injuries are possible
without current flowing through body, e.g. burns due to electric arcs, radiation,
electromagnetic field, falling or injury due to sudden starting of machine, equipment etc.
Main protections are proper fuses, switchgears, circuit breakers, earthings and bonding. Such
electrical safety precautions are highly needed to prevent accidents .due to electrical hazards.
Effects of Amperages :
Following IS are most relevant:
IS: 8437 Guide on effects of current passing through the human body :
Part -1 General aspects
Part -2 Special aspects
Effects of electric current on human body are summarised in Tables 11.1 to 11.3.
Table: Current Range and Effect on a 68 Kg man

Current (50 Physiological Feeling or Lethal incidence

Hz or c/s) Phenomenon
1 mA None Imperceptible
1 mA Perception threshold
1-3 mA Mild sensation
3-10 mA Painful sensation
10 mA Paralysis threshold of Cannot release hand grip, if no grip, victim may

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arm be thrown clear (may progress to higher current

and be fatal).
30 mA Fibrillation threshold Stoppage of breathing (frequently fatal)
0.5 percent
75 mA Fibrillation threshold Heart action discoordinated (probably fatal)
99.5 percent (5 second
exposure)
250 mA Fibrillation threshold Heart and blood circulation may stop (usually
99.5 percent (5 second fatal)
exposure)
4A Heart paralysis Heart stops for duration of current passage. For
threshold (no fill short shocks, may re-start on interruption of
fibrillation) current (usually not fatal from heart
dysfunction).
5A Tissue burning Not fatal unless vital organs are burned.

Table: Effects of DC and AC (current) on human body.

Current in mA
DC AC 50 Ac 10000
Effect
Hz Hz

0-5 0-1 0-9 No sensation

6-55 1-8 10-55 Mild stock
60-80 9-15 60-80 Painful shock and hand unable to let go of live parts
in case of AC
80-100 16-20 80-100 Some loss of muscular control
110-350 20-45 Severe shock and loss of muscular control
400-800 50-100 Possible heart failure (ventricular fibrillation)
>800 >100 Usually fatal
>1600 >200 Severe burns, severe fibrillation and death.

Table: Effect of Electric Current on Men and Women

Current in mA
DC 50 Hz AC 10000 Hz AC Effect
Men Women Men Women Men Women
1 0.6 0.4 0.3 7 5 Slight sensation on hand
5.2 3.5 1.1 0.7 12 8 Perception threshold
9 6 1.8 1.2 17 11 Shock not painful, muscular
control not lost
69 41 9 6 55 37 Shock-painful, muscular
76 51 16 10.5 75 50 Shock-painful, let-go threshold
90 60 23 15 94 63 Shock painful and severe,

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muscular contractions, breathing

difficult.
500 500 100 100 - - Shock, ventricular fibrillation
from 3 seconds
- - 165 t 165 t - - Short shock lasting ‗t‘ seconds
50 50 13.6 13.6 - - High Voltage Surges
Energy in watt-seconds or joules

Note : The figures are indicative and not absolute.

If a person gets electric shock and heart beat is not found, immediate remedy is an
artificial respiration (see part-8 of Chapter-26) or resuscitation (CPR) to the person till he
revives or death is diagnosed by a doctor. Minimum time should be elapsed before starting
such respiration for possibility of success. This is indicated as under:
Time in Min Possibility of Success
0-1 Best
1-3 Good
3-5 Fair
5-20 Poor

Therefore it is always advisable to give first-aid training including that of artificial

respiration, to the maximum workers. Sec.45 & III-A under the Factories Act, require such
training.
Effects of Voltages :
For our 50 c/s electric supply, main danger limits of voltage are :
24 volts for children, and
60 volts for adults
At 50 c/s (Hz), dry condition, the calculated electrical characteristics of human body
are given in Table 11.4.
Table 11.4 : Electrical Parameters of Human body at 50 Hz, Dry Condition.
V volt R ohm I = V/R mA
12.5 16500 0.8
31.3 11000 2.84
62.5 6240 10
125 3530 35
250 2000 125
500 1130 443
1000 640 1560
2000 362 5525
This table indicates that as voltage increases, body resistance decreases and current
increases. Body resistance becomes practically zero at high voltages.
Approximate threshold shock voltages at 50 c/s are as under:
Threshold of feeling 10 to 12 V
Threshold of pain 15 V

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Threshold of severe pain 20 V

Threshold of hold-on 20 to 25 V
Threshold of death 40 to 50 V
Range of fibrillation 60 to 2000 V
Safe Distance from Electric Lines :
It is obvious that overhead electric lines should not be allowed in a place where the
public or public vehicles have to pass through for most of the time and not at such a low or
unsafe distance (clearance above ground) so that chances of touching the lines may increase.
Therefore some minimum safe distance from lines are necessary.
Rules 77 to 80 of the Indian Electricity Rules, 1956 provide safety distances as given
in Table Table: Safely Distances of Overhead Lines
Position of Lines Minimum
Distance
Ft Mt
Across the street :
Medium voltage lines 19 5.8
High Voltage lines 20 6.1
Along the Street :
Low & Medium voltage lines 18 5.5
High Voltage lines 19 5.8
Elsewhere :
Up to 11 KV lines, bare 15 4.6
Up to 11 KV lines, insulated 13 4.0
Above 11 KV lines, 17 5.2
Above 33 KV lines, 17+1 5.2+0.3
For every 35 For every 33
KV or part KV or part
thereof thereof
Above 33 KV lines but across or along the street 20 6.1
Crossing the tramway or trolley wires : Distance above
the trolley wire
Low & medium voltage lines 4 1.2
If the wire is insulated
Up to 11 KV lines 6 1.8
Above 11 KV lines 8 2.5
Extra high voltage lines 10 3.0
Passing above, adjacent or terminating on buildings :
(a) Low & medium voltage lines - 10 3.0
Vertical clearance 8 2.5
Horizontal clearance 4 1.2
For less clearance the wire should be insulated
(b) High & extra high voltage lines -
Vertical clearance :

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Up to 33 KV Lines 12 3.7
Above 33 KV Lines 12+1 3.7+0.3
For every 33
KV or path
thereof
Horizontal clearance :
Up to 11 KV lines 4 1.2
Above 11 KV & up to 33 KV lines 6 2.0
Above 33 KV lines 6+1 2.0+0.3
For every 33
KV or part
thereof

Note : In above table, meaning of voltage range u/i 2fav) is as under :

Low voltage Up to 250 V
Medium voltage Up to 650 V
High voltage Up to 33 KV
Extra high voltage Above 33 KV
Where an overhead line crosses or is in proximity to another overhead line, minimum
clearances between them are prescribed u/r 87(3) and given in Table-11.7
Table Clearances in metres between lines crossing each other
System 11-66 110-132 220 400 800
Voltage KV KV KV KV KV
Low & medium 2.44 3.05 4.58 5.49 7.94
11-66 KV 2.44 3.05 4.58 5.49 7.94
110-132 KV 3.05 3.05 4.58 5.49 7.94
220 KV 4.58 4.58 4.58 5.49 7.94
400 KV 5.49 5.49 5.49 5.49 7.94
800 KV 7.94 7.94 7.94 7.94 7.94
Minimum clearance should be maintained for are conductors or live parts or any
apparatus in Outdoor sub-station, excluding overhead lines as given in Table-11.8 [Rule
64(2)(a)(ii)].
Table 11.8 : Minimum Clearance in meters
Highest System Voltage in KV Safety working clearance (mts.)
not exceeding Ground clearance
of 1000 mts.
12 2.6
36 2.8
72.58 3.1
145 3.7
245 4.3
420 6.4
800 10.3

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Note : A correction factor of 1.25% per 100 mtr. is to be applied for increasing
clearance above 1000 mtr. and upto 3000 mtr.
Guarding arrangement shall be provided to guard against the possibility of lines
coming into contact with each other. Every guard wire shall be earned at each point where
electricity is broken.
Rules 79 to 88 of the Indian Electricity Rules, 1956 are also relevant.
Safety distances from high voltage lines are as under -
Line voltage - Horizontal distances on both the sides form the centre line of the tower
or H frame.
66 KV > 9.5 mt
132 KV > 13.5 mt
220 KV r 17.5 mt
1 Capacity and Protection of Conductors, points and Connectors:
All apparatus and conductors should be of sufficient size and strength. They should be
covered with insulating material and placed or enclosed as to prevent danger, viz. (a)
Conductors in conduit (b) Conductors in flexible metallic tubing (c) Conductors in metal
trucking (d) Conductors with metal sheeting (e) Insulated cables like V.I.R. and C.S.T.
Cables (f) cables in trench.
Overhead trolley wires of cranes should be (1) either protected by screen guards with
suitable opening for tapping, or (2) insulated cable self-winding drums should be used.
Screw cap lamp holders in which the screw position of the holder and the lamp cap
are conductive, should be fitted with suitable shrouds or skirts or protected in any other
suitable way.
Electrical joints and connections should be ( proper construction as regards
conductivity, insulatiol mechanical strength and protection.
6.2.2 Overload and Short Circuit Protection
Overload is a major cause of fire
Danger from exces I current due t< I overload or short I circuit should bi I
prevented b7
providing (1) Fuses (2 Circuit-breakers or (3 ~ Thermal protection. ~
Protective apparatus
Current protection ar
Introduced as in the case of motors etc., possible excessive temperature rise in
equipment anc conductors should be considered. The number of item: collectively protected
should be limited to avoic over fusing to withstand .heavy switching currents anc to ensure
subdivisions so that inconvenience fromoperation of protective gear is not caused.
Fuses, relays and circuit-breakers should be of sufficient breaking capacity to
operate safely at short circuit currents. Arcing or scattering of hot metal of fuses may be
prevented by the use of improved fuses of cartridge or other type having special arrangements
for extinction of arc at reduced current values.
Safety in Renewal of Fuses or Fusing elements
1. Operation Without Switching Off : Here switch fuses are used. For heavy
current circuits, switches should be provided and operated before operating the fuses.

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2. Operation After Switching Off : This is the safest and should be the general
practice. Requirements are : (a) Interlocking with switch (b) Independent switches to be
accessible (c) Combined switch and fuse boxes should have live parts shrouded or protected.
Circuit-breakers where short circuit current exceeds 10000 amperes or 150 MVA
should not be direct hand-operated.
Thermal Protection : Thermal fuses and relays, operating on temperature rise are
suitable for use with circuit or appliances where the fault current does not exceed the load
current "or where small overloads can cause burn out.
Examples are : (1) Choke coils of fluorescent tubes (2) Fractional horsepower
motors (3) Radio sets.
Equipment such as motors which require heavy starting currents can be effectively
protected by thermal relays.
Power Cutting Devices (Means of Cutting of Power):
These are switches, switch with' fuses, isolating links or circuit breakers. Where rapid
operation is required, switch fuses and isolating links are not suitable. Separate switches
should be provided to transformers, motors and apparatus at convenient places. For motors,
switches should be close to the starters. Locking arrangement on switch or starter prevents
accidental starting. If locking is .not possible, fuses should be taken out while working on that
line. Earthing of conductors, particularly of high voltage or overhead lines, is necessary.
Mechanical devices are clutches and belt striking gears.
Restriction on use of Switch on Neutral Earthed Conductor:
A single pole switch should not be placed in the neutral conductor of a system which
is connected to earth (except for special purposes in generating stations).
If this conductor is bare, even double pole switch should not be placed in this
conductor except for the purpose of breaking connection with generators and transformers
supplying the power. But the connection with earth should not thereby be broken.

Important Safety Requirements in Design and Use of Switches, Switch-Fuses, Circuit-

Breakers and Isolating Links.
1. Sufficient capacity for making and breaking contacts.
2. Cover for switch.
3. Handle spindle should be a close fit in die hole in order to prevent injury from
arcs inside. Handle should be insulated.
4. "On" and "Off" position in switches and circuit breakers should be clearly
marked.
5. Ample space between opposite poles of double and multi-pole air break
switches and circuit-breakers.
6. They should make and maintain good contact on being operated without any
special skill or manipulation.
7. Switches and circuit-breakers should be of such construction that they cannot
be left in partial contact, that there is speedy breaking of contact, when operated to off
position. There should also be other extra means of controlling the arc where necessary.

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8. Handle should be of sufficient size consistent with the effort required to

operate. It should be insulated and earthed.
9. Isolating links and switches without insulated handles should be operated by
safe means such as by insulated poles.
Overload and Short Circuit Protection :
Danger from excess current due to overload or short-circuit should be prevented by
providing (1) Fuses (2) Circuit-breakers or (3) Thermal protection.
Protective apparatus should be set at a low current protection are introduced as
in the case of motors etc., possible excessive temperature rise in equipment and conductors
should be considered. The number of item: collectively protected should be limited to avoid
overfusing to withstand .heavy switching currents anc to ensure subdivisions so that
inconvenience from operation of protective gear is not caused.
Fuses, relays and circuit-breakers should be of sufficient breaking capacity to operate
safely at short circuit currents. Arcing or scattering of hot metal of fuses may be prevented by
the use of improved fuses of cartridge or other type having special arrangements for
extinction of arc at reduced current values.
No Load Protection :
Over current condition is generally known as 'overload' condition. It should be
protected by equipment which will operate at excess (more than rated) current and stop the
supply. Similarly low current or low voltage condition is said to be 'no-load' condition and it
also needs to be protected. Simple running of an electric motor without rotating the pump,
generator or machine shaft, is known as no-load working. It draws minimum current
depending on winding resistance. With the same resistance, if the voltage is reduced, it will
reduce the current. In such condition, the use of fuses as a tripping device is generally
preferred.
In low voltage system if the circuit is direct current type or heavily loaded, the slow
operation of fuses (low current) often results, in arcing or flashover followed by burning of
the contacts and this is dangerous for service personnel. Therefore they should be protected
by following measures.
1. Employ trained electricians and give them full information regarding
possibility of arcing from fuses.
2. Handles of the switch or fuse-box should be insulated. Leather, hand-gloves
(up to elbow) should be given to workers.
3. No load protection and protection against accidental contact are also
necessary. At no load, no more current is desired. Therefore low current rated fuses are to be
selected. .
4. Fuse box cover should have small aperture to introduce the end of a voltage
tester to ensure that the contacts are live or not. The box (flashproof) cover should be such
that when it is opened, it will stop the current.
Earth Fault Protection:
Protective Earthling:

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All non-current carrying metal parts of electrical equipment, should be earthed. Such
parts are : (1) Metal conduits, bus bar, steel trunking and cable sheets (2) Non-current
carrying metal parts of (a) Switchgear, fuse and starters (b) Generators and motors (c)
Lighting fittings and (d) Other electrical equipment or appliances.
To earth is to connect to the general mass of earth in such a manner as will ensure at
all times an immediate discharge of electrical energy without danger and to allow sufficient
current to flow to blow fuses or operate protective devices and thereby disconnect faulty
apparatus.
Good earthing can be achieved by connecting earth continuity conductor to :
1. Sheath and armour of "supply" cable whenever available.
2. In the case of supply from own transformer to a heavy section copper wire
running to the neutral point of the transformers, and
3. Neutral wire where "protective multiple earthing" is allowed and adopted.
In the absence of these, connection should be made to earth electrode or electrodes
having low resistance to earth.
Connection between earth lead and earth electrode should be made wherever possible
above the ground for facilitating inspection. Joints involving dissimilar metals should be
avoided. All joints should be treated with a conducting paint.
In all cases the earth continuity conductors should have sufficient current carrying
capacity to take the fault current safely till the fuse or the circuit breaker blows or trips. The
total impedance from any point in the system to the earthling point and through it to die
general mass of -earth and then to the neutral point of the supply substation transformer and
back to the fault point through the line conductor should be as small as possible (4 ohms for
15 A fuse and I ohm for 60 A fuse for voltage 240 V). Wherever conduits and sheaths are
used as earth continuity conductors (without separate earth wire) earth continuity should be
ensured at joints and junctions by suitable connections.
Earth, Insulation and Continuity Tests:
When electric current passes through its expected resistance (load) path, its energy is
utilised in heating, rotating or doing the required function. But when due to insulation failure,
breaking, opening or loosening of conductor or directly touching to any metal part, tool or a
human body, the current passes through the line of least resistance i.e. instead of passing
through its regular machine or equipment circuit, it jumps (diverts) to the metal part or human
body and tries to flow through the lowest resistance to the lowest potential. Now the earth has
an extremely low electrical resistance and practically zero voltage, the leaking current (i.e.
earth or fault current) tends to flow through the metal part or the human body to the earth if
they are touching the earth. If the human body is separated or insulated from the earth by
insulating material like rubber gloves, rubber shoes, rubber mat, wood etc., the current will
not flow through the body and the shock can be avoided. Similarly metallic exposed part if
not earthed, will remain live and if some one touches it or metal contact between the exposed
part and the earth is available, the current will flow to the earth.
Therefore from safety point of view, if metal part of the equipment, machine, vessel,
structure, pipe etc. are, in advance, properly earned i.e., connected by an earthing conductor
to the earth pit of low resistance, accidental earth fault current will flow through it. Supply

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voltage being die same and the resistance being reduced, the current will increase due to
E=IR. This heavy current when passes through the fuse, it melts and the circuit becomes
open.
Besides earth tests, it is also necessary to carry out insulation and continuity tests of
installations and apparatus at periodical intervals. This is necessary to ensure that insulation
values are within safe limits and that there is continuity of the circuit without excessive leaks.
These can be carried out easily with special type of instruments.
Thus earth, insulation and continuity are considered for-safety purposes and they
should -be tested for protection. If insulation breaks, live conductor or a metal part is exposed
and it is danger. If continuity of a conductor is broken from inside, supply side is energised
but not known and may cause hazard. While the other side is broken, the equipment does not
work due to discontinuity. If the earth conductor is discontinued, it is like 'no earthing' and
poses great hazard. Therefore continuity of earthing conductor is most important.
In earthing system, neutral conductor of the distribution power system is connected to
earth at many places by parallel conductors. This system is known as Multiple Earthed
Neutral (MEN) or Protective Multiple Earthing (PME) system. This system has the
widespread use in the world.
Earth resistance should be kept low to keep the earth temperature low. Therefore earth
resistance should be periodically checked and maintained.
Insulation and continuity tests are necessary to ensure that insulation values are within
safe limits and the circuit is continuous (unbroken) and without excessive leaks. Instruments
are available for such tests.
Earthing Standards :
IS:3043, Code of Practice for Earthing and SP 30 National Elective Code must be
referred for details of earthing.
Earthing means a low impedance return path of the fault current. Actually the earth,
now, rarely serves as a part of the return circuit but is being used mainly for fixing the
voltage of system neutrals. The earth connection improves service continuity and avoids
damage to equipment and danger to human lives.
Earthing of current carrying conductor is known as system earthing, while that of non-
current carrying conductor or metal work is known as equipment earthing. The former is
essential to the security of the system and the latter to the safety of persons, property and
animals.
Following is the synopsis of earthing standards mentioned in Section 12, Part I of our
National Electric Code:
1. The purpose of system earthing is to preserve the security of the system. There should
be two separate and distinct connections with earth through an earth electrode.
2. The earth system resistance should be such that the fault should operate the protective
gear (fuses or circuit breaker) to isolate the faulty portion.
3. The purpose of equipment earthing is to protect the equipment from danger to life or
risk of fire due to leakage of current through the metal work and through the person in contact.
The leaking current operates the protective gear due to earthing.

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4. In case of high and extra high voltages, the neutral points shall be earthed by two or
more separate electrodes.
5. Earth electrodes shall be provided at generating stations, substations and consumer
premises as per requirements.
6. As far as possible all earth terminals should be visible. The connections should be
adequate and tight.
7. Normally the earth system resistance should be less than 1 ohm, unless otherwise
specified. Testing of earth electrode should be possible.
8. The current carrying capacity of the system should not be increased so as to increase
the earth fault current or its duration to make the earthing in-capable of bearing new value.
9. All materials, fittings etc. used in earthing should conform to Indian Standard.
10. Design of earth electrode dimensions should consider electrical resistivity of the soil.
The earth conductivity depends or moisture content of the soil, salts in the water, chemical
composition, grain size and distribution etc. These factors vary locally and some seasonally.
Local values should be verified by actual measurement.
11. The step potential and touch potential should be measured and kept within safe limits.
12. The size of earth-continuity conductors should be correlated with the size of the
current carrying conductors. The sizes of the earth-continuity conductors should be more than
half of the largest current carrying conductors. The range of earth-continuity conductors should
be as under:

Material Min Size Max Size

Copper 1.5mm2 70mm2

Aluminium 2.5mm2 120mm2

13. Earthing of electrically driven- machine tools should be as under :
Material Strip or Conductor size (min)
Copper 6.5mm2
Aluminum 10 mm2
Steel or GI 16 mm2
The bed plate should be securely fastened by a bolt.
14. Earthing of portable appliance and tools should be continuous i.e. no twisted
or taped joint should be used in earth wires. A single pole switch should not be connected in
earth conductor. Fixed wiring at appliance inlet terminals must be done correctly and as per
IS Appliance having double or reinforcement insulation need not be earthed.
15. Following rules of the Indian Electricity Rule; 1956 are relevant on earthing
standards :
Rule Subject
32 Identification of earth conductors.
33 Earthed terminal on consumer‘s premises.
51 Provisions for power installations.
61 Connections with earth.

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61 A Earth leakage protective device.

62 System at medium voltage.
67 Connection with earth.
69 Pole type substations.
88 (2) Guarding.
90 Earthing.
Protection against Surges and Voltage Fluctuation:
When equipment is switched on, momentarily initial excessive currents are known as
current surges or transient current.
Surges may be more in starting cold circuits than the hot circuit i.e. restarting of the
previously live circuit which was closed for a short while. For example, when large banks of
filament lamps are switched on, current surge arises, because they have, much lower
resistance when cold than when hot. If a live lamp circuit is made off and soon reenergised, it
will face fewer surges. Therefore fuse or circuit breaker rating should consider this surge
phenomenon or its effect given as Pt where I = current, t = time and [Ft] known as pre-arcing
of a fuse or let through of a fuse or circuit breaker or withstand of a component e.g. diode.
Current surges are also produced when large banks of condensers are switched on. For
example if the condensers have retained a charge of the reverse polarity and its circuit is
energised at the moment of maximum voltage, a very large charging current will flow. When
condensers are switched for power factor correction or tuning on high frequency furnace
installations, high surge current flows. To prevent damage, large HRC fuses are sometimes
placed between sections.
Switching large power transformers or starting up motors driving high inertia loads,
also cause large current surges if closure occurs near maximum voltage. H is therefore
important to ensure that the motor and starter are both suited to the duty. Failure to do this
may cause the motor to burn out or the starter to explode.
During surge current, [Pt] denotes a measure of the damage or the specific energy of
the operation and can be defined as the energy dissipated as heat during a specified operation
per ohm of resistance. Therefore for protection against surges, values of the protecting device
should withstand [Pt] value. This can be dealt with in the light of experience by increasing
settings and fuse sizes. It does, however, militate or resist against close protection.
Voltage fluctuation from the electricity supply lines has become a common
phenomenon at many places. Supply voltage goes down resulting in reducing speeds of fans,
motors, machines etc. and reducing lamp lighting. Again it comes and stabilises the
condition. Such voltage fluctuation, if on higher side, may blow fuses or protection and if on
lower side, reduces the productivity or effect of equipment.
Automatic voltage regulator or voltage stabiliser, either built-in with the equipment
(mostly with household appliances like freeze, TV etc.) or external are readily available.
Voltage fluctuation on either side is harmful. It 'accelerates or decelerates speed of
machine or production. It damages furnaces by over or under heating. It increases or
decreases lighting, ventilation, voice etc. and many power dependent parameters. Change in
temperature affects reaction rate in chemical processes. It affects radio, TV, computer, hand
tools and many home appliances. Over voltage causes over current which may increase the

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intensity of shock and flashover. Electric motors, fuses, starters, switches, wiring, insulation
may burn due to over voltage and overheating. Therefore over voltage or under voltage must
be prevented by appropriate automatic voltage regulators or by power cutting devices. See
part 6 for overload and other protections.
Travelling voltage surges may become weaker by surge absorbers which are designed
to dissipate energy by eddy currents and/or hysteresis loss or by a sufficient length of cable.
Over-voltages can be relieved by spark gaps or by various devices which are insulators at
normal voltages but breakdown at a prescribed over-voltage. They may or may not be 'self
healing'.
Voltage spikes caused by current chopping may be avoided by a proper choice of
cartridge fuses and others suppressed by shunt connected silicon or other semi-conductors for
power circuits and zener diodes for light current circuits.
The possibility of flash over in high voltage trifurcating boxes on transformer,
switchgear or motors is prevented by better insulation, filling techniques and/or phase
separation.
Disconnected overhead line in the proximity of other overhead lines, should also be
kept earthed, otherwise it may cause shock due to voltage induced in it.
10.1.2 Hazards of Borrowed Neutrals :
Now-a-days mostly the 4-wire, multi-grounded, common-neutral distribution system
is used exclusively because of their economic and operating advantages. In a star system the
neutral point is solidly grounded. Sometimes a small amount of impedence is inserted
between the transformer neutral and ground in order to limit line-to-ground short-circuit
currents on the primary system to a predetermined value.
The neutral circuit must be a continuous metallic path along the primary routes of the
feeder and to every user location. Where primary and secondary (single phase) systems are
both present, the same conductor is used as the common neutral for both systems.
The neutral is grounded at each distribution transformer, at frequent intervals where
no transformers are connected and to metallic water pipes or driven grounds at each user's
service entrance.
The neutral carries a portion of the unbalanced or residual load currents for both the
primary and secondary systems. The remainder of this current flows in the earth. Ground
electrode should have a resistance less than 25 ohms.
Where there is no secondary neutral and no distribution transformers, the primary
neutral should be grounded at intervals of 500 to 1000 ft. By a direct buried, concentric
neutral cable, the excellent grounding is obtained.
Hazard arises when there is a discontinuity in the neutral path. Therefore no
disconnecting devices should be installed in the common neutral. In no case, the earth or
buried metallic piping system should be used as the only path for the return of normal load
current.
In borrowing of neutral by tapping or otherwise, hazards arise if the size of the neutral
conductor is changed in new line or any discontinuity is left somewhere or if that line
becomes the return path of normal load current.

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In a 3-phase balanced primary circuit, the neutral conductor can be of a smaller size
than the phase conductor, but in a single-phase primary circuit (phase and neutral), the neutral
conductor should be large enough to carry almost as much current as the phase conductor.
Mostly the same conductor size should be used for both, the phase and the neutral to avoid
the hazard.
ELECTRIC WORK IN HAZARDOUS ATMOSPHERE
Classification of Hazardous Areas :
In chemical, petrochemical, refinery and fertiliser factories and also in coal mines,
combustible/explosive dust, vapour and gases may evolve during normal or abnormal
operating conditions.
These gases coming into contact with air make an explosive air-gas mixture which is
hazardous to the installation of electrical apparatus as well as to the workers.
IS'.5572 divides the hazardous area (containing flammable gas or vapour capable to
be ignited) into following three zones for the purpose of appropriate electrical installation :
Zone 0 Areas : Here hazardous atmosphere exists continuously viz., the vapour space
of closed process vessels, storage tanks or closed containers. Any spark will certainly lead to
fire or explosion. Therefore, any electrical apparatus in this zone must afford an absolute
protection. It is recommended that the use of electrical apparatus should be avoided in this
zone, but when it is not practicable, IS:5571 (Guide for selection of electrical equipment for
hazardous areas) should be followed.
Zone 1 Areas : Here hazardous atmosphere is likely to exist at any time. Therefore the
fullest practicable measures should be applied to prevent a hazardous electrical condition at
any time and in any circumstances. Recommended types of electrical apparatus and wiring
for use in Zone I areas are given in IS:5571.
Zone 2 Areas : Here hazardous atmosphere is likely to occur only under abnormal
operating conditions. This classification is applicable only where a fire or explosion hazard is
unlikely and may be caused only by the simultaneous and improbable occurrence of an arc or
spark resulting from an electrical failure and a hazardous atmosphere arising through failure
of the conditions of control. It presupposes that any hazardous atmosphere resulting from an
abnormal occurrence is rapidly dispersed so that possible contact with the electrical apparatus
is of minimum duration. Any situation which allows a hazardous atmosphere to collect, such
as pit or trench, although, it may be in the open air, shall in itself be classified as Zone I area,
even though the surrounding area is classified as Zone 2. Where doubts exist in any specific
case, a Zone I classification should be adopted.
Flameproof Electrical Equipment :
The types of protection generally applicable to electric motors for use in hazardous
areas are:
1. Flameproof or Explosion proof, Type-d
2. Increased Safety, Type-e
3. Intrinsic Safety, Type-i
4. Non-Sparking, Type-n
5. Pressurized, Type-

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IS:5571 guides us for selection of electrical equipment (motors, transformers and

capacitors, lighting fittings, switchgear and control-gear) for hazardous areas. IS:2148 gives
specification for flameproof enclosures of electrical apparatus and IS:4691 for degrees of
protection provided by enclosures for rotating electrical machinery. IS 4012 for dustproof
electrical lighting fitting, 2206 (Part I to 4) for flameproof electric lighting fittings, 8945 for
electrical measuring instruments -for explosive gas atmosphere, 7118 for direction of
movement for control devices operating electrical apparatus and 7689 for control of
undesirable static electricity are also relevant.
In Zone-1 area flameproof or pressurized type motors whereas in Zone-2, increased
safety type motors are suitable. Table 11.9 gives summary :
Table : Types of motor protection in hazardous areas:
Type of Symbol Hazardous Advantages Disadvantages IS
Protection of Zone
Motor
Flame-proof d 1,2 Robust, Expensive in 2148
permits larger sizes. 3682
maintenance Difficult to
of internal weather proof.
equipment Careful
maintenance
Increased E 2 Cheaper, Requires 6381
Safety Suitable for careful
all gases Long installation
Life.
Non Sparking N 2 Cheap Some designs 8289
difficult to
maintain
Pressurised P 1,2 Safe, suitable Auxiliary 7389
for all gases. equipment
Can be needed to
modified and provide dry air
maintained on inert gas
For flameproof enclosures, gases and vapours are classified according to their
Maximum Experimental Safe Group (MESG). The groups of apparatus are Group I for
mining application (methane) and Group II for application in other industries. Group II is
subdivided as IIA, UB and IIC. Similarly, gases and vapours are also classified in the same
four groups according to the ratios of their Minimum Ignition Currents (MIC) with that of
laboratory methane. Table-3 in IS:2148 suggests these four groups for particular gas or
vapour, for example, Group I for methane, IIA for ammonia, benzene, acetone, methanoi etc.,
IIB for ethylene, ethylene oxide etc., and IIC for hydrogen.
Testing of electrical equipment for use in explosive atmosphere is most essential.
Available flameproof equipment include motor, transformer, switch socket,
switchgear, limit switches, push buttons, rotary cam operated switches (isolators), switch fuse

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unit with HRC fuse links, electric bell, fluorescent tube light fixture, wall glass lighting
fitting, flood light, control gear box, bulkhead fittings, hand lamp, vessel lamp, safety torch,
indicating lamp, ammeter, measuring instrument enclosure, moulded case circuit breaker,
distribution board, control station, remote control panels, junction boxes, meter boxes, cable
glands and accessories.
ISI mark must be preferred. Rules for installation and maintenance of transformer
substation, main switch boards, distribution boards, conduit wiring system, cable wiring,
lighting layout, earthing and lighting protection and inspection and testing should be strictly
followed for their safe working in flammable/explosive environment. This is statutory
requirement also as stated earlier.
Safety Measures with Low & High Risks Areas :
In low risk area, following Safety measures are necessary
1. Segregation of equipment that may generate heat or spark. For example, fuses,
switchboard, transformers, motor, resistance, heater etc. should the segregated. For
Rules of segregation, see TAC booklet published by Bombay Regional Tarrif
Advisiory Committee.
2. Guarding, insulation and protection of conductors.
3. Earthing of all metal work.
4. Less operation of switches and starters to avoid spark.
5. Covering heaters and resistance to prevent contact with hot surfaces.
6. Interlock switch to ensure making and breaking of connectors with switch in
off position.
In high risk area, following safety measures are necessary.
l. Electrical equipment should be flameproof and of the approved type.
2. Pressurised electrical equipment.
3. Intrinsically safe electrical equipment.
4. Segregation of the electrical equipment to the extent possible.
5. Overload, short circuit and leakage protection with close setting up of fuses or
overload protective devices.
Besides firefighting equipment, following fire safety requirements are also
recommended :
1. Area up to - Automatic fire alarm system
750 m2
2. Area above - As above or automatic
750 m2 sprinkler

Refer Part 3.3 for TAC regulations.

OVERLOAD AND OTHER PROTECTIONS
In industrial buildings, appropriate protection at switch-boards and distribution boards
for all circuits and sub-circuits against over current and earth faults is necessary. The
protective apparatus should be capable of interrupting any short-circuit current that may
occur, without danger. The ratings and settings' of fuses and the protective devices shall be
coordinated so as to afford selectivity in operation where necessary. Setting of HRC fuses

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should be proper. Supply of electric lighting and emergency services should be through
separate main service and distribution boards from the power circuits.
Majority of electrical accidents can be avoided if (1) Live parts are insulated in
effective and durable manner and positioned safely (2) Conductive parts of the equipment or
machines should be earthed or double insulated and (3) All components must be so
dimensioned as to withstand design stresses
Hazards of Static Electricity:
Electrostatic Discharges (Sparks):
As rubber is bad conductor (good insulator) of electricity, it accumulates static
electricity to a high degree. Fires in rubber industry are mostly due to discharge of such
heavy static charges.
If equipment is not grounded, static charge will continue to accumulate on it till it will
discharge as a spark. Therefore grounding by a steel plate, copper wire or bronze brush is
necessary.
Lightening from the sky is nothing but a discharge to the earth of enormous static
charges generated and accumulated between the layers of air and clouds in the atmosphere.
Electro Static hazards

1. Shock if spark is not generated and the charged surface (not grounded) is touched
by human body.
2. Fire or explosion if spark is generated due to discharge of static charge into
flammable atmosphere.
3. Readings are distorted or changed in sensitive instruments.
4. Dust deposition on charged surfaces.
5. Clogging or obstruction to free flow of powders in chutes, silos or hoppers.
Control of Static Electricity:
Sequence to combat static electricity includes following steps
1. Prevent charge generation.
2. If this is not possible, prevent its accumulation.
3. If this is also not possible, prevent discharge from being hazardous, and
4. Prevent formation of flammable atmosphere near possibility of static
electricity.
Mostly step-l is not possible but step-2 can be implemented effectively by ensuring
earthing and bonding. For step-3, diameter of pipe/hole is increased, flow rate is decreased
etc.
When two unlike materials separate quickly, static charge is generated at the point of
separation. Ground wire should be attached where static charge is likely to occur. For proper
ground connection, spring type or screw type clamp is used. Ground clamps are made of
materials like stainless steel or beryllium copper alloy because they are good conductors of
electricity and also non-sparking. Clamps should have sharp points and enough pressure to
hold it firmly.

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Coating of paint, rust, corrosion, grease, oil, resin etc should be removed at a point
where ground connection is to be made. Thus grounding surfaces should be made clean if
they are not.
Loose connection, broken clamp, broken wires and unclean metal surfaces should be
checked before starting the work. Ground wire must be attached last after making sure that all
connections are made properly.
It is important to note that it is more advisable and simpler to avoid having a
flammable atmosphere than to try 'for charge avoidance. For this purpose inert gas filling is
first required. Some specific control measures are as under:
1. Earthing (grounding) and bonding of equipment, pipe joints, flanges and parts.
2. Increasing the conductance of floors, footwear, wheels and tyres for personnel
and moving equipment.
3. Increasing the conductivity of non-conductors by conductive additives, surface
layers, films and humidification of the atmosphere.
4. Increasing the conductivity of the atmosphere by ionisation.
5. Using antistatic and conductive materials and static eliminators.
6. Earthing of moving machinery.
7. Use of antistatic belts or antistatic dressing to non-conductive belts at regular
intervals.
8. All tanks, vessels, pipelines containing solvents or flammable liquids or gases
should be separately earthed. Bonding of pipe lines at flange joints necessary unless metallic
contact (continuity) is in between the flanges. Thus bonding is not required for wholly
metallic connections having resistance to earth less than 10 ohm. However, bonding is
necessary if non metallic (e.g. plastic, rubber, asbestos) components are there in between
the joint.
9. Tank wagons and road tankers should be earthed while loading or unloading
with flammable liquid or gas. Rail-track should be earthed and jumpers to be provided to
connect rail to rail.
10. While pumping flammable liquids in tanks, the inlet pipe should extend and
discharge at the bottom of the tank. A long feed (inlet) pipe or inner limpet for this purpose is
desirable. At this time it is advisable to maintain an inert gas blanketing. Flow velocity
should be restricted.
11. The pipe and nozzle of steam or water should be bonded while tank cleaning
or steaming.
12. Liquid spillage and dust deposits should be removed as early as possible.
13. Good ventilation and good housekeeping are necessary to prevent flammable
concentration.
14. Non-conducting plastic containers should be avoided to fill flammable liquids
with flash points below 30°C.
15. Antistatic additives should be used to reduce the high resistance of liquids.
16. Keep all synthetic material at least 6 inches away from charged surfaces or
electronic equipment.
17. While repairing or handling PCB or electronic equipment, use antistatic foam,
antistatic grounded wrist strap and antistatic floor mat.

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18. Reduce pump or flow speed while beginning tank filling, .transferring light
material on the surface of heavy material of low conductivity, using water or air for cleaning
purpose, while transferring a product of two phases such as immiscible liquids etc.
The most relevant IS 7689 on control of undesirable static electricity should be
referred for 44 topics given therein. They include definitions, electrostatic charge, their
physiological effects, discharges, electrostatics in liquids, powders, solids and gases, effect on
personnel, earthing and bonding, use of tanks - metallic & non-metallic, road/rail tanker,
small containers, transfer of liquids, pipelines, release of gases, spraying of paints and
powders, handling of electro-explosive devices, earthing of personnel and hazards from
clothing.
For earthing and bonding maximum earth resistance recommended is 10 ohm.
Antistatic or conductive type materials can be used to avoid the retention of static electricity.
Earth resistance for static charge dissipation should be regularly checked.
Earthing Insulation : All non-current carrying metal parts of portable apparatus and
pendant lamps should be earthed unless suitably covered with insulating material. The
flexible metal covering of conductors should also be earthed; but it should not be the means
of earthing the portable apparatus, as the resistance of such metallic covers are high.
Lamp holders of portable lamps should not be in metallic contact with the guard or
other metal work. They should be insulated and the other metal parts earthed. For use near
live conductors, hand lamps having completely insulated exterior and guards should be used.
For use in dangerous situations such as inside of boilers or tanks or damp and exposed
positions, low voltage lamps or tools should be used. A pressure of 24 volts with 12 volts to
earth is recommended.
Earthing resistance
should be checked frequently and wherever it is difficult to obtain a low resistance,
other methods of earth fault protection described earlier (e.g. ELCB) should be used in
addition. Systems having monitoring current which will trip the supply if there is break in the
earth connection or if the resistance is high, provide adequate protection.
See Part 6.2.6 and its para-14 & 15 for earthing of portable appliances.
Portable Transformers : The main hazard with metal cased portable transformers is
that if the earth wire becomes detached in the mains-plug and touches live wire, the
secondary neutral and the metal case will praised to phase voltage of the mains. The
apparatus will thereby be charged to phase potential. The remedies are : (1) Constant
inspection (2) Provision of "stations" with two separate earthed sockets, one for mains supply
from the transformer (3) Transformer with insulated casing.
Portable apparatus operating at low voltage (e.g. 110 V) are more safe than those
operating at higher voltage.
Earthing & Bonding :
Tanks and piping containing flammable substance should have double earthings of
appropriate type. Earthing pit should be recharged periodically for easy flow of the current.
Resistance should be measured (below 10 K-ohm) and recorded. IS:3043 is useful for
earthing code. Filling (inlet) pipe should be extended up to bottom or an inner limpet coil
should be provided to avoid free fall and static charge due to material flow.

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Pipe joints/flanges should have copper bonding to maintain electric continuity.

Flange-guard is useful to divert the leakage downwards.
While loading or unloading flammable liquids or gases, the vehicle (road or rail
tanker) should also be earthed during such operation.
Earthing:
Electric systems and equipment should be earthed with resistance of 4 ohms or a
value that ensures the safe operation of the protective device in the circuit whichever is lower.
All non-current carrying metallic parts of electric apparatus or other metallic objects
should be earthed with resistance of 10 ohms.
Bonding:
All joints in pipelines, valves, plants, storage tanks, associated facilities and
equipment for petroleum shall be electrically bonded with the resistance value between each
joint not exceeding I ohm.
Lightning Arrestors:
Definition of Lightening Splash :
Lightening from the sky is nothing but a discharge to the earth of enormous static charges
generated and accumulated between the layers of air and clouds in the atmosphere and
discharged in the form of Splash.
Definition of Lightening Stroke:
Sudden electric discharge from clouds to ground accompanied by light & loud thunder sound
is called lightening Stroke.
Lightening Protection System:
Lightning Arrester :
Purpose of lightning arrester is to attract lightning from the sky and to bypass it into
the ground and not allowing it to pass through any combustible material.
A pole type long rod of good conductor is attached on the tallest structure at site.
Because of its good conductivity (low electrical resistance) electrical current of the lightning
is directly passed into the earth it is necessary to check its continuity and resistance of the
lightning arrester at regular interval.
It is not desirable to attach lightning arrester directly on the metal tank of flammable liquid or
gas because in case of unknown discontinuity, lightning may pass through the metal surface
and the whole tank may trap in to the fire.
IS : 2309 and 4850 are useful in this regard.

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Chapter 5
Automobile Manufacturing activity like patter making:
Pattern making
Pattern making is a highly skilled trade translating the two-dimensional design plans to a
three-dimensional object. Traditional wooden patterns are made in standard workshops
containing hand tools and electric cutting and planing equipment. Here, all reasonably
practicable measures should be taken to reduce the noise to the greatest extent possible, and
suitable ear protectors must be provided. It is important that the employees are aware of the
advantages of using such protection.
Power-driven wood cutting and finishing machines are obvious sources of danger, and often
suitable guards cannot be fitted without preventing the machine from functioning at all.
Employees must be well versed in normal operating procedure and should also be instructed
in the hazards inherent in the work.
Wood sawing can create dust exposure. Efficient ventilation systems should be fitted to
eliminate wood dust from the pattern shop atmosphere. In certain industries using hard
woods, nasal cancer has been observed. This has not been studied in the founding industry.
Casting in permanent metal moulds, as in die-casting, has been an important development in
the foundry industry. In this case, pattern making is largely replaced by engineering methods
and is really a die manufacture operation. Most of the pattern-making hazards and the risks
from sand are eliminated, but are replaced by the risk inherent in the use of some sort of
refractory material to coat the die or mould. In modern die-foundry work, increasing use is
made of sand cores, in which case the dust hazards of the sand foundry are still present.

Moulding
The most common moulding process in the iron founding industry uses the traditional ―green
sand‖ mould made from silica sand, coal dust, clay and organic binders. Other methods of
mould production are adapted from coremaking: thermosetting, cold self-setting and gas-
hardened. These methods and their hazards will be discussed under coremaking. Permanent
moulds or the lost foam process may also be used, especially in the aluminium foundry
industry.
In production foundries, sand mix, moulding, mould assembly, pouring and shakeout are
integrated and mechanized. Sand from shakeout is recycled back to the sand mix operation,
where water and other additives are added and the sand is mixed in mullers to maintain the
desired physical properties.
For ease of assembly, patterns (and their moulds) are made in two parts. In manual mould-
making, the moulds are enclosed in metal or wooden frames called flasks. The bottom half of
the pattern is placed in the bottom flask (the drag), and first fine sand and then heavy sand are
poured around the pattern. The sand is compacted in the mould by a jolt-squeeze, sand slinger
or pressure process. The top flask (the cope) is prepared similarly. Wooden spacers are placed
in the cope to form the sprue and riser channels, which are the pathway for the molten metal
to flow into the mould cavity. The patterns are removed, the core inserted, and then the two
halves of the mould assembled and fastened together, ready for pouring. In production

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foundries, the cope and drag flasks are prepared on a mechanical conveyor, cores are placed
in the drag flask, and the mould assembled by mechanical means.
Silica dust is a potential problem wherever sand is handled. Moulding sand is usually either
damp or mixed with liquid resin, and is therefore less likely to be a significant source of
respirable dust. A parting agent such as talc is sometimes added to promote the ready removal
of the pattern from the mould. Respirable talc causes talcosis, a type of pneumoconiosis.
Parting agents are more widespread where hand moulding is employed; in the larger, more
automatic processes they are rarely seen. Chemicals are sometimes sprayed onto the mould
surface, suspended or dissolved in isopropyl alcohol, which is then burned off to leave the
compound, usually a type of graphite, coating the mould in order to achieve a casting with a
finer surface finish. This involves an immediate fire risk, and all employees involved in
applying these coatings should be provided with fire-retardant protective clothing and hand
protection, as organic solvents can also cause dermatitis. Coatings should be applied in a
ventilated booth to prevent the organic vapours from escaping into the workplace. Strict
precautions should also be observed to ensure that the isopropyl alcohol is stored and used
with safety. It should be transferred to a small vessel for immediate use, and the larger
storage vessels should be kept well away from the burning-off process.
Manual mould making can involve the manipulation of large and cumbersome objects. The
moulds themselves are heavy, as are the moulding boxes or flasks. They are often lifted,
moved and stacked by hand. Back injuries are common, and power assists are needed so
employees do not need to lift objects too heavy to be carried safely.
Standardized designs are available for enclosures of mixers, conveyors and pouring and
shakeout stations with appropriate exhaust volumes and capture and transport velocities.
Adherence to such designs and strict preventive maintenance of control systems will attain
compliance with international recognized limits for dust exposure.
FORGING
Process Overview
Forming metal parts by application of high compressive and tensile forces is common
throughout industrial manufacturing. In stamping operations, metal, most often in the form of
sheets, strips or coils, is formed into specific shapes at ambient temperatures by shearing,
pressing and stretching between dies, usually in a series of one or more discrete impact steps.
Cold-rolled steel is the starting material in many stamping operations creating sheet metal
parts in the automotive and appliance and other industries. Approximately 15% of workers in
the automotive industry work in stamping operations or plants.
In forging, compressive force is applied to pre-formed blocks (blanks) of metal, usually
heated to high temperatures, also in one or more discrete pressing steps. The shape of the
final piece is determined by the shape of the cavities in the metal die or dies used. With open
impression dies, as in drop hammer forging, the blank is compressed between one die
attached to the bottom anvil and the vertical ram. With closed impression dies, as in press
forging, the blank is compressed between the bottom die and an upper die attached to the
ram.

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Drop hammer forges use a steam or air cylinder to raise the hammer, which is then dropped
by gravity or is driven by steam or air. The number and force of the hammer blows are
manually controlled by the operator. The operator often holds the cold end of the stock while
operating the drop hammer. Drop hammer forging once comprised about two-thirds of all
forging done in the United States, but is less
common today.
Press forges use a mechanical or hydraulic
ram to shape the piece with a single, slow,
controlled stroke (see figure 82.1). Press
forging is usually controlled automatically.
It can be done hot or at normal temperatures
(cold-forging, extruding). A variation on
normal forging is rolling, where continuous
applications of force are used and the
operator turns the part.
Figure Press forging
Die lubricants are sprayed or otherwise
applied to die faces and blank surfaces
before and between hammer or press
strokes.
High-strength machine parts such as shafts, ring gears, bolts and vehicle suspension
components are common steel forging products. High-strength aircraft components such as
wing spars, turbine disks and landing gear are forged from aluminium, titanium or nickel and
steel alloys. Approximately 3% of automotive workers are in forging operations or plants.
Working Conditions
Many hazards common in heavy industry are present in stamping and forging operations.
These include repetitive strain injuries (RSIs) from repeated handling and processing of parts
and operation of machine controls such as palm buttons. Heavy parts place workers at risk for
back and shoulder problems as well as upper extremity musculoskeletal disorders. Press
operators in automotive stamping plants have rates of RSIs that are comparable to those of
assembly plant workers in high-risk jobs. High-impulse vibration and noise are present in
most stamping and some forging (e.g., steam or air hammer) operations, causing hearing loss
and possible cardiovascular illness; these are among the highest-noise industrial
environments (over 100 dBA). As in other forms of automation-driven systems, worker
energy loads can be high, depending on the parts handled and machine cycling rates.
Catastrophic injuries resulting from unanticipated machine movements are common in
stamping and forging. These can be due to: (1) mechanical failure of machine control
systems, such as clutch mechanisms in situations where workers are routinely expected to be
within the machine operating envelope (an unacceptable process design); (2) deficiencies in
machine design or performance that invite unprogrammed worker interventions such as
moving jammed or misaligned parts; or (3) improper, high-risk maintenance procedures
performed without adequate lockout of the entire machine network involved, including parts
transfer automation and the functions of other connected machines. Most automated machine

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networks are not configured for quick, efficient and effective lockout or safe trouble-
shooting.
Mists from machine lubricating oils generated during normal operation are another generic
health hazard in stamping and forging press operations powered by compressed air,
potentially putting workers at risk for respiratory, dermatological and digestive diseases.
Health and Safety Problems
Forging
Like stamping, forging operations can pose high laceration risks when workers handle forged
parts or trim the flash or unwanted edges off parts. High impact forging can also eject
fragments, scale or tools, causing injury. In some forging activities, the worker grasps the
working piece with tongs during the pressing or impact steps, increasing the risk for
musculoskeletal injuries. In forging, unlike stamping, furnaces for heating parts (for forging
and annealing) as well as bins of hot forgings are usually nearby. These create potential for
high heat stress conditions. Additional factors in heat stress are the worker‘s metabolic load
during manual handling of materials and, in some cases, heat from combustion products of
oil-based die lubricants.
Die lubrication is required in most forging and has the added feature that the lubricant comes
in contact with high-temperature parts. This causes immediate pyrolysis and aerosolization
not only in the dies but also subsequently from smoking parts in cooling bins. Forging die
lubricant ingredients can include graphite slurries, polymeric thickeners, sulphonate
emulsifiers, petroleum fractions, sodium nitrate, sodium nitrite, sodium carbonate, sodium
silicate, silicone oils and biocides. These are applied as sprays or, in some applications, by
swab. Furnaces used for heating metal to be forged are usually fired by oil or gas, or they are
induction furnaces. Emissions can result from fuel-fired furnaces with inadequate draft and
from non-ventilated induction furnaces when incoming metal stock has surface contaminants,
such as oil or corrosion inhibitors, or if, prior to forging, it was lubricated for shearing or
sawing (as in the case of bar stock). In the US, total particulate air concentrations in forging
operations typically range from 0.1 to 5.0 mg/m3 and vary widely within forging operations
due to thermal convection currents. An elevated lung cancer rate was observed among
forging and heat treatment workers from two ball-bearing manufacturing plants.
Health and Safety Practices
Few studies have evaluated actual health effects in workers with stamping or forging
exposures. Comprehensive characterization of the toxicity potential of most routine
operations, including identification and measurement of priority toxic agents, has not been
done. Evaluating the long-term health effects of die lubrication technology developed in the
1960s and 1970s has only recently become feasible. As a result, regulation of these exposures
defaults to generic dust or total particulate standards such as 5.0 mg/m3 in the US. While
probably adequate in some circumstances, this standard is not demonstrably adequate for
many stamping and forging applications.
Some reduction in die lubricant mist concentrations is possible with careful management of
the application procedure in both stamping and forging. Roll application in stamping is
preferred when feasible, and using minimal air pressure in sprays is beneficial. Possible
elimination of priority hazardous ingredients should be investigated. Enclosures with

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negative pressure and mist collectors can be highly effective but may be incompatible with
parts handling. Filtering air released from high-pressure air systems in presses would reduce
press oil mist (and noise). Skin contact in stamping operations can be reduced with
automation and good personal protective wear, providing protection against both laceration
and liquid saturation. For stamping plant welding, washing parts prior to welding is highly
desirable, and partial enclosures with LEV would reduce smoke levels substantially.
Controls to reduce heat stress in stamping and hot forging include minimizing the amount of
manual material handling in high-heat areas, shielding of furnaces to reduce radiation of heat,
minimizing the height of furnace doors and slots and using cooling fans. The location of
cooling fans should be an integral part of the design of air movement to control mist
exposures and heat stress; otherwise, cooling may be obtained only at the expense of higher
exposures.
Mechanization of material handling, switching from hammer to press forging when possible
and adjusting the work rate to ergonomically practical levels can reduce the number of
musculoskeletal injuries.
Noise levels can be reduced through a combination of switching from hammer to press forges
when possible, well-designed enclosures and quieting of furnace blowers, air clutches, air
leads and parts handling. A hearing conservation programme should be instituted.
PPE needed includes head protection, foot protection, goggles, hearing protectors (around are
as with excessive noise), heat- and oil-proof aprons and leggings (with heavy use of oil-based
die lubricants) and infrared eye and face protection (around furnaces).
Environmental Health Hazards
The environmental hazards arising from stamping plants, relatively minor compared to those
from some other types of plants, include disposal of waste drawing compound and washing
solutions and the exhausting of welding smoke without adequate cleaning. Some forging
plants historically have caused acute degradation of local air quality with forging smoke and
scale dust. However, with appropriate air cleaning capacity, this need not occur. Disposition
of stamping scrap and forging scale containing die lubricants is another potential issue.
Melting and pouring
The iron founding industry relies heavily on the cupola furnace for metal melting and
refining. The cupola is a tall, vertical furnace, open at the top with hinged doors at the
bottom, lined with refractory and charged with coke, scrap iron and limestone. Air is blown
through the charge from openings (tuyers) at the bottom; combustion of coke heats, melts and
purifies the iron. Charge materials are fed into the top of the cupola by crane during operation
and must be stored close at hand, usually in compounds or bins in the yard adjacent to the
charging machinery. Tidiness and efficient supervision of the stacks of raw materials are
essential to minimize the risk of injury from slippages of heavy objects. Cranes with large
electromagnets or heavy weights are often used to reduce the scrap metal to manageable sizes
for charging into the cupola and for filling the charging hoppers themselves. The crane cab
should be well protected and the operators properly trained.
Employees handling raw materials should wear hand leathers and protective boots. Careless
charging can overfill the hopper and can cause dangerous spillage. If the charging process is
found to be too noisy, the noise of metal-on-metal impact can be reduced by fitting rubber
noise-dampening liners to storage skips and bins. The charging platform is necessarily above

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ground level and can present a hazard unless it is level and has a non-slip surface and strong
rails around it and any floor openings.
Cupolas generate large quantities of carbon monoxide, which may leak from the charging
doors and be blown back by local eddy currents. Carbon monoxide is invisible, odourless and
can quickly produce toxic ambient levels. Employees working on the charging platform or
surrounding catwalks should be well trained in order to recognize the symptoms of carbon
monoxide poisoning. Both continuous and spot monitoring of exposure levels are needed.
Self-contained breathing apparatus and resuscitation equipment should be maintained in
readiness, and operators should be instructed in their use. When emergency work is carried
out, a confined-space entry system of contaminant monitoring should be developed and
enforced. All work should be supervised.
Cupolas are usually sited in pairs or groups, so that while one is being repaired the others
operate. The period of use must be based on experience with durability of refractories and on
engineering recommendations. Procedures must be worked out in advance for tapping out
iron and for shutting down when hot spots develop or if the water cooling system is disabled.
Cupola repair necessarily involves the presence of employees inside the cupola shell itself to
mend or renew refractory linings. These assignments should be considered confined-space
entries and appropriate precautions taken. Precautions should also be taken to prevent the
discharge of material through the charging doors at such times. To protect the workers from
falling objects, they should wear safety helmets and, if working at a height, safety harnesses.
Workers tapping cupolas (transferring molten metal from the cupola well to a holding furnace
or ladle) must observe rigorous personal protection measures. Goggles and protective
clothing are essential. The eye protectors should resist both high velocity impact and molten
metal. Extreme caution should be exercised in order to prevent remaining molten slag (the
unwanted debris removed from the melt with the aid of the limestone additives) and metal
from coming into contact with water, which will cause a steam explosion. Tappers and
supervisors must ensure that any person not involved in the operation of the cupola remains
outside the danger area, which is delineated by a radius of about 4 m from the cupola spout.
Delineation of a non-authorized no-entry zone is a statutory requirement under the British
Iron and Steel Foundries Regulations of 1953.
When the cupola run is at an end, the cupola bottom is dropped to remove the unwanted slag
and other material still inside the shell before employees can carry out the routine refractory
maintenance. Dropping the cupola bottom is a skilled and dangerous operation requiring
trained supervision. A refractory floor or layer of dry sand on which to drop the debris is
essential. If a problem occurs, such as jammed cupola bottom doors, great caution must be
exercised to avoid risks of burns to workers from the hot metal and slag.
Visible white-hot metal is a danger to workers‘ eyes due to the emission of infrared and
ultraviolet radiation, extensive exposure to which can cause cataracts.
The ladle must be dried before filling with molten metal, to prevent steam explosions; a
satisfactory period of flame heating must be established.
Employees in metal and pouring sections of the foundry should be provided with hard hats,
tinted eye protection and face shields, aluminized clothing such as aprons, gaiters or spats
(lower-leg and foot coverings) and boots. Use of protective equipment should be mandatory,
and there should be adequate instruction in its use and maintenance. High standards of

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housekeeping and exclusion of water to the highest degree possible are needed in all areas
where molten metal is being manipulated.
Where large ladles are slung from cranes or overhead conveyors, positive ladle-control
devices should be employed to ensure that spillage of metal cannot occur if the operator
releases his or her hold. Hooks holding molten metal ladles must be periodically tested for
metal fatigue to prevent failure.
In production foundries, the assembled mould moves along a mechanical conveyor to a
ventilated pouring station. Pouring may be from a manually controlled ladle with mechanical
assist, an indexing ladle controlled from a cab, or it can be automatic. Typically, the pouring
station is provided with a compensating hood with a direct air supply. The poured mould
proceeds along the conveyor through an exhausted cooling tunnel until shakeout. In smaller,
job shop foundries, moulds may be poured on a foundry floor and allowed to burn off there.
In this situation, the ladle should be equipped with a mobile exhaust hood.
Tapping and transport of molten iron and charging of electric furnaces creates exposure to
iron oxide and other metal oxide fumes. Pouring into the mould ignites and pyrolyses organic
materials, generating large amounts of carbon monoxide, smoke, carcinogenic polynuclear
aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and pyrolysis products from core materials which may be
carcinogenic and also respiratory sensitizers. Moulds containing large polyurethane bound
cold box cores release a dense, irritating smoke containing isocyanates and amines. The
primary hazard control for mould burn off is a locally exhausted pouring station and cooling
tunnel.
In foundries with roof fans for exhausting pouring operations, high metal fume
concentrations may be found in the upper regions where crane cabs are located. If the cabs
have an operator, the cabs should be enclosed and provided with filtered, conditioned air.
GRINDING AND POLISHING
Grinding generally involves the use of a bonded abrasive to wear away parts of a workpiece.
The aim is to give the work a certain shape, correct its dimensions, increase the smoothness
of a surface or improve the sharpness of cutting edges. Examples include removal of sprues
and rough edges from a foundry casting, removal of surface scale from metals before forging
or welding and deburring of parts in sheet metal and machine shops. Polishing is used to
remove surface imperfections such as tool marks. Buffing does not remove metal, but uses a
soft abrasive blended in a wax or grease base to produce a high-lustre surface.
Grinding is the most comprehensive and diversified of all machining methods and is
employed on many materials—predominantly iron and steel but also other metals, wood,
plastics, stone, glass, pottery and so on. The term covers other methods of producing very
smooth and glossy surfaces, such as polishing, honing, whetting and lapping.
The tools used are wheels of varying dimensions, grinding segments, grinding points,
sharpening stones, files, polishing wheels, belts, discs and so on. In grinding wheels and the
like, the abrasive material is held together by bonding agents to form a rigid, generally porous
body. In the case of abrasive belts, the bonding agent holds the abrasive secured to a flexible
base material. Buffing wheels are made from cotton or other textile disks sewn together.
The natural abrasives—natural corundum or emery (aluminium oxides), diamond, sandstone,
flint and garnet—have been largely superseded by artificial abrasives including aluminium

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oxide (fused alumina), silicon carbide (carborundum) and synthetic diamonds. A number of
fine-grained materials such as chalk, pumice, tripoli, tin putty and iron oxide are also used,
especially for polishing and buffing.
Aluminium oxide is most widely used in grinding wheels, followed by silicon carbide.
Natural and artificial diamonds are used for important special applications. Aluminium oxide,
silicon carbide, emery, garnet and flint are used in grinding and polishing belts.
Both organic and inorganic bonding agents are used in grinding wheels. The main type of
inorganic bonds are vitrified silicate and magnesite. Notable among organic bonding agents
are phenol- or urea- formaldehyde resin, rubber and shellac. The vitrified bonding agents and
phenolic resin are completely dominating within their respective groups. Diamond grinding
wheels can also be metal bonded. The various bonding agents give the wheels different
grinding properties, as well as different properties with regard to safety.
Abrasive and polishing belts and discs are composed of a flexible base of paper or fabric to
which the abrasive is bonded by means of a natural or synthetic adhesive.
Different machines are used for different types of operations, such as surface grinding,
cylindrical (including centreless) grinding, internal grinding, rough grinding and cutting. The
two main types are: those where either the grinder or the work is moved by hand and
machines with mechanical feeds and chucks. Common equipment types include: surface-type
grinders; pedestal-type grinders, polishers and buffers; disk grinders and polishers; internal
grinders; abrasive cut-off machines; belt polishers; portable grinders, polishers and buffers;
and multiple polishers and buffers.
Hazards and Their Prevention
Bursting
The major injury risk in the use of grinding wheels is that the wheel may burst during
grinding. Normally, grinding wheels operate at high speeds. There is a trend towards ever-
increasing speeds. Most industrialized nations have regulations limiting the maximum speeds
at which the various types of grinding wheels may be run.
The fundamental protective measure is to make the grinding wheel as strong as possible; the
nature of the bonding agent is most important. Wheels with organic bonds, in particular
phenolic resin, are tougher than those with inorganic bonds and more resistant to impacts.
High peripheral speeds may be permissible for wheels with organic bonds.
Very high-speed wheels, in particular, often incorporate various types of reinforcement. For
example, certain cup wheels are fitted with steel hubs to increase their strength. During
rotation the major stress develops around the centre hole. To strengthen the wheel, the section
around the centre hole, which takes no part in the grinding, can thus be made of an especially
strong material which is not suitable for grinding. Large wheels with a centre section
reinforced in this way are used particularly by the steel works for grinding slabs, billets and
the like at speeds up to 80 m/s.
The most common method of reinforcing grinding wheels, however, is to include glass fibre
fabric in their construction. Thin wheels, such as those used for cutting, may incorporate
glass fibre fabric at the centre or at each side, while thicker wheels have a number of fabric
layers depending on the thickness of the wheel.

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With the exception of some grinding wheels of small dimensions, either all wheels or a
statistical sampling of them must be given speed tests by the manufacturer. In tests the wheels
are run over a certain period at a speed exceeding that permitted in grinding. Test regulations
vary from country to country, but usually the wheel has to be tested at a speed 50% above the
working speed. In some countries, regulations require special testing of wheels that are to
operate at higher speeds than normal at a central testing institute. The institute may also cut
specimens from the wheel and investigate their physical properties. Cutting wheels are
subjected to certain impact tests, bending tests and so on. The manufacturer is also obliged to
ensure that the grinding wheel is well balanced prior to delivery.
The bursting of a grinding wheel may cause fatal or very serious injuries to anyone in the
vicinity and heavy damage to plant or premises. In spite of all precautions taken by the
manufacturers, occasional wheel bursts or breaks may still occur unless proper care is
exercised in their use. Precautionary measures include:
· Handling and storing. A wheel may become damaged or cracked during transit or
handling. Moisture may attack the bonding agent in phenolic resin wheels, ultimately
reducing their strength. Vitrified wheels may be sensitive to repeated temperature variations.
Irregularly absorbed moisture may throw the wheel out of balance. Consequently, it is most
important that wheels are carefully handled at all stages and kept in an orderly manner in a
dry and protected place.
· Checking for cracks. A new wheel should be checked to ensure that it is undamaged and
dry, most simply by tapping with a wooden mallet. A faultless vitrified wheel will give a
clear ring, an organic bonded wheel a less ringing tone; but either can be differentiated from
the cracked sound of a defective wheel. In case of doubt, the wheel should not be used and
the supplier should be consulted.
· Testing. Before the new wheel is put into service, it should be tested at full speed with
due precautions being observed. After wet grinding, the wheel should be run idle to eject the
water; otherwise the water may collect at the bottom of the wheel and cause imbalance,
which may result in bursting when the wheel is next used.
· Mounting. Accidents and breakages occur when grinding wheels are mounted on
unsuitable apparatus—for example, on spindle ends of buffing machines. The spindle should
be of adequate diameter but not so large as to expand the centre hole of the wheel; flanges
should be not less than one-third the diameter of the wheel and made of mild steel or of
similar material.
· Speed. In no circumstances should the maximum permissible operating speed specified
by the makers be exceeded. A notice indicating the spindle speed should be fitted to all
grinding machines, and the wheel should be marked with the maximum permissible
peripheral speed and the corresponding number of revolutions for a new wheel. Special
precautions are necessary with variable speed grinding machines and to ensure the fitting of
wheels of appropriate permissible speeds in portable grinders.
· Work rest. Wherever practicable, rigidly mounted work rests of adequate dimensions
should be provided. They should be adjustable and kept as close as possible to the wheel to
prevent a trap in which the work might be forced against the wheel and break it or, more
probable, catch and injure the operator‘s hand.

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· Guarding. Abrasive wheels should be provided with guards strong enough to contain the
parts of a bursting wheel (see figure 82.5). Some countries have detailed regulations
regarding the design of the guards and the materials to be used. In general, cast iron and cast
aluminium are to be avoided. The grinding opening should be as small as possible, and an
adjustable nose piece may be necessary. Exceptionally, where the nature of the work
precludes the use of a guard, special protective flanges or safety chucks may be used. The
spindles and tapered ends of double-ended polishing machines can cause entanglement
accidents unless they are effectively guarded.
Figure 82.5 A well guarded, vitrified
abrasive wheel mounted in a surface
grinder and operating at a peripheral
speed of 33 m/s
Eye injuries
Dust, abrasives, grains and splinters are a common
hazard to the eyes in all dry-grinding operations.
Effective eye protection by goggles or spectacles
and fixed eye shields at the machine are essential;
fixed eye shields are particularly useful when
wheels are in intermittent use—for example, for
tool grinding.
Fire
Grinding of magnesium alloys carries a high fire risk unless strict precautions are taken
against accidental ignition and in the removal and drenching of dust. High standards of
cleanliness and maintenance are required in all exhaust ducting to prevent risk of fire and also
to keep ventilation working efficiently. Textile dust released from buffing operations is a fire
hazard requiring good housekeeping and LEV.
Vibration
Portable and pedestal grinders carry a risk of hand-arm vibration syndrome (HAVS), also
known as ―white finger‖ from its most noticeable sign. Recommendations include limiting
intensity and duration of exposure, redesigning tools, protective equipment and monitoring
exposure and health.
Health hazards
Although modern grinding wheels do not themselves create the serious silicosis hazard
associated in the past with sandstone wheels, highly dangerous silica dust may still be given
off from the materials being ground—for example, sand castings. Certain resin-bonded
wheels may contain fillers which create a dangerous dust. In addition, formaldehyde-based
resins can emit formaldehyde during grinding. In any event, the volume of dust produced by
grinding makes efficient LEV essential. It is more difficult to provide local exhaust for
portable wheels, although some success in this direction has been achieved by use of low-
volume, high-velocity capture systems. Prolonged work should be avoided and respiratory
protective equipment provided if necessary. Exhaust ventilation is also required for most belt

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sanding, finishing, polishing and similar operations. With buffing in particular, combustible
textile dust is a serious concern.
Protective clothing and good sanitary and washing facilities with showers should be
provided, and medical supervision is desirable, especially for metal grinders.
Heat treatment,
the heating and cooling of a metal which remains in the solid state, is usually an integral part
of the processing of metal products. It almost always involves a change in the crystalline
structure of the metal which results in a modification of its properties (e.g., annealing to make
the metal more malleable, heating and slow cooling to reduce hardness, heating and
quenching to increase hardness, low-temperature heating to minimize internal stresses).
Annealing
Annealing is a ―softening‖ heat treatment widely used to allow further cold working of the
metal, improve machinability, stress-relieve the product before it is used and so on. It
involves heating the metal to a specific temperature, holding it at that temperature for a
specific length of time and allowing it to cool at a particular rate. A number of annealing
techniques are used:
• Blue annealing, in which a layer of blue oxide is produced on the surface of iron-based
alloys
• Bright annealing, which is carried out in a controlled atmosphere to minimize surface
oxidation
• Close annealing or box annealing, a method in which both ferrous and non-ferrous
metals are heated in a sealed metal container with or without a packing material and
then slowly cooled
• Full annealing, usually carried out in a protective atmosphere, aimed at obtaining the
maximum softness economically feasible
• Malleablizing, a special kind of anneal given to iron castings to make them malleable
by transforming the combined carbon in the iron to fine carbon (i.e., graphite)
• Partial annealing, a low-temperature process to remove internal stresses induced in the
metal by cold working
• Sub-critical or spheroidizing annealing, which produces improved machinability by
allowing the iron carbide in the crystalline structure to acquire a spheroid shape.
Age-hardening
Age-hardening is a heat treatment often used on aluminium-copper alloys in which the
natural hardening that takes place in the alloy is accelerated by heating to about 180°C for
about 1 hour.
Homogenizing
Homogenizing, usually applied to ingots or powdered metal compacts, is designed to remove
or greatly reduce segregation. It is achieved by heating to a temperature about 20°C below the
metal‘s melting point for about 2 hours or more and then quenching.
Normalizing
A process similar to full annealing, ensures the uniformity of the mechanical properties to be
obtained and also produces greater toughness and resistance to mechanical loading.

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Patenting
Patenting is a special type of annealing process that is usually applied to materials of small
cross-section which are intended to be drawn (e.g., 0.6% carbon steel wire). The metal is
heated in an ordinary furnace to above the transformation range and then passes from the
furnace directly into, for example, a lead bath held at a temperature of about 170°C.

Quench-hardening and tempering

An increase in hardness can be produced in an iron-based alloy by heating to above the
transformation range and rapidly cooling to room temperature by quenching in oil, water or
air. The article is often too highly stressed to be put into service and, in order to increase its
toughness, it is tempered by reheating to a temperature below the transformation range and
allowing it to cool at the desired rate.
Martempering and austempering are similar processes except that the article is quenched, for
example, in a salt or lead bath held at a temperature of 400°C.
Surface- and case-hardening
This is another heat-treatment process applied most frequently to iron-based alloys, which
allows the surface of the object to remain hard while its core remains relatively ductile. It has
a number of variations:
• Flame hardening involves hardening the surfaces of the object (e.g., gear teeth, bearings,
slideways) by heating with a high-temperature gas torch and then quenching in oil, water
or another suitable medium.
• Electrical induction hardening is similar to flame hardening except that the heating is
produced by eddy currents induced in the surface layers.
• Carburizing increases the carbon content of the surface of an iron-based alloy by heating
the object in a solid, liquid or gaseous carbonaceous medium (e.g., solid charcoal and
barium carbonate, liquid sodium cyanide and sodium carbonate, gaseous carbon
monoxide, methane and so on) at a temperature of about 900°C.
• Nitriding increases the nitrogen content of the surface of a special low-alloy cast iron or
steel object by heating it in a nitrogenous medium, usually ammonia gas, at about 500 to
600°C.
• Cyaniding is a method of case-hardening in which the surface of a low-carbon steel object
is enriched in both carbon and nitrogen simultaneously. It usually involves heating the
object for 1 hour in a bath of molten 30% sodium cyanide at 870°C, and then quenching
in oil or water.
• Carbo-nitriding is a gaseous process for the simultaneous absorption of carbon and
nitrogen into the surface layer of steel by heating it to 800 to 875°C in an atmosphere of a
carburizing gas (see above) and a nitriding gas (e.g., 2 to 5% anhydrous ammonia).
TEXTILE INDUSTRY
Clothing is the basic need for all of us and with the modernisation a want of more and more
attractive (durable, shining, anti-crease and colourful) fabrics is increasing day by day.
Therefore the foundation of textile industry is very old, ever changing and everlasting. The
continuous blow room line, replacement of mule spinning by ring spinning, rotor spinning,
high speed shuttle-less and workerless looms and computerised processing machinery has
rapidly changed the structure of textile industry and the mills not following such

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modernization and automation are becoming sick in market competition. Yet it is a fact that
the old textile machines are still in use in some mills. From safety point of view, such old and
poorly guarded (and without built-in safety) machinery needs more attention.
Indian textile industry is the oldest one in the world. Cotton was invented and planted "by
'Grutsmad' Rushi some 20,000 years ago. Yarn and threads were manufactured by hands and
cloth was woven by hand looms. A reference is published that a ginning machine made in
India was sent to England. Dhaka's 'malmal' (the thinnest and lightest cloth) was famous.
British rulers cut off the palms and fingers of Indian weavers so that they cannot compete
with cloth from England. Dyeing by natural colours was also in use. Old Indian garments
were white and colorful.
The textile mills established during 19th century in Lancashire and in New England initiated
the Industrial Revolution and their cotton fabrics dominated the world markets for many
years. Indian textile mill industry is also as old as the first Indian Factories Act 1881 and
Gujarat is still leading in textile industries. Man made synthetic fibres such as polyamides
and polyester are now blended with cotton and a trend of such artificial fabrics is increasing.
In 1979 there were 19728 cotton textile factories working with 1147000 workers and 3244
wool, silk and synthetic fibre factories working with 179000 workers out of total 135173
working factories with total workers 6797000 in India. This gives 10.33% textile (cotton and
others) factories and 19.50% textile workers.
In 1999 estimated registered textile factories in India and Gujarat were ©16000 and 4000
respectively. Similarly estimated textile workers in India and Gujarat were @14 lakhs and 3.0
lakhs respectively.
A case study of one good composite textile mill employing @3500 workers indicates
following figures :
Year 1984 1985 1986
Total accidents 281 343 368
Due to unsafe 135 161 156
conditions (48%) (47%) (42%)
146 182 212
Due to unsafe actions
(52%) (53) (58%)
Mandays lost 2100 7276 3995
Frequency 32.78 40.25 45.04
Severity Rate 245.04 849.0 466.16
The department wise accidents in above study give following figures for the year 1986.

1. Weaving 111 6. Bleaching, Finishing 23

2. Engineering 51 Lab etc.
3. Contract workers 65 7. Dyeing 22
4. Spinning 53 8. Folding, Store, Office 15
5. Printing 28
Total 368

The causation wise accidents in above study gives following figures for the year 1986

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1. Striking against objects 103 6. Fall from height 24

2. Struck by falling bodies 48 7. Burn by hot substance, 16
3. Cut by sharp edges 34 chemicals etc.
knife, tools etc. 8. Cut by bobbin shields 14
4. Caught between objects 30 9. Others72
5. Flying shuttles 27
Total 368
Another case study of 2100 accidents in II composite mills, carried out by the
Central Labou Institute, Bombay gives following figures :
S.
Department Accidents Percent
N
1 Spinning Preparatory & spinning 738 35.2
2 Weaving Preparatory & Weaving 1019 48.6
3 Finishing & other Departments 343 16.2
Total 2100 100
Agency distribution is as follows
S. N Agency Accidents Percent
1 Looms 617 29.4
2 Ring Frames 321 15.3
3 Other Machines 335 15.9
4 Material Handling 228 10.9
5 Working Conditions 202 9.6
6 Hand Tools 176 8.4
7 Hand Trucks and Transport Equipment 121 5.8
8 Chemicals 34 1.6
9 Others 66 3.1
Total 2100 100

Above statistics ascertains that the textile industry is one of the biggest industries in India
employing more than 20% of total labour force and contributing more than 50% of total
industrial accidents thus highlighting the great need of safety and accident prevention in this
industry. Heavy and numerous machineries, health hazards including machine accidents,
shuttle flying, cut by bobbin shield, byssionosis, heat stress, humidity, high noise, fire
hazards and higher number of employment also stress for the higher need of safety.
Almost 50% accidents occurring in textile industry are due to unsafe conditions. Therefore
machine guarding and other safety conditions need much attention. The latest design of
textile machinery having built-in safety, dust suction device and computer controls has
eliminated many hazards of old machinery.
TYPES OF TEXTILE INDUSTRY
Cotton being the natural and old product, light, human body (particularly for hot days), cotton
textile is pioneering and oldest industry. But with invention; of new fibres, natural and
synthetic, it has, now become a mixed industry. The industry includes the spinning, weaving,

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knitting and finishing of all type; of natural, synthetic and artificial fibres. The machine; vary
from handlooms of cottage industry to very expensive and intricate modern machines. Some
are only spinning mills, weaving units or dyeing and finishing houses while some are
composite textile mill; carrying out all operations at one place.
A classification of various types of the fibres is as follows :

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All these fibres are used for various purposes such as garments, protective wears, ropes,
carpets etc. They are the raw materials for various types of textile industries.
Health Provisions :
Cleanliness (removal of cotton dust from work .area), disposal of waste and effluent from
dyeing and printing processes, good ventilation, temperature and lighting, removal of dust
and fume from dusty and heating area, artificial humidification required for cotton fibre
strength, drinking water, latrines and urinals and spittoons are applicable health provisions
under Chapter-3 of the Factories Act.
Artificial Humidification:
Section 15 of the Factories Act requires that water to be used to increase humidity of air
artificially (mostly in spinning department) should be clean and from a source of drinking
water.
Rules 19 to 29 prescribed u/s 15, require other details as under :
1. Artificial humidification is not allowed in spinning or weaving factory when room
temperature exceeds 29.5°C (85°F) or when wet bulb reading of the hygrometer is
higher than that specified in the schedule u/r 19 in relation to the dry bulb reading of
the hygrometer at that time.
2. Provision of hygrometer.
3. Copy of schedule u/r 19 to be affixed near every hygrometer.
4. Temperature to be recorded in humidity register (Form No.6) at each hygrometer.
5. Specifications of hygrometer.
6. Thermometer to be maintained in efficient order.

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7. Inaccurate thermometer not to be used without fresh certificate.

8. Hygrometer not to be affixed to wall etc. unless protected by wood.
9. No reading to be taken within 15 minutes of renewal of water.
10. Method of introducing steam for humidification (pipe dia < 2.5 cm , pressure < 5
Kg/Cm2 , jet projection < 11.5 cm , insulation thickness > 13 mm.)
Byssionosis is included in the third schedule of the Act as an occupational disease due to
cotton dust exposures to workers. It is reportable u/s 89. For details see Part 10 of this
chapter.
For monitoring and control of 'cotton dust' (TLV), new schedule 27, 'handling and processing
of cotton' u/r 102 is added in GFR vide Notification dated 19-1-2006. It requires
• Applicability to factories where any of the processes-opening of cotton bale, carding,
combing of cotton, spinning of cotton yarn or cleaning of waste cotton - are carried out.
• For removel of cotton dust, local exhaust ventilation is required on processes and machines
where cotton dust is generated.
• Workers should be given necessary PPE.
• Six monthly madical examination for LFT, immunoglobulim test and any other test
necessary.
• Limit of cotton dust in workroom should not be more than 0.2 mg/m'\ Record of area
monitoring should be available to the inspector.
• Other control measures like vacuum stripping of cards and vacuum cleaning should be
adopted.
• High standard of houskeeping should be maintained.
Safety Provisions:
Section 21 of the Factories Act regarding general machine guarding is application to all
textile machines.
Section 27 prohibits employment of woman or child in a cotton press room where a cotton
opener works. If feed-end of a cotton-opener is separated by full partition, they can be
employed on feed-end side. This is due to the risk of more flying cotton dust on delivery side
and hit-injury when any revolving beater breaks or any solid material is thrown out on
delivery side.
Hoist, lift and lifting machine provisions are applicable to those machines. Section 30 on
revolving machinery is applicable to hydroextractor to remove water from wet fabric. The top
cover of the revolving basket should be interlocked and safe working peripheral speed should
not be exceeded.
Section 31 and rule 61 are most important for all pressure vessels to be used in a textile
industry. Jet dyeing or beam dyeing vessels, ager, kier, drum washers, cooking-pans, drying
cylinders, drying range, sizing cylinders, air receiver tanks etc. are all subject of this
provision. Their design, construction, use and maintenance must be safe. They must be tested
by a competent person periodically. Their safely devices like safety valve, pressure gauge,
stop valve, drain valve and PRV or pressure regulator must be provided and maintained in a
safe working condition. Steam traps and vacuum breakers are also essential.
Precautions against toxic or flammable gas and fire are also applicable to textile processes
using solvent (eg. blancket cleaning) and cotton godowns.

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Schedules I & II for detailed machine guarding u/r 54 are summarised in Part
4.4 of Chapter 14.
Rule 68C,GFR, provides following safety precautions for Polymerising and Curing
Machines:
1. Printed fabrics shall be thoroughly dried before feeding to such machines (to allow
less solvent in the m/c).
2. 2/3 portion of the exhaust damper/flap should always be open.
3. Infrared ray heaters shall be cut off while running the prints.
4. Electrical heater should have separate circuit and switch to isolate it at the time of
emergency.
5. Leakage of solvent should not come in contact with the heaters.
6. Exhaust fan drive should be interlocked with main drive of the machine so that when
exhaust motor stops, the machine (with heating device) should also stop. (Exhaust fan should
start first before the fabric moves into the chamber).
7. Thermostat to regulate the temperature of the heater, not allowing it to go beyond the
preset value.
8. Explosion flaps to be provided at top to let off the fumes in case of explosion.
9. Filter gauge and exhaust duct should be cleaned weekly. Vee-belt tension should be
checked weekly.
10. Trained supervisor to examine the machine. A register to be maintained to enter all
checks.
When thermic fluid heaters are used to circulate hot oil instead of steam in textile machines
(eg. stenter for cloth drying) rule 68D, GFR, is applicable. See part 10 of Chapter-18 for
details.
Rule 68E, requires suitable ladders, crawling board and work permit to prevent fall from
fragile roofs.
Rule 102, Sch: 23 requires ear protection for noise level above 90 dBA, and -auditory
examination every year. Weavers are mostly exposed to high noise. Sch. 27 requires
protection from cotton dust.
Man-made Fibre (Cellulosic and noncellulosic) industry is listed in the First Schedule of the
Act as a hazardous industry. Therefore while manufacturing such synthetic fibre. Chapter 4A
of the Act and rules 68K to N, P and Q of the Gujarat Factories Rules are applicable. These
provisions may be referred in statute books for details. Then Schedule 19 u/r 102 also
becomes applicable for chemical work. Schedule 12 u/r 102 is applicable where acids or
alkalis are used.
Welfare Provisions :
Chapter-S (Sections 42 to 50) of the Factories Act is fully applicable to textile factory.
Washing facilities, first-aid appliances, canteen, lunch room and rest room, creche and
welfare officers are required depending on number of workers employed.

Rules 68R to W of the Gujarat Factories Rules regarding health records, qualified
supervisors, medical examination, occupational health centre, ambulance van and safety
showers are applicable to hazardous processes in man-made fibre textile in

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Above flowchart is self-explanatory, yet some main processes are explained below :

Ginning : The fibres and the cotton seeds are separated by 'gin' machines in a ginning
factory.
Pressing & Baling :
The ginned cotton is compressed and packed into bales by cotton presses (mostly hydraulic)
in a pressing factory. Generally ginning and pressing factories are combined and situated in
villages where cotton is collected. The cotton bales are transported to a spinning mill or a
composite textile mill. The cotton-seeds are separately collected. They are used to extract oil
therefrom and also for cattle-food.
Schedule-2, rule 54, GFR is applicable to ginning and pressing factories while Sch-l is
applicable to following processes.
Bale Opening and Scutching: In a blow room the bales are opened by bale openers,
sometimes tinted in a tinting room for quality separation and mixed with cotton from other
bales or man-made fibres through a hopper feeder. By a moving spiked lattice, beaters and a
series of rolls the fibres are thoroughly mixed, cleaned and further opened by revolving

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beaters and air currents against a grid through which the dirt is separated. A cotton lap is
formed and lap-rolls are sent to the carding machines
Carding : The fibres are made parallel to each other, remaining hard tuffs are broken and
short thin fibres and impurities are removed. A sliver (flat untwisted rope) is formed and it is
collected in cans.
Spinning : Through pre-comb drawing frames, sliver lap machines, comber machines,
drawing frames and inter frames the sliver is converted into inter-end by drawing, drafting,
combing and twisting processes. More slivers are passed through pairs of suitably spaced
rollers, each pair revolving at a higher speed than the preceding pair. Further attenuation of
the yam is accompanied by ring frames and doubling frames. Inter roving ends are converted
into yarn of required count by drafting and twisting in the ring frame machines. A new
method known as open-end or rotor spinning is most suitable for spinning coarse yarns and
can replace not only the ring frame but some other initial processes as well. Texturising is
done to synthetic yarn to reduce its denier.
Weaving Preparatory : In winding department yarn defect is removed and cheese and beam
(by warping machine) are produced. Pirn bobbins are filled to put them in shuttles. Yarn
singeing is carried out to burn off the projected fibres (hairs). Sizing (starch) process is
carried out in sizing machines.
Weaving : After the weaving .preparatory processes, the warp threads (beams) and weft
threads (pirn bobbins) are fed to looms to weave cloth. Various types of looms are used. New
alternations to the shuttle for weft insertion are - rapier, water jet, air jet and ripple or wave
shedding. The cloth is sent to the grey folding department for cleaning, mending, inspection
and folding (plaiting) purposes.
Artificial humidification is employed in carding, spinning and weaving departments to reduce
yarn breakage, because moist thread has relatively higher breaking strength than a dry thread.
But high humidity causes discomfort. Therefore its regulation is required by hygrometers and
by rules 19 to 29 under the GFR.
Introduction to Textile process involving cotton, jute and man made fibre.
Significant hazards and preventive measures.
Finishing Processes :
Here shearing - cropping, cloth singeing, piling, mercerising, drying, washing, desizing
(removing starch by enzymes solution), scouring (removing fats and waxes by hydroxide
solution), bleaching (by H,O, or Cl,>, dyeing (wide range of dyes available) and printing
(screen or multicolour rotary printing) processes are carried out in sequence. The dyed or
printed cloth is dried, smoothed and pressed. It may also be subjected to other treatments to
improve its appearance or wearing qualities. It may be made waterproof, flame repellent or
rotproof. Synthetic resins are used for these purposes. The finished cloth (fabric) is sent to
finish folding department, for checking, sample cutting, folding and baling purposes.
Now we shall see the flowcharts of different types of fabrics.

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Process Flowchart of Short Staple i.e. Cotton Spinning and Finishing:

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Fig:

Fig. Wool Processing Flowchart

Process Flowchart of Viscose Rayon and Synthetic Fibre Manufacture :

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Fig. : Process Flowchart of Viscose Rayon Manufacture

Process Flowchart of Spun and Filament Yarn :

(A) Manufacture of Nylon - 6.

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Process Flowchart of Filament Yarn (Nylon-6)

(B) Manufacture of Spun or Oriented Yarn (LOY, POY, HOY & FOY) :

Polyesters:

Polyesters were initially discovered and evaluated in 1929 by W.H. Carothers, who used
linear aliphatic polyester materials to develop the fundamental understanding of condensation
polymerisation, to study the reaction kinetics, and demonstrate that high molecular weight
materials were obtainable and could be melt-spun into fibres.
Polyethylene Terephthalate (PET) is a fibre of great commercial significance, useful in
cordage, apparel fabrics, industrial fabrics, conveyor belts, laminated and coated substrates,
and numerous other areas. However, to engineer specific properties for special uses, many
product variants have been developed and commercialised. These variants include alternative
cross sections, controlling polymer molecular weight, modifying polymer composition by
using co-monomers and using additive including delusterants, pigments and optical
brightners.
High molecular weight polymer is used for high strength fibres in tyres, ropes, and belts.
High strength and toughness are achieved by increasing the polymer molecular weight from
20000 to 30000 or higher by extended melt polymerisation or solid-phase polymerisation.
Special spinning processes are required to spin the high viscosity polymer to high strength
fibre. Low molecular weight fibres are weak but have a low propensity to form and retain
pills, i.e. fuzz balls, which can be formed by abrasion and wear on a fabric surface. Most pill-

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resistant fibres are made by spinning low molecular weight fibres in combination with a melt
viscosity booster.
Most of the textile fibres are delustered with 0.13.0% wt TiO, to reduce the glitter and plastic
appearance. Many PET fibres also contain optical brighteners.
Manufacturing and Processing:
Terephthalic Acid (TA) or dimethyl terephthalate (DMT) reacts with ethylene glycol (EG)
to form bis (2-hydroxyethyl) terephthalate [959-26-2] (BHET) which is condensation
polymerised to PET with the elimination of EG. Molten polymer is extruded through a die
(spinneret) forming filaments that are solidified by air cooling. Combinations of stress, strain
and thermal treatments are applied to the filaments to orient and crystalize the molecular
chains. These steps develop the fiber properties required for specific uses. The two general
physical forms of PET fibers are continuous filament and cut staple.
Raw Materials :
For the first decade of PET manufacture, only DMT could be made sufficiently pure to
produce high molecular weight PET. After about 1965, processes to purify crude TA by
hydrogenation and crystallisation became commercial. In Japan, oxidation conditions are
modified to give a medium purity TA suitable to manufacture PET, provided colour toners
such as bluing agents or optical brighteners are added during polymerisation. Compared to
DMT, advantages of TA as an ingredient are lower cost, no methanoi by-product, lower
investment and energy costs, higher unit productivity, and more pure polymer because less
catalyst is used. Catalysts are used in the transesterification reaction of DMT with EG and in
polycondensation. Many compounds have catalytic activity. Divalent zinc and manganese are
the prevalent transesterification catalysts. Antimony, titanium and germanium are the
predominant polycondensation catalysts. Up to 3% delusterant is added to many PET fibre
products to make them more opaque and scatter light; titanium dioxide is the most common
delusterant. PET fibre blended with cotton for apparel frequently contains small amounts of
fluorescent optical brighteners added during polymerisation.
Commercial production of PET polymer is a two-step process carried out through a series of
continuous staged reaction vessels. First, monomer is formed by transesterification of DMT
or by direct esterification of TA with EG.
In general, esterification is conducted in one or two vessels forming low molecular weight
oligomers with a degree of polymerisation of about I to 7. The oligomer is pumped to one or
two pre-polymerisation vessels where higher temperatures and lower pressures help remove
water and EG; the degree of polymerisation increases to 15 to 20 repeat units. The
temperatures are further increased and pressures decreased in the final one or two vessels to
form polymer ready to spin into fibre. For most products, the final degree of polymerisation
is about 70 to 100 repeat units. Average molecular weight is about 22,000; weight average
molecular weight is about 44,000.
Spinning:
PET fibres are made either by directly spinning molten polymer or by melting and spinning polymer
chips. A special, precise metering pump forces the molten polymer heated to about 290°C through a
spinneret consisting a number of small capillaries, typically 0.2 to 0.8 mm in diameter and 0.3 to 1.5

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mm long, under pressures up to 35 MPa (5000 psi). After exiting the capillary, filaments are
uniformly cooled by forced convection heat transfer with laminar-flow air.
Following solidification, the threadline is passed over a finish applicator and collected. A spin finish
is applied to reduce friction and eliminate static change.
It is convenient to classify commercial PET spinning processes according to the degree of molecular
orientation developed in the spun fiber. Generally, the classification is a function of spinning speed.
Low oriented yarn (LOY) is spun at speeds from 500 to 2500 m/min; partially oriented yarn (POY) is
spun at 2500 to 4000 m/min; highly oriented yarn (HOY) is spun at 4000 to 6500 m/min; and fully
oriented yarn (FOY) is spun at greater than 6500 m/min.

Drawing and Stabilisation:

Drawing is the stretching of low orientation, amorphous spun yarn {LOY) to several times
their initial length. This is done to increase their orientation and tensile strength. Drawing
in two or more stages is useful to optimise te'nsile properties and process continuity.
Stabilisation is heating the fiber to release stress within the molecular chains melt and reform
crystals and increase the level of crystallinity in order to stabilise the fibre structure.
Staple Processes:
In staple processing, the containers of combined spun ends are further combined to form a
tow band and fed to a large drawline. The tow band is spread out into a flat band tracking
over multiple feed and draw rolls. Crimping is the process by which two dimensional
configuration and cohesive energy is imparted to synthetic fibres so they may be carded and
converted to spun yarns. The tow band is cut to precise lengths using a radial multiblade
cutter, normally 30 to 40 mm for blending with cotton, 50 to 100 mm for blending with wool
and up to 150 mm for making carpets. Cut staple is packaged in up to 500 kg. bales at
densities greater than 0.5g/ m3.
Safety and Environmental Factors :
Health & Safety :
PET Fibres pose no health risk to humans or animals. Fibres have been used extensively in
textiles with no adverse physiological effects from prolonged skin contact. PET has been
approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration for food packaging and bottles. PET is
considered biologically inert and has been widely used in medical inserts such as vascular
implants and artificial blood vessels, artificial bone arid eye sutures.
Environmental Factors :
PET materials are no dangerous to the environment and cannot contamination surface or
ground water. During polymerisation, non condensible organic by-products are stripped from
this process outflow streams and burned. Glycol and water are separated by refining. The

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water is treated in standard water spray facility. The glycol is reused The method from the
DMT transesterification is refined and reused. Like all materials, polyesters should be

: Block Diagram for Polyester Manufacturing by Continuous Polymerisation Process

Jute manufacture :

The jute plant flourishes in hot and damp regions of Asia, mainly in India, Bangladesh, Pakistan,
Burma and Thiland. Jute is a natural fibre and is used to make sack cloth, jute ropes, bags, camp beds,
filter cloths etc.,
In 1820, jute was sent to England from India and was spun experimentally at Abingdon near Oxford.
In 1822 Dundee mills in Scotland began spinning of jute. By 1850 the jute industry was well
established.
In India and Bangladesh, the jute plants (Corchorus) are harvested with a hand sickle. Jute plant
grows to 5 mt with a stalk diameter of 2 cm. The fibres are separated from the stem. The strands of
fibre, as much as 2 mt long, are washed and hung up in the sun to dry. They are compressed into bales
and sent off to the mills for spinning disposed of properly to avoid litter and can bi disposed of by
landfill or incineration.
A key environmental advantage for PE" materials is the ability to recycle. Polyester materials
especially bottles, can be separated from contammated materials such as aluminium caps and paper
label and remanufactured by direct remelt extrusion into fibres for filling products or carpets or into
layered constructions for good-grade bottles.
A block diagram of above mentioned process i «ihnwn in Pip- 21 9.

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Small amount of mineral spindle oil is added into the fibre during conversion into yarn. Normal jute
goods may contain upto 5% oil, but so-called 'stainless' yarns to be used for special purposes like wall
coverings, cables etc., contain I % or less oil.

Jute Processes:
Raw jute is first passed through the softening machine. Oil and water emulsion is sprayed on
to the jute. Sometimes sodium alkyl phosphate (Teepol) is also used. This process is known
as 'batching'.
After preparation, the fibres are carded or combed, drawn and spun. Then cop and spool
winding, weaving, finishing, croppong, cutting and lapping complete the processing.
Bleaching and dyeing of jute is also possible. Dyestuffs used for cotton, are also useful for
jute. The fibre has a special affinity for basic dyes, which provide brilliant effects even on
unbleached base. The increased demand for rugs, mats and carpets require dyed jute yarns
and fabrics suitable for these applications. Azoic and vat dyes give very bright and fast results
but their high cost limits their use with jute. The tendency of jute to turn brown in sunlight is
a permanent disadvantage. Hazards and Controls:
Machinery hazards are high as in case of cotton textile machinery. Main drives, gears, in-
running nips of rollers or bowls, spindles and shafts, knives and cutters, flying shuttles etc.
need efficient guarding. Fire may occur due to friction and heat. Water hydrants are
necessary. Pesticides used in cultivation of jute may cause poisoning. Dust is given off in
bale opening and spinning. Local exhaust ventilation is a must. Dermatitis gives skin trouble
due to dust, batching oil, dyes etc. Excessive noise in weaving operation may cause hearing
loss. Ear protection is necessary. Carrying heavy loads may cause strains. Medical
examination of workers is necessary.
HAZARDS AND SAFETY MEASURES OF SPINNING PREPARATORY AND
SPINNING PROCESSES
Opening and Blow Room Machines:
Purpose is to open cotton bales, to open and beat
cotton to remove dirt/dust from it and to make it
loose for the next process of spinning.
Types of machines used are :

1. Bale opener or breaker. Hard waste

breaker, step cleaner. Super cleaner. Cotton
opener - Porcupine or Chrighton opener. Roving waste opener. Scutcher, Combined opener
and Scutcher Scutcher and Lap machine, Axi-flo, hoppel feeder etc. Tinting room is used to
colour the cotton or synthetic fibres for their mixing.

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2. Each machine should be driven by separate motor or by separate counter-shaft with

fast and loose pulleys and efficient belt shifting device All main drives, counter drives and
reductior gears shall be securely guarded.

3. All beater covers or doors giving access to any dangerous part of the machine should
be interlocked or be securely fenced. Dirt door or desk door should have hinged or fixed grill
as a guard and door for dirt/dust removal.

4. Dust chamber opening should be so fenced that while admitting light, prevents
contact between any portion of a worker's body and the beater grid bars.

5. All belt and chain drives should be guarded.

6. In Roving waste opener, cage-wheel and side shaft wheel should be guarded.

7. In opener machine, door giving access to the nip between the lattice and the fluted
guide roller of the lattice and evener rolls etc, be interlocked.

8. Inspection doors (covers) on trunkings should be properly situated and closed. If their
location is dangerous, it should be changed or interlocked.

9. Spiked or fluted rollers which feed the materials from conveyors should be guarded.
In-running nips of Feed and Calendar rollers must be guarded or interlocked.

10. Safe means of access i.e. catwalk, guard-rails, steps, ladders, hand-rails etc., should be
provided on top of the machine where a worker has to work.

11. Lap rods - Lap stand should be proper. Lap rods should not fall out of it. Stacking of
lap-rods should be proper

12. Knock-off lever - Its design or placement should be proper and the knock-off wheel
should not hit a person.

13. Unsafe actions : The interlocks (micro-switches) on machines should not be tempered
with. The supervision should he-proper for loading dead weight on a buckley opener,
handling a guard, cleaning the inside of a buckley cage or bottom dust chamber collecting
cotton or waste from near any revolving part, placing spiked lattice on a bale breaker,
removing jam med material from rack and rack wheel, climbing the opener, feeding the lap
on a scutcher and removing choked cotton through anopening in a pneumatic pipe.

Carding Machines :
Purpose is to spin and open cotton fibres.
1. Spacing between the cards should be sufficent. All dangerous parts such as belts,
ropes, pulleys, gears etc., should be securely guarded. Main drive shall be guarded.
2. The cylinder-doors must be interlocked (R. 54, Sch. 1) and effective. Stripping
(cleaning cylinder) operation with open doors should be done by a trained man. The newer
machines have safer stripping attachment.
3. The belt shifting devices for fast and loose pulleys should be properly maintained.

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4. The nip between the plate-wheel and the side shaft wheel should be guarded.
5. Coiler : (i) Coiler head should not fall down
(ii) Gears of the coiler box be guarded, (iii) The nip
between the calendar roller wheel and the coiler back
shaft wheel should be guarded or fenced.
6. Licker-in : (i) The access to the underside of
the licker-in should be properly guarded by a hinged
swing door or flap guard swinging back upwards to
prevent contact while collecting dust (ii) The
checking of the clearance between the licker-in and
its casing while the licker-in is in motion must be
prohibited (it may be done while the licker-in is
stationary).
7. Doffer & Comb Blade : (i) Covers on doffer wheels should be closed, (ii) Work at or
near the doffer cover and doffer comb blade must be done with care and properly supervised.
8. High Speed Carding machine : The in running nip between cross rolls should be
securely guarded.
9. Mounting or dismounting of belt or rope and stripping and grinding operations should
be done with care and should be properly supervised. It should be checked that while such
stripping or grinding, the stripping brush is properly positioned so that it may not be
loosened, the idler wheel and the umbrella wheel are properly fitted (so that they may not get
loosed and fell down) (ii) Gauging the clearance between the flats and the card-cylinder
should 130 done with the cylinder stationary (not rotated even manually) and by a standard
angular gauge for this operation. It should be so supervised.
10. Local Exhaust Ventilation : Modern card machines have built-in local exhaust system
with dust collection chamber to extract the cotton dust generating in the machine and to
prevent its exposure in the work environment. This system should be efficiently maintained
1. Comber Machine : (i) The main drive shall have fixed guard (ii) The moving spiked
cylinder should be interlocked, (iii) The cylinder covers i.e. hood of the comb near comber
cylinder and the coiler covers should be fixed so as not to fall down and hit (iv) Hinged
transparent guard to prevent contact with rotating segment i.e. nipper or gripper (v) Guard on
top comb and detaching rolls (vi) Guard on calendar rollers and gears (vii) Interlock guard on
coiler and draw-box gears.
2. Drawing frames : (i) Guards be provided on moving calendar rollers and gears (Nip between
rollers should be covered), (ii) The gear wheels should be guarded or fenced, (iii) The head stock
gearing must be guarded, (iv) The mango vacuum box of the top roller should be securely fixed, (so
as not to fall down) (v) Sharp projections on the coiler bottom plate should be removed or rounded
(vi) Off-end gear cover should be guarded.

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Roving (Speed) Frames :

Roving means drawing of the first thread from the sliver. Purpose is drawing and twisting of fibres
(thread).
1. Types of these m/cs are : Slubbing frames, inter frames etc. The main drive shall be
securely guarded.
2. The head stock gearing (jack box wheels) should be interlocked. (R. 54, Sch I GFR).
3. Slubber Frames : (i) The driving bevel and bevel wheel should be guarded, (ii) The
spindle shaft wheel should be guarded, (iii) Bobbin and spindle bevel gears should be
guarded, (iv) The ratchet wheel should be guarded, (v) Work close to revolving flyers should
be done only after stopping the flyers. It should be supervised so. (vi) Care should be
exercised while handling of rollers and weights.
4. Inter (Speed) Frames : (i) The guard of the head stock gearing should be adequate or
interlocked (ii) The stacking of bobbins on creel top should be done in safe manner, (so that
the bobbins may not fall down) (iii) The height of creel top should be proper, (so as to reach
easily). If not suitable, foot boards and hand holds should be provided (iv) Work close to
rotating flyers should be done after stopping them (v) Draft rolls, draft gears, inter gears (jack
box), cone drive and main drive should have guards.
The new open end or rotor spinning system eliminates some steps of the spinning preparatory
operation and reduces many accidents.
Ring (Spinning) Frames:
Main process is twisting (rotating) and
winding thread on bobbins.
Return-air system with humid air
suppliers (diffusers) is used for better
ventilation and humidification. Purpose of
humidifiction is to prevent thread
breaking. It provides large duct area
through floor openings, air cleaning, rapid
air changes, more humidification and
more reduction in flying fluffs.
1. Transmission parts : (i) The main
drive and the other driving belts and ropes
should be guarded, (ii) Mounting of taps on jockey pulleys should be done after stopping the
pulley by cutting of power, (iii) The headstock gears should be interlocked. Tieing ribbon on
limitswitches and making interlocking ineffective is noticed many times. By frequent
checking such unsafe practice must be discouraged, (iv) Drafting gear and drafting rollers,
warm and warm wheel should be guarded.
2. Damaged Bobbin Shields : Sharp edges of the broken metal shields of bobbins cause
many injuries on fingers while piecing or doffing operations. Following remedies should be
provided, (i) Inspection and rejection of damaged shields, (ii) Use of plastic bobbins instead
of wooden with metal shields, (iii) Suitable kneebrake or hand brake as shown in the figure
for each spindle to stop it. The .height of this brake should coincide with the knee of the
worker. This is the design (ergonomic) aspect.

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3. Struck against various m/c parts : (i) The sharp edge of a protruding metal sheet on
the frame and broken edge of a ring frame may cause struck injury. Such damaged
components should be replaced, (ii) Care should be taken while creeling, de-creeling, piecing,
cleaning rollers, cleaning cotton fluff, stopping bobbins for piecing, fixing bobbins on
spindles, doffing and adjusting arbor so as not to be struck against rollers, their supporting
brackets or roller beams; work near lappet rail, filter-box, lappet middlerollers, top arm and
cradle and middle arbor and cradle assembly, pocker rod, tube bracket and dashing against
the frame of the machine while attending to
different jobs. Proper supervision necessary.
4. Fall of bobbins from creel top : (i)
Stacking of bobbins on creel top should not
be haphazard. Only one row of bobbins
should be stacked, (ii) Safe means of access
i.e. suitable foot-boards and hand-holds
should be provided for climbing up.
5. Fall of rollers : (i) Fall of clearer
rollers and dead weight rollers occur in the
course of operations such as releasing auto-
lever, piecing, removing the rollers or
holding them for cleaning. Care is necessary,
(ii) Mechanism holding the rollers in position
should be maintained in good condition.
6. Auto-lever : (i) Care should be taken while releasing or replacing the auto-lever, (ii)
Condition of the saddle should not be defective.
7. Ring travellers : These can fly and injure persons unless there is an effective system
of periodical replacement. Also the travellers should be of good quality and properly fitted.
8. Dotting boxes : (i) The hook on the doffing boxes for placing them on the rail should
be proper. (ii) Splintered condition of the boxes and the protruding metal band may cause
accident. Their periodical inspection and repair is necessary.
9. Suction pipes : Sharp or broken edge of a suction pipe may cause injury. It should be
checked and required or replaced. Suction fan with duct is provided to collect broken ends.
10. Others : (i) Side plate of a frame may get loose and fall down. It should be
periodically inspected, (ii) All motor fans should be closed by the covers.
Doubling Machines (frames) :
Two or more threads are joined, twisted and wound on bobbin.
1. Drives : Main drive pulley belt and head stock gearing should have guards. Delivery
roll gears should be guarded.
2. Knee-brakes : They should be provided to stop bobbin for piecing operation and
maintained properly. They should be at proper knee height.
3. Cans : (i) The edges of cans for storing bobbins should not be broken or sharp, (ii)
They should be inspected and repaired or replaced, (iii) Plastic cans are desirable.
4. Ring Travellers : (i) They should be of good quality and properly fitted, (ii) They
should be periodically inspected and replaced.

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5. Machine Parts : The creel tops to store bobbins should be within the arms reach. Foot
rails should be provided.
6. Unsafe actions : Striking against knee-
brakes, ring travellers, top roller, tap on a spindle,
rough edge of jockey pulley etc., may cause
accidents. Care should be exercised and
supervised.
HAZARDS AND SAFETY MEASURES OF
WEAVING PREPARATORY AND WEAVING
PROCESSES
Winding Machines:
Purpose is to wind weft on bobbins.
Types of machines used are : Barber-Coleman
ITI/C, Auto-coner, pirn winder etc. 1. Guards should be provided on main drive,
revolving drum, drum drive motor, timer drive, cam drive, traveller pulley and track nip and
conveyor drive. Knotter-carriage assembly & spindle assembly should have cover.
2. The gap between the moving parts of conveyor and fixed parts should be checked all
along its length and reduced to the minimum by suitable covers/guards.
3. Bobbins/sleeves used on the m/cs should be inspected for broken edges, burrs etc. as
also for their proper fitment on driving spindles.
4. Haste in loading spindles with empty bobbins should be avoided. Also, dust and other
extraneous materials on spindle and moving yarn should not be removed while they are in
motion. Dust collecting blower and bag are useful.
5. Automatic winders like cone winder and spoolers prevent hands reaching near the
rotating drum and are preferable.
Warping Machines:
Purpose is to wind warp on warp beam. Different
types of warping m/cs are available.
1. The flanges of rotating beam should
be properly guarded. Aluminium flange beam
without metal flange ring is safer. Metal
flange ring may open, fly out and hit.
2. The main drive, gear wheels, motor
pulley, clutch pulley-belt and other parts
should be properly guarded.
3. The nip between the driving roll and
warp beam should be guarded. Trip cum
distance guard should be provided for
protection from rotating beam.
4. Beam side distance guard (rod)
should be interlocked (contact switch) with drum which drives the beam-.
5. Multiple photo-electric device is more safe.

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6. Hydraulic braking system should be provided to stop the beam within shortest
possible time.
7. Stop motion indicator lamp is useful.
8. Wheels of moveable stands should have guards.
9. Drum drive motor pulley, beam drive chain, beam ends and section warping gears
should be guarded.
10. Unsafe actions : Dashing against rotating beam, leading the thread from the creel to
the drum (at this time the m/c should be stopped), removing ball bearing from the shaft of the
warp roll, stepping on the slopping platforms of the m/c, removing empty pegs from bobbins
on creels and loading and unloading the beams can cause injuries.
Sizing Machines :
Purpose is to apply starch on yarn or cloth.
1. Nips : Nip guards should be provided on in running nips between the driving rolls and
other revolving rolls at the front of the m/c. Guards on drag rolls and squeeze rolls are
essential.
2. The main drive, beam drive chain, size box
drive chain and speedometer chain should be
guarded.
3. Suction hood necessary to arrest steam
vapour.
4. Gears : The gears of the marking mechanism
of the m/c should be guarded. Other m/c parts be
guarded.
5. Beam weights : The counter weights of a
beam should be properly placed so that they may not
fall down while touching.
6. Loading and unloading of beams can cause accidents. Care should be exercised.
7. Rule 61(8) GFR : (i) These provisions should be followed for thin wall cylinders, (ii)
Form No. 11- test report - should be available for each sizing cylinder, (iii) Pressure reducing
valve, safety valve, pressure gauge, steam trap and drain-cock for condenset, steam stop
valve etc., should be properly provided, set and maintained for ensuring safety, (iv)
Maximum permissible working pressure shall be reduced 5% every vear (v) Maximum life
20 vears. (vi) New and second hand pressure vessel shall be tested at 1.5 times 'its Maximum
Permissible Working Pressure.
Looms (power looms) :
Purpose is to weave cloth by using weft (pirn) bobbins and warp beam by a machine known
as loom.
1. Types of looms are : Ordinary power looms, automated jacquard looms, drop-box,
dobby, air-jet, water-jet, rapier etc. Loom sizes are 46", 52", 56", 60" and 64".
2. Flying Shuttles : (i) Shuttle flight may be caused by warp breakage, broken or
improper heald
(heddle) wires, slackness in picking mechanism and other causes. Shuttle less looms (auto
looms) is the best remedy for shuttle flights, but it is not economical. Therefore, the

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practical remedy is the shuttle guard. The shuttle guards be properly provided. It should
extent sufficiently forward and the gap below it should not be too much. Because of
possibility of change in this gap and despite the guard the shuttle car fly and hit Certainly
they protect the upper body of a worker from hitting, (ii) To protect from injury due to shuttle
flying from the adjacent loom, every loom must be equipped with barrier guard placed close
to each end of the slay beam Such guards of strong wire netting or similar material are
advisable, (iii) Reasons for shuttle flights should be properly recorded, investigated and
removed.
3. Shuttles : (i) Shuttle receptacle should be provided near each end of the slay to place
the shuttle properly, (ii) Removing empty pirn (bobbin in shuttle) 'and loading wound pirn
into the shuttle may cause injury. Also care should be exercised while placing shuttle on the
slay. (iii) Automation of process of filling up the empty shuttle can reduce these hazards
where a pirn battery loads the shuttle as soon as the weft yarn on it is exhausted. This device
of modern looms is advisable.
4. Picking stick assembly : (i) Vertical picking stick is less dangerous than horizontal
one. Work near the proximity of the stick should be done carefully, (ii) Spacing between two
looms should be at least 55 cm measured from the farthest projecting point of an adjacent
loom or wall. The aisles (alleys) should atleast be one meter wide. It is so desirable for safe
movement, (iii) Picking stick (arm) should be securely guarded along its fixed path of
movement so that hitting by it can be avoided, (iv) The loom spindle on which the picker
moves may crack or fly out and hit. Defective spindle should be found out and replaced, (v)
Picking spring should be inserted in position carefully (vi) The picking wheel should be
guarded, (vii) All parts of picking mechanism and heald frame should be sound for proper
fitment, wear and tear.
5. Beam Weighing : (i) Compound lever should be adopted for beam weighing wherever
possible. The shape of the weights should be such that they would not come off the lever and
hit. Weights of shape '8' should be preferred to those of shape 'C'. Weights must be harnessed
to the beam by strings or straps of adequate strength (ii) Spring loaded mechanism used for
beam weighing should be inspected at least once in a week and defects, if any, rectified.
Defects of spring, lever handle, threads used if any, should be found and removed.
6. Cloth and Emery rolls : (i) The support brackets of the cloth roll should be examined
once a week for any defects to ensure that the cloth roll sits tight in the brackets, (ii) Care
should be taken from hitting the cloth or emery rolls while walking near them (iii) Heavy
cloth rolls should be handled mechanically or by more workers, (iv) Guards should be
provided on emery roll and guide roll, crank tappet gears, take-up gears, bottom cam drive
gears, motor drive, shedding motion etc.
7. Slay beam : (i) The slay moving towards and away from the weaver may hit the hand
and fingers may get trapped between the moving slay and the front rest head frame, temples
etc. Hands should not be placed on the slay or at places near its path. (ii) Clearance between
the slay bolts of two adjacent looms should be adequate, (iii) Setting of die weft fork holder
and hammer should be proper, (iv) Removing fluff or wastes and attending to minor
adjustment on the loom must be done only after stopping the loom.
8. Duck bill and Hitter : The duck bill and hitter should be guarded on every loom to
prevent contact with sharp edges of these moving parts or being trapped between them. Such

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guards can be in the form of close pitched springs surrounding the duck bill and extending 3
to 5 cm beyond so that approach to the sharp edges from the sides is prevented.
9. Others : (i) Driving pulley-belts (main drive) of the loom must be securely guarded by
a fixed guard. (ii) Ratchet and pawl or crank and tappet mechanism (including gears) should
be guarded. The edges of the guards should not be sharp so that it may injure, (iii) The tuning
of the loom should be checked once in every shift and adjusted wherever necessary (iv) Spare
pirns and their boxes should be examined for their broken edges etc., and should be rectified,
(v) The operators must be alert to join the broken ends. They should be joined only after
stopping the loom. (vi) Pall of various improperly fitted loom parts on workers while
cleaning, oiling etc., dashing against loom parts, getting caught between loom parts due to
accidental starting, striking weft box while loading or unloading pirns, striking heald wire
while drawing ends or doing adjustments nearby etc., may cause accidents. Care should be
exercised and supervised in such operations, (vii) Suction device for pirn-battery return air
system, diffusers, sprinklers, hydrants, fire extinguishers etc. should be in good working
order.
10. Noise : Hearing loss is possible due to high noise in loom shed. Noise level should be
below 90 dBA. Shuttle less loom gives less noise. Good lubrication and maintenance, proper
tuning, quick replacement of damaged parts of picking mechanism and stroke resistors help
to reduce noise. Workers should wear ear protection.

HAZARDS AND SAFETY MEASURES OF PROCESSING (FINISHING) AND

FOLDING MACHINES
General Precautions :
1. Types of machines in use are : Shearing, singing, washing, bleaching, kiers, yarn and
cloth dyeing, printing, polymerising, sanforising, stentering, padding, finishing, folding,
bale (cloth) pressing machine etc.
2. The in-running nips between rollers and similar parts, unless the nips are inaccessible,
should be securely guarded with nip guards (bars) along the whole length on the intake side
(Rule 54, Sch II, GFR).
3. In dryers and similar machines where there is a risk of access from the sides to nips
referred to in item (2) above and driving gears should-be guarded to prevent such access.
4. Other machine parts such as main and counter drive, belts, pulleys, shafts, gears and
flappers should be guarded.
5. Removing crease from die cloth on rollers should never be done when the machine is
in motion.
6. Oiling, greasing, adjustment or repairing near dangerous parts should not be done
with the machine running.
7. Entanglement with the cloth in process is a serious hazard in some of die machines.
While working here, care should be exercised and supervised.
8. To the extent possible, splash guards should be provided for containing the likely
splashes of chemicals and hot liquids at those parts of machine where- splashes generally
occur. These would also facilitate keeping the floor free from spillage.
9. Wherever risk of splashes from chemical or hot solutions exists, operators should be
provided with PPE such as face shields or goggles, hand gloves, aprons and gum-boots.

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10. Wherever persons have to reach and work at parts of machine situated at heights,
suitable means of access in the form of catwalks and platforms should be provided. Wherever
these are not provided due to infrequency of the operations or any other reason, alternative
arrangements such as scaffolding or safe ladder should be provided and the operations carried
out confirming to standard safe practices.
11. Dismantling and fitting of heavy parts of machine should be done with care. To the
extent possible, mechanical handling devices should be used for the purpose.
12. Acids, alkalis, bleach liquors or whitening agents, dyestuffs and solvents are used for
process or cleaning purpose. Their storage should be kept away in a separate room. They
should be handled in small containers with lids. Their spillage or leakage should be avoided
and cleaned immediately. Cleaning by solvent is risky. Source of ignition must be avoided
while using solvent to clean printing machine, vessel, container etc. Then nearby electric
fitting should be flameproof or switched off. Ordinary short circuit has caused many
accidents.
Schedule 12 and .19 u/r 102, GFR should be followed while handling acids, alkalis and other
chemicals. Rule 68D should be followed for using hot oil circulation in stenter etc. through
thermic fluid heaters.
Bleaching Process :
Purpose is to whiten the cloth or yarn (threads). Normally chlorine, sodium hypochlorite or
hydrogen peroxide are used as bleach liquors. Their concentration should be within safe
limits. They should be stored in minimum quantities. Transfer from bulk storage to small
containers should be safe. Flexible connections must be checked for safety. Emergency kit to
handle chlorine leak should be kept ready. Proper respirator, eye goggles and gloves should
be worn while working near chlorine gas or hydrogen peroxide fumes. Addition of chlorine
in caustic solution to make sodium hypochlorite should be in closed and safe system.
Processing Machines (Dyeing, Printing etc) :
Purpose is to wash, dye (colour), print, dry, heat, press, stretch, carbonise, mercerise,
sunforise and fold the cloth etc.
Water is used in large quantities in processing machines. Reverse Osmosis (RO) Plant
should be used to remove hardness as well as total dissolved solids (TDS) if the water
available is hard and saline (salty). Such soft and salt less water decreases rate of corrosion
and increases life of the vessels/ machines.
Safety measures for some processing machines are stated below.
1. Washing machine : Purpose is to wash the cloth in open tub (i.e. no pressure) (i) Nip
Guards on rollers (ii) Catwalk and platforms to reach and work at the required places with
sufficient handhold and foothold (iii) Guard on moving flappers, (iv) Distance guard, belt and
chain guard (v) FRP and acid-proof lining if acid/alkali is used. (vi) Clean overflow "pipe
with water tank (vii) Nip guard on draw nip (viii) Air regulator for pneumatic loading of rolls
(ix) Guards on chain drives of nip rolls (x) Doors on soap tanks (xi) safely of steam lines and
(xii) Guard on chain drive of a plaiter. (xiii) Nif guard on padding mangle.
2. Washing Tanks : Purpose is to wash the cloth (i) Railing near hot water tanks to
prevent falling into it (ii) Drain pipes and valves to drain hot water from the tank. Simple
hole, cotton plug (stopper) and bamboo use is an unsafe practice.

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3. Hydroextractor : Purpose is to remove water from wet cloth, (i) Interlock basket cover
(ii) Fixed guard on pulley-belts (iii) Brake to stop basket.

(a) (b)

Hydro extractor - (a) Hazard due to no basket cover (b) Basket cover with electrical
enterlocking.
4. Jigger machine : Purpose is to colour the cloth in open tub (i.e. no pressure), (i) Nip
guards on rollers and gears (ii) Splash guards should be provided on each of such machines to
minimise chances of chemicals and colour solutions splashing on persons, (iii) Aprons and
chemical goggles should be given to workers (iv) Periodic inspection and maintenance of the
floors. They should be free from water and solution so as not to keep it slippery, (v)
Pneumatic valve to control steani flow (vi)
Cover on motor pulley belt drive and gearbox
(vi) Roll motion controller.
5. Calendar machine : Its function is to
give fine finish (ironing) by passing the cloth
through calendar rolls or bowls, (i) Auto
temperature control to prevent over heating
(ii) Nip guards on in-running nips (iii) Guards
on main motor drive and reduction gears, (iv)
Heavy rolls should be handled mechanically (v) Contact with hot rolls may cause burn injury.
Care should be taken while working at heights (vi) When steam pressure is above
atmospheric pressure. Rule 61 GFR should be complied with. All safety devices should be
properly maintained.
6. Drying machines : Purpose is to dry cloth, (i) Nip guards on rotating rolls and mangle
rolls. Guards on chain, bevel gears, winch drive and stack drive, (ii) Platform, foothold and

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 STUDY MATERIAL BY MR. AVIKUMAR SHINDE MOB. 7218850888 / 9422562886

handhold to work at heights (iii) Hot cylinders of drying

range may cause burn injury. Care and effective
supervision (iv) For pressure control, follow Rule 61,
GFR.
7. Kiers and Agers : Purpose is heating by steam
pressure, (i) While tightening the eye bolts of kier, bars
used should be of such construction that they hold the
eye bolt securely and do not slip off. (ii) Catwalks and platforms to work on the top of the
Kier (iii) Care form coming into contact with the hot parts of the kier (iv) Pressure reducing
valve, safety valve, pressure gauge, stop valve etc. should be properly maintained for the safe
working pressure inside. Safety valve and pressure gauge should be provided on jacket also
(v) Hydraulic pressure test at every two years (vi) Chain pulley block or hoist to lift heavy
parts.
8. Stenter machine : Purpose is to dry cloth by passing it through heat chambers.
Padding mangle, feeding zone, heating zone
(chambers), batching and plaiting are main divisions
(i) Nip guard between in-running rolls and rollers of
the padding mangle, guard on uncurler nip, main
drive and bevel gears (ii) Catwalks or platforms for
working at heights, (iii) Temperature control devices
(iv) Effective exhaust hood and chimney for removal
of fumes from the machine, (v) Effective and
sufficient exhaust fans in the workroom (vi)
Scouring process i.e. oil removal from fabric before feeding it to the stenter machine to
reduce the oil fumes, (vii) Textometer to detect moisture content, (viii) Covers on roll drive
chain box, overfeed chain drive, batching and plaiter
drive (ix) 3-way pneumatic oil flow control valve
where oil heaters are used.
9. Pladding machine : (i) Nip guard on in-
running rolls and padding mangle (ii) Guard on main
drive, roll chain drive and gear drive (iii) Pressure
regulator for pneumatic loading of rolls. drive, roll
chain drive and gear drive, (iii) Pressure regulator for
pneumatic loading of rolls.

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10. Jet Dyeing machines -.Purpose is to colour the cloth under steam pressure, (i) PRV or
pressure regulator in pressure feed line (ii) Adequate safety valve and rupture disc - both of at
least .1.5 inch (dia) size and in parallel on the top of the vapour cell (iii) High pressure alarm
and automatic or manual de-pressure (venting) device to operate at that alarm (iv) Use of
heatexchanger for indirect heating and cooling (v) Periodical hydraulic tests and NDT for
corrosion effects (vi) Non-corrosive metal, joints and body parts (vii) Flap guard near filter
cover at the bottom and internal disc to restrict outflow (viii) Temperature gauge near the
pressure gauge on the vessel (ix) Water, steam and air control valves (x) Manhole cover
interlocked with depressure device (xi) Maximum pressure indicator and automatic pressure
controller (xii) Trained operator (xiii) Effective supervision and auto programming.
11. Drum washer : It is a washing machine
under steam pressure, (i) Fixed guards on belt
and chain drive (ii) Pressure Reducing Valve,
Safety Valve, rupture disc, proper nut bolts and
fitting or welding, proper material of
construction and Pressure Gauge on steam
supply line (iii) Drum motion fixing device
(locking) while loading and unloading. Internal
drum should not rotate while loading or
unloading it. It should be mechanically locked.
Power should also be deenergised at that time.

12. Expander machine : (i) Nip guard on rollers and between the cloth in process and the
rollers (ii) Parts of machine should be periodically examined to detect defective conditions
such as protruding nails.
13. Stitching and sewing machine : (i) Gap
between the needle and the machine table should
be guarded to 'prevent access to this zone. (ii)
Electric earthing should be proper and ELCB
should be provided in power supply line.
14. Printing machine : Purpose is to print the
cloth by machine. Various types of machines are
in use. (i) Nip guards on the printing roller, cloth
roller and on the lapping and a roller (ii) While
removing a heavy roll from the machine, care
should be taken' or the mechanical handling should be used. (iii) Care should be exercised
while changing a design roller otherwise a hand may be caught between the design roller and
control roller (iv) Care should be taken while turning a handle to apply pressure to the
printing rollers otherwise a worker may slip and fall from height (v) The doctor blade of the
machine should be removed carefully otherwise it may slip and its sharp edge may cause
injury. (vi) Fixed guards on pulley-belt drive, sector, connecting (eccentric) rod, repeat-
setting device and under table rollers (vi) Safety while cleaning blanket.
15. Stretching machine : Nip guard between running cloth and roller.
16. Polymerising or curing machine : See part 3.3 and 9 of this Chapter.

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17. Gas/Electrical Singeing machine : See part 9 of this Chapter.

18. Shearing and Cropping machine : (i) Rotating cutters should be interlocked by a
transparent cover, (ii) Guards on main drive, suction blower and dust chamber and (iii) Metal
detector are necessary.
19. Sanforizing and Palmer machine : Its function is to give final finish (ironing) to the
cloth.
(i) Nip guards and side guards on in-running rolls and trip wire near cylinder (height < 1.7
mt) to stop the motion (ii) Pneumatic controls and roll drives guards (iii) Steamline safety (iv)
Plaiter drive guard.
20. Mercerising machine : Nip guard on mangle rolls, guards on main drive coupling,
chain drive, bevel gears, mangle roll gears, chain return wheel, squeeze roll belt drive,
squeeze rolls, impregnator nip between float roll and top roll, stabilizer-tension roll and top
roll nip and splash guard on caustic tank are necessary.
21. Carbonising unit : Its function is carbonising i.e. acid burning of cotton fibre of the
blended cloth. (i) Acid bath (70% H,SO„) should have safe overflow device and splash,
guards on both sides (ii) Nip guard on squeeze rolls (iii) FRP tray and acid-proof flooring,
PVC valves for acid use and use of PPE and safety shower by workers.
22. Folding machine : (i) The crank-wheel and reciprocating arm should be guarded to
prevent hit injury, (ii) Fixed guard on main drive.
23. Towel cutting machine : Cutting edge should be guarded at the feeding end of towel.
In addition to above textile machine guarding, general safety measures for metal working
machinery, lifting machines, material handling, hand tools, hand trucks, chemicals, flooring,
fire and health hazards, must also be provided and maintained. Welfare facilities of canteens,
lunch/rest room, ambulance room, creche, welfare and safety officers should also be
provided. See Part-3 for statutory provisions.
Health Hazards in Cotton Textile Industry :
1. Cotton Dust and Byssionosis : According one survey 20% (approx. 3 lakh) of the
textile workers in mills were found victim of byssionosis. It was 14% in carding
section and 10% in spinning and winding sections.
Measurement of cotton dust concentration in 8 units in India showed it from
3.4 to 5.6 mg/m" in blow room and 0.1 to 2.2 mg/m3 in card room. Another survey
showed cotton dust level as under:
At Kanpur - 7.85 mg/m3

At Delhi - 5.50 mg/m3

At Ahmedabad - 4.00 mg/m3

At Mumbai - 3.90 mg/m3

The threshold limit suggested is 0.2 to 0.75 mg/m3 2nd Schedule of the
Factories Act prescribes 0.2 mg/m3 lint free raw cotton dust. ILO prescribed cotton
dust values are as under: TWA OSHA -

- 0.2 mg/ m3 in yarn manufacturing.

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- 0.5 mg/m3 in other operations.

- 0.75 mg/ m3 in slashing and weaving.

STEL ACGIH - 0.6 mg/ m3 .

IDLH - 0.5 mg/ m3

Vacuum stripping and suction exhaust arrangement attached to carding machines, lint and
dust collectors and general exhaust ventilation are necessary to minimise the flying cotton
dust. Proper dust mask or cotton cloth should be given to workers.
Byssinosis is an occupational disease caused to many mill workers by the cotton -dust. This
name was given by Proust in 1877. It is a lung disease like TB or Asthma and reduces
working capacity of a worker. After working for 5 to 10 years in cotton dust area, respiratory
problem starts. Initial symptoms are cough or bronchitis, chest pain, breathlessness,
emphysema and phlegm. Ultimately the lungs are damaged. The victim gets exhausted soon
by a small work. He feels energy loss and becomes unfit to work. Its major hazard area is
spinning department, though it can happen to winders and weavers and also to flax, hemp or
jute workers. Under section 89 and the Third Schedule of the Factories Act, byssionosis is a
notifiable occupational disease and the medical practitioner noticing this disease has to report
to the Inspector of Factories, otherwise he is liable for penalty.
For its diagnosis (1) Occupational history of the worker and (2) Lung function test are
required. The effected worker is examined on tKo-first day after his holiday and also at
the"~nd of his shift after working. His loss of working capacity is measured. Workman
Compensation is available under WC Act or ESI Act.
Factory Medical Officer should check such workers periodically. His workplace must be
changed soon after the first detection. X-ray and gradation reports should be maintained.
There is no medical remedy for this disease. Therefore its prevention is the only best solution.
Local exhaust ventilation attached with machine, room exhaust ventilation, water sprinklers
and use of cotton dust mask or respirator are the effective remedial measures.
Workers engaged in cleaning of cotton dust or in its high concentration must be provided
with air line respirator and hood or efficient face mask. Instead of broom-stick cleaning,
vacuum cleaning machine should be used to minimise the flying particles.
2. Heat and Humidity: Higher temperature due to closed operations and work rooms,
humidity (to reduce thread breakage), heat generating processes such as sizing, kiers, drying
range, stenter, hotdyeing, singeing, polymerising or curing, steam and oil heaters, hot air
dryers, boilers etc., create higher temperature in spinning and processing departments which
if exceeds 29.5°C (85°F) (threshold or effective temperature), or humidity is increased,
causes discomfort and fall in productivity. Therefore the room temperature" must be,
controlled @ 25.5 to 29.5°C (78 to 85°F) by good natural and mechanical ventilation (See
Chapter 10). Workers should be relieved at short interval from high temperature zone. Air
conditioning is desirable. Hot metal parts should be insulated.
3. Noise : High noise in weaving and ring frame department causes mental stresses and
may result in a hearing loss which is an occupational disease under the Factories. Act.
Permissible limit of 90 dB for 8 hr. working should not be exceeded.

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One survey in a mill'at Bombay indicated the noise levels in Spinning Dept. - 96.5 dB,
Doubling machines - 97.6 dB, Winding machines - 98.5 dB, Auto loom shed - 99 dB and
Non-auto loom shed - 102 dB. Use of sound absorbing material is effective but expensive.
Use of ear muffs or ear plugs (glass wool) is the most practical remedy and the workers must
be trained to wear them. In Nigeria, it was observed that due to use of ear protection
individual efficiency was increased by 12% and overall production by 1%. The long term
solution is the design of noiseless looms.
Legally Sch. 23, rule 102, GFR is applicable.

4. Weaver's Cough : This is caused by inhalation of sizing materials, 50% of which

comes out during weaving. As the name suggests the workers of loom shed are prone to it.
Good ventilation dilutes the effect.
5. Cancer and Coronary diseases : These diseases like bladder cancer, chrome eczema or
chrome poisoning, dermatitis are caused due to the chemicals like lead chromate, potassium
or sodium bichromate, toxic solvents, titanium dioxide, hydrogen sulphide, sulphur dioxide
and trioxide. Local exhaust system near toxic fume generation, chemical respirators, gloves,
aprons etc. are useful. Non or less hazardous substitutes should be utilised. Medical health
check-ups and advice should be followed. Training and supervision will also help.
6. Machinery hazards : Foregoing parts 6 to 8 have classified and explained process-
wise machine hazards in textile industry. Newer machinery has reduced many of these
hazards. The most dangerous parts of textile machines are main motor and gear drives, head
stock gearing of spinning frames, revolving beaters of blow-room machines, card cylinder,
flying shuttles and loom gears, picking stick and in-running rolls of processing machinery.
Specific hazards of jet dyeing and other pressure vessels have also caused many accidents.
The fixed guards, interlocked guards, nip guards and other safety devices should not be
tempered with or kept open while machinery is in motion:
7. Material handling : Heavy rolls and other machine parts and bulk containers are to be
handled in textile industry. Excessive weights may cause health injuries, strain and pain.
Mechanical aids should be used to lift, carry and handle such heavy loads.
8. Poor lighting : Many textile processes require high standards of illumination, such as
drawing in threads through healds and reed, weaving and processing of coloured cloth,
jacquard (design) weaving, fabric defect checking, folding and packing etc. Poor lighting on
such processes causes eye strain. Poor lighting in passage ways, corners, stairs, platforms,
confined spaces, tanks, pits and vessels, unguarded machinery and slippery surfaces may
cause accidents. Therefore in addition to providing sufficient lighting (see Part 5 of Chapter-
9), window glasses, lamps and tubes should be regularly cleaned and local lighting should be
provided where required.
9. Shuttle Kissing : Suction shuttles of ordinary (non-auto) looms need thread (weft)
sucking by mouth through shuttle eye (small hole) and pirn bobbin many times during a day.
Dirt, dust or broken fibre ends are drawn into the throat. The same shuttle may be used by
different workers in different shifts. Therefore this is unhygenic and infectious method. Non-
suction shuttle or pirn bobbin battery requiring no kissing by mouth is the only remedy.
10. Overtime work : Legal limit of 8 hours a shift is hardly followed in thousands of small
and medium scale textile industries. 12 hours a shift has become a routine working. This

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certainly causes health hazards. This causes more harm to women and child workers. More
working hours cause physical, mental and nervous strain and result in more accidents and
sickness rates. Full co-operation of employers and employees can solve this problem.
11. Welfare provisions : Large scale factories have lunch room, rest room, canteen,
ambulance room, creche, washing facilities, free medical examinations, transport facilities
etc. But majority of small and medium scale factories do not have such facilities. This affects
the health and general well being of the workers.
12. Fire and Explosion hazards : Cotton is easily combustible material. Solvents used in
processing department can cause fire and explosion both. For details see part just following.
Health Hazards in other Textile Industry :
1. Manmade fibres (mmf): Fire and explosion is the main risk from solvents and
nitrocellulosic materials. All flammable materials should be stored in specially designed
separate' building and its flow should be through closed system. All sources of ignition
including static charge should be eliminated. Electric fitting should be flameproof.Toxic
effects due to H2S, CS2, C6H6, acetic acid etc. should be reduced by local exhaust
ventilation. Workers should be given respirators.
Spillage of water and other solutions may cause slipping hazards. Protective clothing is
necessary for wet processes. Machine guarding to machineries is similar to cotton industry.
Glass wool manufacturing induces infrared emissions from molten glass. Heat absorbing
screen is required. Flying or breaking glass particles may cause skin penetration. Resins,
hardeners and accelerators may cause skin irritation. Protective clothing, good hygienic
practices and medical advice are necessary. Dust fumes need local exhaust ventilation.
Synthetic fibres are made from chemicals or petrochemicals. Nylon, polyester, polyolefins,
polypropylene, polyurethane etc. are well known. Machine guarding is required as in case of
other textile machines. The large quantities of solvent vapours given off during spinning and
extrusion pose fire, explosion and poisoning hazard and need local exhaust with safe
discharge and respiratory protection. Delivery of toxic and flammable substances through
pumps and pipes reduces hazards of manual handling and direct exposure. TLV, LEL and
other safe limits must be maintained. Sparks should be eliminated. Electric equipment should
be flameproof. Effective earthing to machines and vessels shall prevent dangerous spark.
Static charge eliminators to machines are necessary. Workers should wear footwear with
rubber soles.
2. Flax & Linen industry:
The fibres of flax plants are used to make linen cloth, towels, nets and ropes. The fibre is
light, strong and absorbent its strength increases on wetting.
Machine guarding on rollers, pulley-drive; and other moving parts is essential. Flax
dust may cause Mill fever and Weaver's cough chronic bronchitis and byssionosis. An ILO
report (1965) gives following figures for flax dust levels and byssionosis prevalance :
Process Mean total dust concentration Byssionosis prevalence
mg/m3 (% all grades)
Pre-preparers 6.7 44.0
Prepares 2.7 30.0
Wet-finishers 0.6 3.6

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Other finishers 1.4 0.7

Dust measurement at 6 months interval by a trained industrial hygienist is useful. Fine dust is
removed by passing air through canvas filter. Coarse dust is extracted by a cyclone extractor.
Hackling machines and carding engines need hood enclosure and exhaust system at the
sources of generation.
For noise reduction, sound absorption treatment to walls, ceiling and floors and isolating
mounts to machines are necessary. Process segregation by separate rooms of heavy partition
walls and ear muffs to workers reduce noise problem.
4. Silk industry :
Silkworms were reared in homes where CO poisoning was noticed in Japan. In reeling raw
silk, dermatitis was noticed. Handling raw silk may produce skin and respiratory allergy.
Very good lighting is required in the weaving of coloured silk yarn. Temperature, ventilation
and humidity control are important at all stages. Reeling bath temperature should be lowered
to control skin effect Exhaust ventilation on bath and frequent replacement of water are
necessary. Machine guarding is required as in case of textile industry.
5. Wool industry :
Like cotton textile machines/wool textile machinery also needs effective machine guarding
and spacing. Anthrax is possible to wool sorters. Chemicals used may cause poisoning, eye
burning, gassing etc. Selection of less harmful chemicals, local exhaust ventilation, good
washing facility, PPE and strict personal hygiene are necessary. Dust, temperature and noise control
are also necessary.
EFFLUENT TREATMENT AND WASTE DISPOSAL IN TEXTILE INDUSTRY
Textile effluents are generally coloured and contain soluble (organic and inorganic) and
insoluble (suspended) impurities and possess high BOD and COD. Therefore their treatment
and safe disposal are necessary and statutory.
Effects of textile effluents :
(1) On Water courses :
S. No. Impurity Content Effect
Clarification,
1 Colour Dyes
Photosynthesis is affected.
Collodial & suspended Turbidity of receiving
2 Suspended impurities
particles water.
Alkalinity disturbs aquatic
3 pH Alkalis
life.
Form blanket and prevent
4 Oils & Grease Mineral oils
O2 entry in water.
5 Dissolved minerals Inorganic sodium salts Increase salinity of water.
Chromium, sulphide, Toxic effect to fish and
6 Toxic chemicals
chlorine and aniline dyes microbial organisms.
Starch, dextrin, sulphide, Demand O2 from water and
7 Oxygen depletion
nitrite etc. affects aquatic life.
(2) On Land:
The excess content of sodium and boron of textile wastes adversely affects crops. High
sodium alkalinity combined with salinity impairs the growth of plants. Suspended solids and
sodium prevent root penetration in land and soil texture is spoiled.

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(3) On Air:
Continuous addition of CO2 and other particles due to fuel (coal, LDO, gas) burning in
boilers and stenters, and toxic fumes of chlorine, acids, H,O, and flammable vapours from
volatile solvents pollute the air and surrounding environment.

Reduction of Pollution Load :

To reduce costs and complexity of treatment, it is first necessary to reduce pollution load of
the effluents. It also results in saving of costly materials. Good housekeeping, controlled and
efficient use of dyes and chemicals and closer process controls are essential for this purpose.
Some important methods are as under :
1. Waste segregation.
2. Recovery and reuse.
3. Substitution of low pollution load substances.
4. Judicious use of chemicals.
5. Process changes.
6. Economical water use.

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Treatment Methods:
Three stage treatment methods of textile effluents is as tabulated below :

Other inetilodsure
1. Colour removal.
2. Recovery and reuse of waste water.
3. Conservation- and reuse of water.
For details of these methods, books on pollution control methods should be referred. Please
see reference No.7 at the end of this chapter.
Diagram of effluent treatment plant in textile processing industry is given in Fig.

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 STUDY MATERIAL BY MR. AVIKUMAR SHINDE MOB. 7218850888 / 9422562886

Tolerance Limits:
IS 2490 (Part I to 10) and Schedule I & VI u/ r 3 & 3A of the Environment (Protection)
Rules, 1986 prescribe tolerance limits applicable to textile effluents.
Characteristics of raw (untreated) effluent and required parameters of process houses are
shown ii the table.
Process House Effluent Characteristics:
Required after
No. Parameter Before Treatment
Treatment
1 pH 6.6-8.0 6.5-8.5
2 Color 1000-1500 unit 100 unit
3 Suspended Solids 600-900 ppm 100 ppm
4 Total Dissolved Solid 10000-14000 ppm 2100 ppm
5 Oil & Grease 20-25 ppm 10 ppm
6 BOD 500-600 ppm 30 ppm
7 COD 1600-2200 ppm 100 ppm

8 Ammoniac Nitrogen 0-5 ppm 50 ppm

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Chapter 6

Break load test, textile stress load testing

These test methods are to be used to determine the resistance of some types of
preformed block insulation when transverse loads are normally applied to the surface. Values
are measured at the maximum load or breaking point under specified conditions or specimen
size, span between supports, and rate of load application. The equations used are based on the
assumption that the materials are uniform and presume that the stress-strain characteristics
below the elastic limit are linearly elastic. These assumptions are not strictly applicable to
thermal insulations of certain types in which crushing occurs before failure is obtained in
transverse bending; however, depending upon the accuracy required, these procedures are
capable of providing acceptable results.
Test Method I is especially useful when testing only for the modulus of rupture or the
breaking load. This information is useful for quality control inspection and qualification for
specification purposes.
Test Method II is useful in determining the elastic modulus in bending as well as the
flexural strength. Flexural properties determined by these test methods are also useful for
quality control and specification purposes.
The basic differences between the two test methods is in the location of the maximum
bending moment, maximum axial fiber (flexural or tensile) stresses, and the resolved stress
state in terms of shear stress and tensile/compression stress. The maximum axial fiber stresses
occur on a line under the loading fitting in Test Method I and over the area between the
loading fittings in Test Method II. Test Method I has a high shear stress component in the
direction of loading, perpendicular to the axial fiber stress. Sufficient resolved shear stress is
capable of producing failure by a shear mode rather than a simple tension/flexural failure.
There is no comparable shear component in the central region between the loading fittings in
Test Method II. Test Method II simulates a uniformly loaded beam in terms of equivalent
stresses at the center of the specimen.
Flexural properties are capable of varing with specimen span-to-thickness ratio, temperature,
atmospheric conditions, and the difference in rate of straining specified in Procedures A and
B. In comparing results it is important that all parameters be equivalent. Increases in the
strain rate typically result in increased strengths and in the elastic modulus.
Scope
1.1 These test methods cover the determination of the breaking load and calculated flexural
strength of a rectangular cross section of a preformed block-type thermal insulation tested as
a simple beam. It is also applicable to cellular plastics. Two test methods are described as
follows:
1.1.1 Test Method I—A loading system utilizing center loading on a simply supported beam,
supported at both ends.
1.1.2 Test Method II—A loading system utilizing two symmetric load points equally spaced
from their adjacent support points at each end with a distance between load points of one half
of the support span.
1.2 Either test method is capable of being used with the four procedures that follow:

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1.2.1 Procedure A— Designed principally for materials that break at comparatively small
deflections.
1.2.2 Procedure B— Designed particularly for those materials that undergo large deflections
during testing.
1.2.3 Procedure C— Designed for measuring at a constant stress rate, using a CRL (constant
rate of loading) machine. Used for breaking load measurements only.
1.2.4 Procedure D— Designed for measurements at a constant crosshead speed, using either a
CRT (constant rate of traverse) or CRE (constant rate of extension) machine. Used for
breaking load measurements using a fixed crosshead speed machine.
1.3 Comparative tests are capable of being run according to either method or procedure,
provided that the method or procedure is found satisfactory for the material being tested.
1.4 These test methods are purposely general in order to accommodate the widely varying
industry practices. It is important that the user consult the appropriate materials specification
for any specific detailed requirements regarding these test methods.
1.5 The values stated in SI units are to be regarded as the standard. The values given in
parentheses are provided for information only.
1.6 This standard does not purport to address all of the safety concerns, if any, associated
with its use. It is the responsibility of the user of this standard to establish appropriate safety
and health practices and determine the applicability of regulatory limitations prior to use. For
specific precautionary statements.
Overview of Nondestructive Testing (NDT) Contribute to Definition
Nondestructive Testing (NDT) consists of a variety of non-invasive inspection techniques
used to evaluate material properties, components, or entire process units. The techniques can
also be utilized to detect, characterize, or measure the presence of damage mechanisms (e.g.
corrosion or cracks). NDT is also commonly referred to as nondestructive examination
(NDE), nondestructive evaluation (NDE), and nondestructive inspection (NDI). Many NDT
techniques are capable of locating defects and determining the features of the defects such as
size, shape, and orientation. The purpose of NDT is to inspect a component in a safe, reliable,
and cost effective manner without causing damage to the equipment or shutting down plant
operations. This is in contrast to destructive testing where the part being tested is damaged or
destroyed during the inspection process.
NDT can be performed during or after manufacture, or even on equipment that is in service.
In manufacturing, NDT inspections determine if parts are fit for a desired function. In other
words, parts are inspected to ensure they will last a certain amount of time or cycles before
failure. During operation, NDT inspections can be used to asses the current damage state of
equipment, monitor damage mechanisms, and make informed decisions for remaining
equipment life evaluations (e.g., RBI, FFS).
Overview of NDT Methods
NDT methods can generally be classified into two categories: conventional and advanced. Each
method has its own characteristic advantages and limitations. More information on each test can be
found in their respective Integripedia definitions.
WHAT IS NDT?
Nondestructive Testing (NDT) plays an important role in assuring that structural and
mechanical components perform their function in a safe, reliable, and cost-effective manner.

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NDT technicians perform the necessary tests to locate the indicators and discontinuities that
may cause failures or shut downs in such systems. These tests are performed in a manner that
does not affect the future usefulness of the object or material – hence, the name
―nondestructive.‖ NDT allows for careful and thorough materials evaluation without the need
for deconstruction or damage. NDT is typically used at various points in a part‘s life cycle.
NDT can be used prior to the use of a component for the sake of quality control. NDT is also
employed while components are in use to detect service related conditions caused by wear,
fatigue, corrosion, stress, or other factors which affect reliability.
NDT Technologies Include:
Visual and Optical Testing (VT): Visual Examination can be an effective way to recognize
surface imperfections that could adversely affect a part or component. Visual Examiners use
knowledge of how a part is manufactured, the function of the human eye, lighting
requirements, and precise measuring tools to evaluate materials. Computer controlled camera
systems and optical aids such as bore scopes may also be used to recognize and measure
features of a component.
Radiography (RT): Radiographic Examination involves using radioactive isotopes (gamma
rays) or X-rays on materials to peer qualitatively for indications the same way a doctor looks
for fractures or other conditions within the body. Radiation is directed through a part and
projected onto film or a digital detection device leaving an image which can be examined by
the qualified Radiographer.
Ultrasonic Testing (UT): Ultrasonic Examination uses high-frequency sound waves which
are transmitted into a material to detect discontinuities or locate changes in material
characteristics. Sound is introduced into the object being examined and reflections from
internal imperfections, areas of acoustic impedance, or varying geometrical surfaces are
returned to a receiver.
Magnetic Particle Testing (MT): Magnetic Particle Examination is accomplished by
inducing a magnetic field into a ferromagnetic material and applying iron particles to the
surface of the item being examined. Surface and near-surface discontinuities affect the flow
of the magnetic field within the part causing the applied particles to gather at locations of flux
leakage, thus producing a visible indication of the irregularity on the surface of the material.
Penetrant Testing (PT): Penetrant Examination is performed with a dye solution. Once
applied to the surface, the dye will effectively penetrate any surface-breaking cavity. Excess
solution is removed from the object. A developer is then applied to draw out any penetrant
that remains unseen. With fluorescent dyes, ultraviolet light is used to make the ―bleed-out‖
fluoresce brightly, allowing imperfections to be readily seen. With visible dyes, a color
contrast between the penetrant and developer makes the "bleed-out" easy to see.
Conventional NDT Techniques
Conventional methods are techniques that have matured over the course of decades and in
this time, have become well-documented in codes, standards, and best practices. The setup
and procedure of a conventional technique is typically simpler in comparison to advanced
methods.
• Acoustic Emission Testing (AET) • Leak Testing (LT)
• Infrared Testing (IR) • Liquid Penetrant Testing (PT)

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• Electromagnetic Testing (ET) • Straight Beam

• Magnetic Particle Testing (MPT) • Vibration Analysis (VA)
• Radiographic Testing (RT) • Visual Inspection (VI)
• Film Radiography (FR) • Advanced NDT Techniques
• Ultrasonic Testing (UT)
Advanced methods tend to be less understood as they progress as emerging technologies, e.g.
uncertain advantages or limitations, lack of technician qualification criteria, or little to no
industry codification. Generally, the setup, procedure, and data interpretation of advanced
methods is more complicated and can require specialized understanding and experience from a
properly trained technician.
Furthermore, some methods can be further broken down into conventional and advanced
techniques. Take two forms of ultrasonic testing for example, straight beam ultrasonic testing
(UT) is a conventional technique used in simple applications whereas phased array ultrasonic
testing (PAUT) is an advanced UT technique. As advanced techniques mature, new and more
advanced versions of each emerge to start a new cycle of technical understanding and technician
training.

• Electromagnetic Testing (ET) • Automated Ultrasonic Backscatter

• Alternating Current Field Technique (AUBT)
Measurement • Electromagnetic Acoustic
• Eddy Current Testing (ECT) Transducer (EMAT)
• Magnetic Flux Leakage (MFL) • Immersion Testing
• Laser Testing Methods (LM) • Internal Rotary Inspection System
• Holographic Testing (IRIS)
• Laser Profilometry • Long Range Ultrasonic Testing
• Laser Shearography (LRUT)
• Radiographic Testing (RT) • Phased Array Ultrasonic Testing
• Computed Radiography (CR) (PAUT)
• Computed Tomography (CT) • Full Matrix Capture-Total Focusing
• Digital Radiography (DR) Method PAUT (FMC TFM)
• Ultrasonic Testing (UT) • Time-of-Flight-Diffraction (TOFD)
• Angle Beam
Overall, NDT offers many advantages compared to destructive testing. The testing equipment is
often portable and can be performed numerous times on a single component. The component
itself can be thoroughly evaluated externally and internally for harmful flaws. The disadvantage
is that the results are often qualitative and may be repeated and interpreted differently by
various inspectors.
Industry Applications of NDT
NDT inspections are an integral part of the oil and gas and petrochemical industries, along with
several other industries, including chemicals, aerospace, automotive, and defense. The overall
goal of all these industries is to detect flaws in components to reduce failure and increase
reliability.

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In the petrochemical industry, NDT inspections are utilized throughout a facility‘s lifecycle.
This cradle-to-grave approach is an important element of asset integrity management.
Furthermore, NDT inspections provide historical data about the facility‘s process units and
provide information on how often a component should be inspected, repaired, or replaced.
Inspection intervals and tests may be changed depending on where the equipment is in its life-
cycle (e.g. newly manufactured equipment vs. aging equipment). Performing multiple
assessments throughout the equipment‘s life-cycle may seem expensive. However, inspections
conducted at specific intervals may end up saving an organization millions of dollars if testing
reveals threats and equipment is repaired before shutting down the facility or experiencing a
catastrophic failure.
The most common pieces of equipment that undergo inspection in the petrochemical industry
are storage tanks, heat exchangers, pressure vessels, and piping systems. When planning an
NDT inspection, there are four considerations one should account for:
▪ The type of damage mechanism to be inspected for
▪ The minimum detectable flaw size, shape, and orientation of the defect
▪ Where the defect is located (surface or internal)
▪ The sensitivities and limitations of the NDT method
▪ With the above factors considered, operators can optimize facility production and
increase personnel and environmental safety.
Codes and Standards Bodies
NDT is often prescribed by codes and standards for the fabrication of components, safety
critical parts, and in-service equipment. Therefore, it is critical for all refinery, chemical plant,
gas plant, and pipeline owners to have thorough understanding and experience in the
interdisciplinary field of NDT. In addition to the factors listed above (Industry Application
section) personnel should continuously develop knowledge about evolving technology and
performing up-to-date procedures.
Specific codes, standards, specifications, regulations, and recommended practices may depend
on the country and industry performing NDT. The following is a list of organizations (standards
bodies) that develop and publish industrial codes, standards, and recommended practices for
NDT methods relating to the oil and gas and chemical processing industries:
The American Society for Nondestructive Testing (ASNT).
ASTM International
• American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME)
• American Petroleum Institute (API)
• American Welding Society (AWS)
• National Board of Boiler and Pressure Vessel Inspectors (NBBI)
• International Organization for Standardization (ISO)
• European Committee for Standardization (CEN)
• European Pressure Equipment Directive (PED)
A complete list of regulations created by the U.S. government may be found in the Code of
Federal Regulations (CFR). Regulations critical to the petrochemical and chemical processing
industries can be found under Title 10, Energy, and Title 49, Transportation.1
Training and Certification

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Levels of Certification
Many NDT programs have three levels of qualification. A brief description of Level I,
Level II, and Level III qualifications are outlined below and found in the ASNT Recommended
Practice No. SNT-TC-1A document.2
Level I: At the end of a Level I certification program, individuals should be able to perform
specific calibrations, specific NDT, and specific evaluations to determine if a component should
be accepted or rejected for service.
Level II: Level II individuals should have the same abilities as Level I individuals and
additionally, should be able to set-up, calibrate, perform, and evaluate NDT results with respect
to applicable codes, standards, and specifications.
Level III: The highest qualified level of NDT personnel should have the same abilities as Level
II individuals and additionally, be able to develop and qualify procedures, establish and approve
techniques, interpret codes, standards, specifications and procedures, and assign particular NDT
methods to use in specific applications.
Certification Requirements
Requirements are based on a combination of training, examination, and experience. Training is
based on an accumulation of training course outlines from the NDT Body of Knowledge
document. More detail on the ASNT NDT Body of Knowledge can be found in the
ANSI/ASNT American National Standard CP-105. The purpose of the Body of Knowledge is to
describe the knowledge and skills needed for different levels of certification. Several types of
examinations are also necessary to meet minimum requirements and to recertify. Individuals
may have to take a written exam, specific exam, or a practical exam depending on the
certification desired. Experience in NDT or NDT-related fields as well as on-the-job training
programs are also considered for certification.

NDT Method Applications Limitations

• used on nonporous materials
• can be applied to welds,
tubing, brazing, castings,
billets, forgings, aluminium
Liquid Penetrant parts, turbine blades and
disks, gears
• ferromagnetic materials
• surface and slightly
subsurface flaws can be
detected
Magnetic Particle
• can be applied to welds,
tubing, bars, castings, billets,
forgings, extrusions, engine
components, shafts and gears
• need access to test surface
• defects must be surface
breaking
• decontamination & precleaning
of test surface may be needed
• vapour hazard
• very tight and shallow defects
difficult to find
• depth of flaw not indicated
• detection of flaws limited by
field strength and direction
• needs clean and relatively
smooth surface
• some holding fixtures required
for some magnetizing
techniques
• test piece may need

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• metals, alloys and
electroconductors
• sorting materials
• surface and slightly
subsurface flaws can be
detected
Eddy Current
• used on tubing, wire,
bearings, rails, nonmetal
coatings, aircraft components,
turbine blades and disks,
automotive transmission
shafts
• metals, nonmetals and
composites
• surface and slightly
subsurface flaws can be
detected
• can be applied to welds,
tubing, joints, castings,
billets, forgings, shafts,
Ultrasonics
structural components,
concrete, pressure vessels,
aircraft and engine
components
• used to determine thickness
and mechanical properties
• monitoring service wear and
deterioration
• metals, nonmetals,
composites and mixed
materials
Radiography • used on pyrotechnics, resins,
Neutron plastics, organic material,
honeycomb structures,
radioactive material, high
density materials, and
188
demagnetization which can be
difficult for some shapes and
magetizations
• depth of flaw not indicated
• requires customized probe
• although non-contacting it
requires close proximity of
probe to part
• low penetration (typically
5mm)
• false indications due to
uncontrolled parametric
variables
• usually contacting, either direct
or with intervening medium
required (e.g. immersion
testing)
• special probes are required for
applications
• sensitivity limited by frequency
used and some materials cause
significant scattering
• scattering by test material
structure can cause false
indications
• not easily applied to very thin
materials
• access for placing test piece
between source and detectors
• size of neutron source housing
is very large (reactors) for
reasonable source strengths
• collimating, filtering or
otherwise modifying beam is
difficult
 STUDY MATERIAL BY MR. AVIKUMAR SHINDE MOB. 7218850888 / 9422562886

materials containing • radiation hazards

hydrogen • cracks must be oriented parallel
to beam for detection
• sensitivity decreases with
increasing thickness
• metals, nonmetals, • access to both sides of test
composites and mixed piece needed
materials • voltage, focal spot size and
• used on all shapes and forms; exposure time critical
Radiography X-
castings, welds, electronic • radiation hazards
ray
assemblies, aerospace, marine • cracks must be oriented parallel
and automotive components to beam for detection
• sensitivity decreases with
increasing thickness
• usually used on dense or • radiation hazards
thick material • cracks must be oriented parallel
• used on all shapes and forms; to beam for detection
castings, welds, electronic • sensitivity decreases with
Radiography
assemblies, aerospace, marine increasing thickness
Gamma
and automotive components • access to both sides of test
• used where thickness or piece needed
access limits X-ray • not as sensitive as X-rays
generators
EDDY CURRENT METHODS
Eddy current testing is widely used for nondestructive evaluation of metallic structures
in characterizing numerous types of defects occurring in various locations. It offers
remarkable advantages over other nondestructive techniques because of its ease of
implementation. This paper presents a technical review of Eddy current technique in various
scope of defect detection. The first part presents Eddy current evaluation on various defects
location and orientation such as steam generator tubes, stress crack corrosion, and fatigue
cracks. The next section analyzes the use of pulsed Eddy current and pulsed Eddy current
thermography as an alternative method for monitoring the growth of cracks with the aid of
computational techniques for postsignal analysis.
1. Introduction
Preserving structural reliability is the most vital issues faced by the industries especially in
aircraft, civil, and oil and gas sectors. Thus, detection of defects must be carried out in a
nondestructive approach to prevent severe problems. Nevertheless, not all of the defects will
essentially lead to a malfunction of the component. For instance, a very tiny crack would not
affect the function of the component at the time of inspection. Thus, an immediate repair or a
replacement of the component would lead to an unnecessary financial burden if the
evaluation assures that the crack remains sufficiently small and will not affect the integrity of
structures until the next scheduled inspection. Therefore, it is not enough to simply detect the

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presence of a defect, whilst the most crucial part is the ability to assess the consequence of
the defects on the operation of the component. As a result, the quantitative characterization
of defects using a nondestructive technique is crucial. This implies the important roles
played by the nondestructive techniques which are not only to detect cracks but also to
evaluate them.
Eddy current inspection is one of the nondestructive techniques which applied to conductive
materials. The main advantage of Eddy current is its range of inspections and measurements
which covers the crack detection, material and coating thickness measurement, conductivity
measurement for material identification heat damage detection, case depth determination,
and heat treatment monitoring. It offers numerous advantages such as high sensitivity, rapid
scanning, and flexibility which contributed to its broad utilization. In particular, Eddy current
is known for its contactless inspection technique with no physical contact between the test
probe and the test piece.
According to the state of the art, Eddy current technique has a strong application in defect
detection. The sensitivity to characterize defects and other parameters can be improved by an
optimal choice of probes and operation frequency. One of the considerable solutions for this
problem is to observe the growth of a crack by positioning a probe at the detected crack and
continuously collecting the signals. Ultrasonic testing is superior in evaluating the profile of
cracks compared to numerous nondestructive methods. However, in general, it is not suitable
for monitoring crack growth due to the need for couplant. For that reason, Eddy current
technique is regarded as promising technique compared to other nondestructive methods.
2. Defect Location and Orientation
Since the 1950s, the role of Eddy current technique has found prevalent use in aircraft safety
inspection procedure, piping and vessels inspection, and aerospace as well as nuclear and
automotive industries. The extensive research and development in highly sensitive Eddy
current sensors and instruments over the last sixty years indicate that Eddy current technique
is currently a widely used inspection technique. The Eddy current technology lends itself
well to the detection of near-surface or surface breaking defects such as surface scratches and
corrosion and distinguishes types of conductive materials.
Commonly employed Eddy current procedures are capable of reliably detecting cracks as
small as 0.050 inches while maintaining false calls below 1%. However, to achieve such
detection rates requires careful settings of threshold levels and appropriate setup standards.
Spencer summarized the potential of advanced Eddy current technology using several
advanced systems which involved inspections of several rivet skin splices, representative of
actual aircraft structure containing cracks ranging from 0.040-, 0.060-, and 0.080-inch
standards with thresholds set to the lowest reasonable level for the particular system. The
results demonstrated that some of the systems were able to detect cracks as small as 0.040
inches with false call rates which remained less than 1%. Meanwhile, defect detection of
magnitude crack length and depth of 0.4 mm × 0.12 mm was detected on the heated metallic
components.
2.1. Steam Generator Tubes
Steam generator (SG) tube plays a critical safety role because it composes one of the primary
blockades between the radioactive and nonradioactive sides of the plant. Therefore, the
reliability of the tubing is essential in lessening the leakage of water between the two sides of

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the plant. Steam generator tubes in nuclear power plants have a long history of cracking due
to stress corrosion cracking (SCC). Periodic inspection using Eddy current technique is
commonly employed to detect various forms of tube degradation including SCC. As a result,
it is crucial to assess and validate the reliability of the Eddy current technique used for
evaluating the structural dependability of components.
Remote field Eddy current (RFEC) technique had been used for in-service inspection of the
ferromagnetic SG tubes made of modified 9Cr-1Mo steel, in nuclear power plants and on
nonmagnetic SG tubes. Expansion bends were provided in the SG to accommodate
differential thermal expansion. Meanwhile, Kobayashi et al. employed the RFEC technique
to inspect the helical-coil-type double wall tube steam generator with the wire mesh layer.
The use of multiphase rotating magnetic fields RFEC was proposed for detection of SCC in
gas transmission pipelines.
Eddy current probes were used extensively to evaluate the integrity of SG tubes in nuclear
power plants and to detect cracks in tube walls. Standard practice of Eddy current probes
employed for SG tube inspection is bobbin coil probe, rotating probe with two pancake coils
and one plus coil, and array probe. However, the probe design has evolved from simple
bobbin probes to mechanically rotating multicoil probes providing high resolution images of
tube integrity. A rotating probe with a higher sensitivity and spatial resolution was developed
to compensate for bobbin coil limitations. The sizing accuracy and the probability of
detection for Eddy current probes were dependent on the location and orientation of the
defects and the artifacts such as corrosion deposits and tube support structures. A rotating
field Eddy current probe with bobbin pickup coil was developed by Xin et al. Meanwhile, Li
et al. proposed the array probe which consists of multiple coils arranged around the
circumference of the probe in addition to a standard bobbin coil probe. The research by Kim
and Lee also reported on Eddy current probe with structure designed to be sensitive to
circumferential cracks and to axial defects. In addition to the various Eddy current probe
designs, Todorov optimized and designed two encircling Eddy current magnetic sensors with
uniform field.
Tian et al.focused on the signal extraction and classification from mixed RFECT signals of
signal processing and defects using a neural network and a statistic. Wavelet transform (WT)
was used in the probe wobble denoising by Lopez et al. Jo and Lee proposed a feature
extraction from Eddy current signals, as an input vector and multilayer perceptron (MLP)
neural networks were then used to classify defect types and to predict defect size.
A surface profiling technique for monitoring local deformation and identification of surface
wear in the pressure tubes was presented using an Eddy current probe mounted in a small (50
mm × 25 mm) planar probe. Optimized Eddy current array technique was used to find
material degradation, especially intergranular SCC of SG tubes during the periodical in-
service inspection .
2.2. Fatigue Crack
In recent years, several studies have focused on small fatigue cracks due to 70–80% of the
total fatigue life spent in the crack initiation and small crack growth stages. Previous
researches showed that cracks initiated at the very beginning of fatigue life and the
propagation of small crack were influenced by the inherent microstructure resulting in the
abnormal propagation behavior as compared with the long crack behavior [29–32].

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Therefore, the precise measurement of small crack growth rate and the good understanding
of small crack growth mechanism are very important in the reliable prediction of the fatigue
life of materials.
The numerical modeling of fatigue and SCC was studied in Eddy current simulations using a
316 stainless steel to assess the sizing of cracks which appeared in general structure. An
online inspection for imaging multiple cracks caused by rolling contact fatigue of rail
transportation was proposed using pulsed Eddy current thermography (PECT). Meanwhile,
the Eddy current inspection of small fatigue cracks caused by different levels of static load in
Ti-6AL-4V and a modelling of thermal fatigue were evaluated using the finite element (FE)
model.
Bohacova proposed the Eddy current technique in an operating frequency range between 200
Hz and 100 kHz with a single-value interpretation of the individual EC signals for the
detection of short fatigue cracks hidden under a rivet head on the aircraft wing. On a
different study, a uniform Eddy current probe with 23 arrayed detectors was designed to
measure signals from six mechanical fatigue cracks initiated into type 316L austenitic
stainless steel plates. Weekes et al. used the induction PECT for detection of fatigue cracks
in steel, titanium, and Wispily.
As reported by many researchers, fatigue cracks are also developed around fasteners found in
multilayer aluminum structures on aging aircraft or originating near bolt holes in the inner
layers of aircraft lap joints. Pulsed Eddy current was employed for detection of holes and
EDM notches beneath rivet heads in subsurface layers of stratified samples and for detection
of deep-lying cracks originating near bolt holes in the inner layers of aircraft lap joints.
Meanwhile, Joubert et al. reported the usage of an array probe for imaging of submillimetric
surface breaking defects in bore holes of metallic parts. Underhill and Krause employed
Eddy current techniques within the bolt holes for risk assessments used in evaluating the
serviceability of the aircraft. In contrast, Yang et al. developed an Eddy current-giant
magnetoresistive (EC-GMR) sensor system used in detecting subsurface cracks at fastener
sites with aluminum fasteners present.
2.3. Corrosion
Corrosion of ferromagnetic components is a widespread damage in oil and gas, chemical,
electric power, metallurgy, and other related industries. As an example, ferromagnetic pipes
and containers are used to transport and store liquid or gaseous corrosive media with most
components which usually work under the conditions of high temperature and high pressure.
As a result, corrosion of ferromagnetic components is unavoidable. On the other hand,
climate conditions are the most significant cause of corrosion between the layers of aircraft
fuselage.
A few researches had been described on the practice of quantitative evaluation of stress
corrosion cracks. However, current studies had revealed that the accuracy of evaluation
strongly depends on the crack modeling. In contrast, Hosseini and Lakis used pulsed Eddy
current to detect corrosion and cracks in multilayer aluminum structures in aircraft
applications.
Wall-thinning defects usually caused by corrosion are potential hazards to safety and could
lead to pipeline leakage, explosion, or other accidents to the ferromagnetic objects such as
carbon steel pipes and vessels which are commonly used in petrochemical and power

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generation industries. Therefore, regular in-service inspection and evaluation for remaining
wall thickness of ferromagnetic components are crucial to ensure safe operation. Due to the
presence of thick thermal insulation and metallic cladding wrapped around the outside of the
insulation, the evaluation of the pipe wall-thinning without removal of the insulation and
cladding is a challenging task. An electromagnetic acoustic transducer-Eddy current
(EMAT-EC) dual probe was developed to assess wall-thinning.
2.4. Other Applications
The material microstructure at the heat affected zones near welds was characterized using
Eddy current technique. The estimation of pearlite percentages in low to high plain carbon
steels was studied using Eddy current technique in and Ghanei et al. estimated the pearlite
percentage in ductile cast irons for prediction of mechanical properties in cast irons.
The measurement of conductive material thickness was performed using Eddy current
technique. On the other hand, Chen and Lei used the PEC for measuring the thickness of a
ferromagnetic plate.
3. Pulsed Eddy Current (PEC)
In recent years, several studies have focused on the pulsed Eddy current (PEC) technique as
an effective method of quantifying defects in multilayer structures due to its richer
information in time and frequency domain. It has been used in inspection of aircrafts, oil/gas
pipelines, nuclear steam pipes, and high-speed rails.
A study by Abidin et al.demonstrated the advantage of PEC to detect holes and EDM
notches beneath rivet heads in subsurface layers of stratified samples without the need for
reference samples through the varied pulse width feature. Babbar et al. employed the finite
element modeling with the PEC in detecting deep-lying cracks originating near bolt holes in
the inner layers of aircraft lap joints with ferrous fasteners present. Differential signals from
both the top layer and the bottom layer cracks in different orientations and with different
probe displacements were analyzed using a modified principal components analysis (PCA)
to differentiate cracks from blanks. Meanwhile, Horan et al. analyzed the PEC generated by
a probe designed to utilize the ferrous fastener as a flux conduit to detect simulated cracks
within the spar with the wing skin present. The PCA was also used to overcome variability in
PEC signal response due to variability in magnetic coupling to the fastener.
In a different study, Yu et al. modeled the lift-off effect introduced by various coating
thicknesses from irregular sample surface or movement of transducers. However,
simplification of the measurement should be further improved and widen the proposed
application on the sample with the ferrous material and on the subsurface defect. Tian et al.
investigated the spectral response of PEC under varying probe liftoff, material properties,
and directional tensile stress by using normalization in frequency domain. However, the
application of the proposed method can be enhanced in corrosion characterization,
displacement measurement, and profile inspection using the time-domain features. On the
contrary, He et al. developed the automated defect classification using PCA and SVM under
different interlayer gaps and lift-off effects.
The fast crack profile reconstruction methods using transient time and spectral components
of PEC signals were carried out on EDM slots of 3 mm, 4 mm, 6 mm, and 8 mm depth. The
method provided initial approximate profiles for crack shape reconstruction using different

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PEC signals such as amplitude, phase, real and imaginary values of spectral components, and
transient slices using reconstruction mean square errors (MSE) which reduces the computing
time. In another study, He et al.classified surface and subsurface defects using features-based
rectangular PEC sensor. Nevertheless, the proposed method should be improved by
performing real-time defect identification. The defect classification in the con-casting slabs
(CCS) was investigated through PEC with the help of PCA-LDA and PCA-Bayes . In a
different study, He et al.examined the magnetic field intensity and conductivity to
characterize the low-energy impacts in carbon fibre reinforced plastics (CFRP) laminates and
internal inserted defects in honeycomb sandwich panels. Although it offers higher reliability
and better detection ability for deep defect, the proposed method was time-consuming.
Xiao and Li focused on solving PEC at a high speed while maintaining the accuracy using
the combined analytical-numerical approach. Hosseini and Lakis converted the PEC data
from time domain to time-frequency domain and analyzed the data using maximum
variances of PCA. Theodoulidis et al. evaluated the PEC interaction with a crack in a planar
conductor using the Fourier superposition with the current pulses decomposed into distinct
frequencies.
A signal denoising method for PEC signal was established for ferromagnetic material which
transformed the averaged PEC signal from Cartesian domain to double logarithmic domain.
However, the method was not applicable for real-time denoising.
4. Pulsed Eddy Current Thermography (PECT)
In recent years, several studies have focused on the combination of pulsed Eddy current and
thermography techniques known as pulsed Eddy current thermography (PECT) for area
imaging of defects without scanning. The PECT technique can be divided into two
categories which are the induction and heat diffusion. The induction PECT is carried out
using a short burst of electromagnetic excitation applied to the material under inspection
which induces Eddy current flowing in the material. If the induced Eddy current encountered
a discontinuity, it will be forced to divert which leads to area of increased and decreased
current density. The area with increasing current density experiences higher levels of Joule
heating (ohmic); thus the defect can be identified from the IR image sequence during the
heating and cooling period.
In contrast, the heat diffusion PECT applies the flash thermography. The interactions
between the heating mechanism and the defect occur in two ways through diversion of
induced Eddy current and through heat dissipation. This results in greater change in heating
around defects especially for vertical and surface breaking defects. However, as with
traditional Eddy current inspection, the orientation of a particular defect with respect to
induced currents has a strong impact. The sensitivity decreases with defect depth and the
technique is only applicable for samples with a minimum level of conductivity such as
ferromagnetic, paramagnetic, and conductive nonmetals as the heating is directly
proportional to the Eddy current density and diffused heat.
The relationship between divergence and transient thermal patterns as well as between
divergence and impact energy was analyzed within CFRP using the induction PECT. In
contrast, Pan et al.employed the heat diffusion PECT to investigate the carbon fibre
structure, delamination, and impact in CFRP. Nevertheless, the study only focused on the

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qualitative information on delamination and impact of CRFP which can be improvised on the
quantification information on the impact and delamination of the CFRP. Research by Liu et
al. utilized the heat diffusion PECT in investigating the impact of thermal image sampling
rates versus feature extraction for defect characterization. Meanwhile, Wilson et
al.conducted feasibility study using heat diffusion PECT for imaging multiple cracks caused
by rolling contact fatigue. The report which illustrated the method was viable solution for
detecting real defects and measurement for multiple natural cracks on a complex shape.
Another studies by Xu et al. modeled the peak value and the time-to-peak features of wall-
thinning insulated ferromagnetic pipes using the induction PECT. In addition, Xie et al.
proposed a numerical solver for simulation of induction PECT signals based on the Fourier
series and interpolation strategy.
5. Development of Special Eddy Current Probes Design
A special attention had been focused on designing Eddy current probes for specific
applications in the recent years. The design of Eddy current probes was optimized in order to
increase the sensitivity and resolution. The study of the magnetic fields in the vicinity of a
probe was suggested by Zergoug et al. to characterize the field activity and optimize the
controlled measuring process and the relevant sensitive probe. Zergoug et al.outlined the
important parameters in designing a probe which were the reduction of the reluctance, the
optimal energy exchange between the probe and the material, the use of a high magnetic
permeability and a low electric conductivity core material, and the choice of the excitation
current appropriate for the ferromagnetic material under testing.
The use of PEC and a specific probe design was performed for detection of defects near
rivets. He et al.employed the two-stage differential coil probe to detect defects between third
layer and fourth layer in riveted structures and Underhill and Krause [2] used a multiple
frequencies probe for defect detection around bolt holes of aircraft lap joints.
The planar design and a differential operation probe were proposed for inspection of
imperfections along friction stir welding (FSW) joints at root and top zones of FSW beads
and the ionic probe for defects detection on aluminum solid state processed alloys as FSW
and Friction Spot Welding.
6. Signal Processing Using Special Software Program
With the advancement of computer systems and numerical methods, the interest in Eddy
current technique had resolved the complex problem concerning the post signal analysis.
Besides the defect characterization, actual studies dealt with the metallurgical evaluation of
materials. Surface assessment allows the prediction of the material strength and consequently
its life span. This ability has made Eddy current technique a sophisticated method capable of
fulfilling the specific demands connected with inspections. The precise and rapid forward
numerical simulations were performed for different Eddy current applications. Meanwhile,
Yusa et al. and Badics et al. solved the inverse problem for defect characterization and
evaluation for SCC using computational physics. In many circumstances, the design of Eddy
current probes for different applications and testing conditions was supported by simulations
with finite element modeling. The closed form expressions were obtained to evaluate the
probe responses. The probe wobble denoising method was used in conjunction with the Eddy

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current evaluation. A pseudo monitoring tests were designed to measure signals from six
mechanical fatigue cracks introduced into 316L austenitic stainless steel plate.

Thermography
The body produces heat which must be lost to the environment. The interface between this heat
production and the environment is the skin so the body depends on heat transfer from the skin
for thermoregulation.
The skin is a dynamic organ which under the control of the sympathetics is constantly adjusting
to balance internal and external temperature conditions.
Thermal imaging is the most efficient technique for the study of skin temperature distribution.
By measuring bi-lateral anatomical sites and identifying significant changes thermal imaging is
an objective non-invasive diagnostic modality.
Thermal Imaging is particularly useful for the monitoring of treatment, whether surgical,
physical or pharmacologic.
Detects Hidden Inflammation
Inflammation is the precursor to many cancers and other degenerative diseases such as arthritis,
heart disease, stroke, diabetes and high blood pressure. Early detection of inflammation using
Thermography may help prevent many negative health conditions from developing.
Thermography specializes in:
• Breast Imaging
• Pain Diagnostics
• Early-Stage Disease Detection
Thermography can also:
• Visualize pain and pathology
• Assess pain and pathology anywhere in the body
• Is a very useful adjunctive procedure to other diagnostic tools, such as X-ray, bone
scans and ultrasound
• Is very cost-effective, risk free as it uses no harmful radiation and provides you with
instant images.
• Fills in the gap in clinical diagnosis
X-rays, CT-scans, Ultrasound and MRI scans are all tests of ‗anatomy‘ that are assessing the
structure of the body – thermography on the other hand is unique in that it measures
physiological changes and functioning of the body, not only structural issues.
Early Detection of Heart Disease
Thermography also plays an important role in heart disease prevention as it can assess heart
functioning and detect inflammation in the carotid arteries which may be a precursor to stroke
and blood clots. Early detection of heart problems can save your life!
Other Uses of Thermography
Thermography can also be used in many other areas of health:
• Arthritis – can help in its early detection and can differentiate between osteoarthritis
and rheumatoid arthritis.
• Neck and Back Problems – pain and joint degeneration appear very clearly on
thermography scans and help to identify the source of the pain in the body

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• Dental Issues – thermography can also detect TMJ, gum disease, infected teeth,
NICOs and other dental issues that are precursors to many other serious diseases.
• Sinusitis and Headaches – there is often a relationship between headaches and
sinusitis – the thermography scan will show this very clearly.
• Immune Dysfunction, Chronic Fatigue and Fibromyalgia – when there is
inflammation detected by thermography in the Thoracic spine areas of T1 and T2
this correlates well with immune system dysfunction.
• Carpal Tunnel Syndrome – this is an often misdiagnosed condition – the
thermography can help to identify the source of the pain which may be from the
cervical spine
• Digestive Disorders – thermography can often see IBS, diverticulitis and Crohn‘s
Disease and correlate these with other inflammatory issues in the body.
Other Health Issues – these would include bursitis, herniated discs, ligament and muscle
tear, lupus, nerve problems, whiplash, cancer and many others.
Other Interesting Points About Thermography
Joseph Bronzino mentions in his book entitled ―Medical Devices and Systems‖ the following
points about Thermography:
• In 1982, the FDA approved breast thermography as an adjunctive breast cancer
screening procedure.
• Breast thermography has undergone extensive research since the late 1950‘s.
• Over 30 years of research comprising over 800 peer-reviewed studies on breast
thermography exist in the index-medicus literature.
• In this database, well over 300,000 women have been included as study participants.
• The numbers of participants in many studies are very large – 10K, 37K, 60K, 85K
• Some of these studies have followed patients up to 12 years.
• Strict standardized interpretation protocols have been established for over 15 years.
• Breast thermography has an average sensitivity and specificity of 90%.
• An abnormal thermogram is 10 times more significant as a future risk indicator for
breast cancer than a first order family history of the disease.
• A persistent abnormal thermogram caries with it a 22x higher risk of future breast
cancer.
• An abnormal infrared image is the single most important marker of high risk for
developing breast cancer.
• Breast thermography has the ability to detect the first signs that a cancer may be
forming up to 10 years before any other procedure can detect it.
• Research has shown that breast thermography significantly augments the long-term
survival rates of its recipients by as much as 61%.
• When used as part of a multimodal approach (clinical examination + mammography
+ thermography) 95% of early stage cancers will be detected.
Thermography – is a non-invasive, diagnostic imaging procedure involving the detection and
recording of cutaneous thermal patterns using instruments which can provide visual and
quantitative documentation of these temperature measurements. Because thermography detects
pathophysiologic changes in cutaneous temperature, it may be used as an integral part of the
physical examination or, alternatively, as an adjunct to that examination.

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The interpretation of these temperatures and thermal patterns can be important in the
development of a diagnostic impression.
Thermography is appropriate and germane to any healthcare practice whenever the
treating professional feels a physiological imaging test is needed for diagnosis or case
management. It provides information about acute as well as chronic conditions and can be
useful in distinguishing aggravated from residual tissue injury.
Thermography is an imaging technology which provides information on the normal and
abnormal functioning of the sensory and sympathetic nervous systems, vascular dysfunction,
myofascial trauma and local inflammatory processes. It may contribute to a diagnosis and case
management by aiding in the determination of the site and degree of lesion, the type of
functional disorder and the prognosis for treatment outcomes, as well as assisting in the
determination of the most effective course of treatment through continual case evaluation.
Thermography is a safe and effective means for evaluation of vasomotor instability due to
irritation or injury of spinal roots, nerves or sympathetic fibers. It is to be considered an
adjunctive test and not solely diagnostic except in cases of reflex sympathetic dystrophy. While
one cannot extend the technique of thermography to indicate the central phenomena of
perception of pain, it is useful in detecting associated ‗vasomotor instability and complex pain
states associated with arthritis, soft tissue injuries, low back disease or reflex sympathetic
dystrophy and does provide objective data to identify dysfunction in roots that are irritated in
the spine, peripheral nerves that are irritated and damage to the sympathetic nervous system.
The diagnosis of neurological and musculoskeletal abnormalities by thermography is
based on associated thermal asymmetry between normal and abnormal sites, a change in normal
temperature gradients in limbs or between medial and lateral digits, or a disturbance of the
normal physiological temperature distribution pattern.
Physiological Basis
When conditions of the vascular arterial, venous, and lymph, and the skin conditions are
normal, then the major control and regulation of the dermal circulation is neurovascular. The
neurovascular control of the skin is the sympathetic nervous system. The components of this
sympathetic response, however, are both adrenogenic and cholinergic.
The adrenogenic portion produces vasoconstriction and the cholinergic portion produces
vasodilation in the cutaneous microcirculation. Regulation of this cutaneous circulation is from
the embryonic anterior neural ridge, which produces the sympathetic paravertebral ganglion.
The postganglionic fibres connect with each and every organ of the body as well as to the skin.
When the 31 pairs of peripheral nerves are established, their content is anywhere from 8 to 35
percent unmyelinated fibres, which are of the sympathetic afferent or efferent function.
These fibres are responsible for the control of this dermal microcirculation. Each of the spinal
nerves has a dorsal and ventral division, and the cutaneous territory of a given peripheral nerve
is ascribed by these divisions with their subsequent distal divisions. The ventral division of a
peripheral nerve having a lateral division, as well as an anterior division, with its subsequent
control over a designated territory. Skin territorial blood flow control is by way of these
peripheral nerve conduits carrying the unmyelinated postganglionic fibres to the neurovascular
receptors in the skin.
Blood flow allows core temperature to come to the surface or not, and will change the
temperature of the skin territorially. Each area of the body has a particular cutaneous-cordal

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connection by the sympathetic nervous system. The alteration of the thermal content of a
territory occurs based upon alterations of this nervous control. Only the dermal blood flow
changes explain the heat seen on the surface of the body.
The heat of a muscle, joint, or a bone is not conducted to the dermal tissues and cannot
influence the dermal temperature recorded by thermography. Conduction of heat from the
deeper portions of the body to the surface does not occur or create changes in the surface
temperature. However, there are neurochemical processes in the dermis which can block the
normal sympathetic control of blood flow in the skin, such as histamines, prostaglandins, and
myovascular receptor inhibitors of mast cells. These, however, can be easily differentiated from
neural control by clinical correlation.
Areas of the surface of the body are recorded as symmetrical. The frontal areas, the thumbs, the
great toes, the knees, the buttocks, the posterior shoulders should be contra laterally
symmetrical and isothermic. If there is a difference, it is described as a delta T and means
simply the difference in temperature. In order to interpret thermographic patterns, one must
know the normal pattern. The normal pattern of the skin surface is symmetrical, and it is
thought that the 95 percentile range in the normal subject deviates less than 0.3° C. Uematsu
and others have established the normal patterns of the human surface temperature.
Relationships of various areas one to another must be learned. The hands are usually colder than
the shoulders. The buttocks and the feet are the coldest in the lower body, followed by the
anterior knees. The thenar side of a given hand is usually warmer than the hypothenar, and the
fingers are cooler than the palm.
It has been shown that the surface temperature of the human body is symmetrical. It is a
reflection of blood flow in the dermal microcirculation, and the control of this microcirculation
is autonomic and specifically, sympathetic. The major basis of clinical thermography is the
correlation of temperature recordings with various conditions from disease and injury as it
relates to autonomic function.
Digital Infrared Thermal Imaging (DITI) is practiced at the Da Vinci Holistic Health Centre
in Larnaca. Images of the appropriate areas of the body are taken and sent to a team of specialist
M.D. Thermologists in the USA. The images are analyzed and a full report is written and
returned to the patient.

Hazard Example

Wet floors
Physical hazards Loose electrical cables
Objects protruding in walkways or doorways

Lifting heavy objects Stretching the body

Ergonomic hazards Twisting the body
Poor desk seating

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Heights Loud sounds

Psychological hazards Tunnels
Bright lights

Room temperature
Ventilation Contaminated air
Environmental hazards
Photocopiers
Some office plants Acids

Hazardous substances Alkalis Solvents

Hepatitis B
Biological hazards
New strain influenza

Radiation hazards Electric welding flashes Sunburn

6.2Safety in IT and electronic industry and service sectors :

Health and Safety are critical aspects of all workplaces. For this reason, it is common that
training is contextualised to reflect the WHS situation of the place of training and assessment.
So, what is a hazard?
From the IBSA TAE10 Training Package glossary we learn that a hazard is:
―a source or situation with a potential for harm in terms of human injury or ill health.‖
Hazard Management
As trainers/assessors, one of our Legal and Ethical Responsibilities is a Duty of Care. This
means that we are required to identify and manage any hazards that may threaten the health and
safety of people associated with our training/assessment.
But, before we can manage a hazard, we have to know what types of hazards there are.
Types of Hazard
Hazards can be broadly grouped based on their nature. This is shown below:
Some More Workplace Hazards
If we take the above table one step further, we can begin to think about some of the hazards that
we might find in actual workplaces.
Workplace
Effect on human health
Hazard

Effects on central nervous system, lungs, digestive system, circulatory

system, skin, reproductive system. Short term (acute) effects such as
Chemical burns, rashes, irritation, feeling unwell, coma and death.
hazards Long term (chronic) effects such as mutagenic (affects cell structure),
carcinogenic (cancer), teratogenic (reproductive effect), dermatitis of the
skin, and occupational asthma and lung damage.

Noise High levels of industrial noise will cause irritation in the short term, and

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Workplace
Effect on human health
Hazard

industrial deafness in the long term.

Personal comfort is best between temperatures of 16°C and 30°C, better

between 21°C and 26°C.
Working outside these temperature ranges: may lead to becoming chilled,
Temperature
even hypothermia (deep body cooling) in the colder temperatures, and may
lead to dehydration, cramps, heat exhaustion, and hyperthermia (heat
stroke) in the warmer temperatures.

This hazard could be a projectile, moving object or material. The health

Being struck
effect could be lacerations, bruising, breaks, eye injuries, and possibly
by
death.

A typical example of this hazard is tractor rollover. Death is usually the

Crushed by
result

Becoming entangled in machinery. Effects could be crushing, lacerations,

Entangled by
bruising, breaks amputation and death.

High energy Explosions, high pressure gases, liquids and dusts, fires, electricity and
sources sources such as lasers can all have serious effects on the body, even death.

Vibration can affect the human body in the hand arm with `white-finger' or
Vibration Raynaud's Syndrome, and the whole body with motion sickness, giddiness,
damage to bones and audits, blood pressure and nervous system problems.

Slips, trips A very common workplace hazard from tripping on floors, falling off
and falls structures or down stairs, and slipping on spills.

Radiation can have serious health effects. Skin cancer, other cancers,
Radiation sterility, birth deformities, blood changes, skin burns and eye damage are
examples.

Excessive effort, poor posture and repetition can all lead to muscular pain,
Physical
tendon damage and deterioration to bones and related structures

Stress, anxiety, tiredness, poor concentration, headaches, back pain and

Psychological
heart disease can be the health effects

More common in the health, food and agricultural industries. Effects such
Biological
as infectious disease, rashes and allergic response.

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Steps Roles And Responsibilities

Step 1 Responsibility of organisations

Codes of practice, policies and Must be compliant with the various WHS Acts
procedures Should involve employees on a cooperative basis

Step 2 Responsibility of organisations

Workplace method statements Written in cooperation with employees
Must be compliant with various WHS Acts

Step 3 Initiated by organisation with cooperation of

Worksafe instructions employees
Must be compliant with the various WHS Acts
Must be followed by employees

Step 4 Provided by organization

Wearing of protective clothing or Must be compliant with the various WHS Acts
equipment Must be worn by employees as directed by
management

Step 5 Senior management must:

Hazard and risk management
ensure that legislative requirements are complied
with
provide adequate funding for implementing safe
workplace strategies
work in cooperation with others to provide a safe
workplace
liaise with relevant personnel such as unions
supervisors, WHS committees, WHS representatives
lead by example.
Employees must:
observe established safe work practices and
procedures
be involved in the identification of various
substances or chemicals
be proactive in WHS meetings or other
communication opportunities
report any situation that involves risk or hazard to the
appropriate person.

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Step 6 Accident or incident report prepared on workplace

Incident or accident report
checklist
Management inspects accident or incident area
Management evaluates the outcome of the
investigation and makes recommendations
The report tabulates inspection findings which
include employee input and enables management to
determine appropriate action.

How are work postures and movements a risk for WMSDs?

Anybody position can cause discomfort and fatigue if it is maintained for long periods of
time. Standing, for example, is a natural body posture, and by itself poses no particular health
hazards. However, working for long periods in a standing position can cause sore feet, general
muscular fatigue, and low back pain. In addition, improper layout of work areas, and certain
tasks can make workers use unnatural standing positions.
Two aspects of body position can contribute to injuries. The first relates to body position. When
parts of the body are near the extremes of their range of movements, stretching and compression
of tendons and nerves occur. The longer a fixed or awkward body position is used, the more
likely we are to develop WMSDs. For example, working with the torso bent forward (Figure 1),
backward or twisted can place too much stress on the low back. Other examples of stressful
body positions include reaching above shoulder level (Figure 2), reaching behind the body
(Figure 3), rotating the arms (Figure 4), bending the wrist forward, backward, or side to side
(Figure 5), and reaching forward too far out in front of the body. The second aspect that
contributes to WMSDs is holding the neck and the shoulders in a fixed position. To perform any
controlled movement with the arm, muscles in the shoulder and the neck contract and stay
contracted for as long as the task requires.
The contracted muscles squeeze the blood vessels, which restricts the flow of blood all the way
down to the working muscles of the hand.
However, this is where the blood is needed the most because of the intense muscular effort.
Two things happen as a result. The neck/shoulder muscles become overtired even though there
is little or no movement. At the same time, the reduced blood supply to the rest of the arm
accelerates fatigue in the muscles that are moving, making them more prone to injury.

Are there other names for WMSDs?

WMSDs are very difficult to define within traditional disease classifications. These disorders
have received many names, such as:
• Repetitive motion injuries.
• Repetitive strain injuries.
• Cumulative trauma disorders.
• Occupational cervicobrachial disorders.
• Overuse syndrome.
• Regional musculoskeletal disorders.
• Soft tissue disorders.

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Most of the names do not accurately describe the disorders. For example, the term "repetitive
strain injuries" suggests that repetition causes these disorders, but awkward postures also
contribute. These terms are used synonymously. In the absence of an agreement, WMSD term is
used in this document.
What are the risk factors for WMSDs?
WMSDs arise from arm and hand movements such as bending, straightening, gripping, holding,
twisting, clenching and reaching. These common movements are not particularly harmful in the
ordinary activities of daily life. What makes them hazardous in work situations is the continual
repetition, often in a forceful manner, and most of all, the speed of the movements and the lack
of time for recovery between them. WMSDs are associated with work patterns that include:
• Fixed or constrained body positions.
• Continual repetition of movements.
• Force concentrated on small parts of the body, such as the hand or wrist.
• A pace of work that does not allow sufficient recovery between movements.
Generally, none of these factors acts separately to cause WMSD. WMSDs commonly occur as a
result of a combination and interaction among them.
Heat, cold and vibration also contribute to the development of WMSD.
To read more about the WMSD risk factors visit our OSH Answers document Work-related
Muskuloskeletal Disorders (WMSDs) - Risk Factors.

How do WMSDs occur?

This document discusses WMSDs that develop gradually as a result of repeated trauma.
WMSDs include three types of injuries:
• Muscle injury.
• Tendon injury.
• Nerve injury.
Muscle Injury
When muscles contract, they use chemical energy from sugars and produce by-products such as
lactic acid which are removed by the blood. A muscle contraction that lasts a long time reduces
the blood flow. Consequently, the substances produced by the muscles are not removed fast
enough, and they accumulate in the muscles. The accumulation of these substances irritates
muscles and causes pain. The severity of the pain depends on the duration of the muscle
contractions and the amount of time between activities for the muscles to get rid of those
irritating substances.
Tendon Injury
Tendons consist of numerous bundles of fibres that attach muscles to bones. Tendon disorders
related to repetitive or frequent work activities and awkward postures occur in two major
categories --tendons with sheaths (Fig. 1), found mainly in the hand and wrist; and tendons
without sheaths (Fig. 2), generally found around the shoulder, elbow, and forearm.
The tendons of the hand are encased in sheaths through which the tendon slides.
The inner walls of the sheaths contain cells that produce a slippery fluid to lubricate the tendon.
With repetitive or excessive movement of the hand, the lubrication system may malfunction. It
may not produce enough fluid, or it may produce a fluid with poor lubricating qualities. Failure
of the lubricating system creates friction between the tendon and its sheath, causing

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inflammation and swelling of the tendon area. Repeated episodes of inflammation cause fibrous
tissue to form. The fibrous tissue thickens the tendon sheath, and hinders tendon movement.
Inflammation of the tendon sheath is known as tenosynovitis.
When inflamed, a tendon sheath may swell up with lubricating fluid and cause a bump under
the skin. This is referred to as a ganglion cyst. Tendons without sheaths are vulnerable to
repetitive motions and awkward postures. In fact, when a tendon is repeatedly tensed, some of
its fibres can tear apart. The tendon becomes thickened and bumpy, causing inflammation.
Tendonitis is the general term indicating inflammation of the tendon. In some cases, such as in
the shoulder, tendons pass through a narrow space between bones. A sac called the bursa filled
with lubricating fluid is inserted between the tendons and the bones as an anti-friction device.
As the tendons become increasingly thickened and bumpy, the bursa is subject to a lot of
friction and becomes inflamed. Inflammation of the bursa is known as bursitis.
Nerve Injury
Nerves carry signals from the brain to control activities of muscles. They also carry information
about temperature, pain and touch from the body to the brain, and control bodily functions such
as sweating and salivation. Nerves are surrounded by muscles, tendons, and ligaments. With
repetitive motions and awkward postures, the tissues surrounding nerves become swollen, and
squeeze or compress nerves (Fig. 3A, 3B). Compression of a nerve causes muscle weakness,
sensations of "pins and needles" and numbness. Dryness of skin, and poor circulation to the
extremities, may also occur.

1 Physical hazard:
1.1 Items on the checklist: Physical hazards are hazards that arise at work due to the influence
of various forms of energy. They include noise, temperature, lighting and radiation. The
physical hazards checklist is well-suited for almost all work inspections, since the items it
contains generally affect working environments and apply to all types of work.
Continuous noise refers to the prevailing level of noise at the workplace. The following
operating values relating to the daily noise exposures of employees are prescribed by law:
- the lower exposure action value of 80 decibels (dB); if this is exceeded, the employer must
obtain personal hearing protectors for the employees.
- the upper exposure action value of 85 dB; if this is exceeded, the employee must use the
personal hearing protectors obtained for him by the employer and the employer must
prepare a noise abatement programme.
- the limit exposure value is 87 dB; if exceeded, the exposure must be reduced below the
limit
value.
Even lower noise levels may cause harm due to communication difficulties, disturbances to
peace
of mind or poorer performance.
F 2. Impulse noise is a sudden loud noise, for which the following operating values have been
set:
- the lower exposure action value of 135 dB (peak sound pressure 112 pascals (Pa)); if this is
exceeded, the employer must obtain personal hearing protectors for the employees.
- the upper exposure action value of 137 dB (peak sound pressure 140 Pa); if this is exceeded,

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the employee must use the personal hearing protectors obtained for him by the employer and
the employer must prepare a noise abatement programme.
- the limit exposure value is 140 dB (peak sound pressure 200 Pa); if exceeded, the exposure
must be reduced below the limit value.
In order to more precisely assess impulse noise and extremely high or low frequency noise, a
range of measurements are needed.
F 3. Workplace temperature. Wherever it is possible and necessary, workplace temperature and
humidity must be capable of being regulated. The following temperature recommendations and
maximum values have been set for different kinds of work:
□ Light sitting work 21– 25 ºC
□ Other light work 19– 23 ºC
□ Moderately heavy work 17– 21 ºC
□ Heavy work 12– 17 ºC.
General and local ventilation: The general ventilation system must be sufficient and arranged
in the most appropriate way. If necessary, it must be supplemented with local ventilation.
Draught: A draught is an incoming air flow that is cooler than the room air. If the air flow
velocity is 0.15-0.5 m/s, it is normally considered to be harmful. It is certainly draughty when
the air velocity exceeds 0.5 m/s. Open external doors or windows may cause a disturbing
draught.
Cold or hot objects can cause injuries from burns or extreme cold. Hot or very cold parts of
work tools must be protected, if necessary, so that workers are in no danger of touching them or
coming too near. Workers must have the necessary protective equipment to handle cold or hot
objects.
Working outdoors: The risks of outdoor work are affected by length of time spent outdoors, air
temperature, wind velocity, sunshine, rain and slipperiness.
General lighting: The workplace must have suitable and sufficiently effective lighting as
required by the work and the needs of the workers. In assessing the sufficiency of the lighting,
note should be taken of the effect of daylight, the season and time of day, the weather
conditions and the use of sunshades and local lighting. The lighting must not cause dazzle.
Local lighting at workstations: If necessary, the general lighting must be supplemented by
local lighting at workstations. This is very important in work requiring great precision.
Although deficient lighting does not cause eye injuries, it may increase the risk of accident or
fatigue.
Safety/indicator lighting at walkways: Walkways must have sufficient general lighting.
Exits must have sufficient reserve lighting and their position must be shown by illuminated
signs.
Safety and indicator lighting must meet the SFS-EN 1838 and SFS-EN 50172 standards.
Outdoor lighting: Workplace-related areas (e.g. storage spaces, yard areas, parking areas,
access ways) must have sufficient outdoor lighting.
Hand/arm vibration: An investigation must be made into whether the workplace uses
vibrating machines or equipment (e.g. pneumatic and electrically driven hand tools, mobile
work machines), whether vibration causes problems and whether the workers display vibration-
related symptoms. In addition, the need for further investigations must be assessed. Vibration
measurement and analysis is a job for experts.

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The daily exposure limit value for hand-arm vibration is 5 m/s2; if this is exceeded, the
employer must take steps to lower the vibration. The daily exposure action value for hand-arm
vibration is 2.5 m/s2; if this is exceeded, the employer must prepare a vibration control
programme.
Whole-body vibration: An investigation must be made into whether the workplace uses
vibrating machines or equipment (e.g. pneumatic and electrically driven hand tools, mobile
work machines), whether vibration causes problems and whether the workers display vibration-
related symptoms. In addition, the need for further investigations must be assessed. Vibration
measurement and analysis is a job for experts.
The daily exposure limit value for whole-body vibration is 1.15 m/s2; if this is exceeded, the
employer must take steps to lower the vibration. The daily exposure action value for whole-
body vibration is 0.5 m/s2; if this is exceeded, the employer must prepare a vibration control
programme.
Ionizing radiation: X-rays, gamma-rays and radon lead to exposure to ionizing
radiation.Radiation measurement is a job for experts.
Ultraviolet radiation: UV radiation is present in welding, in certain lamps and in sunlight.
Exposure to UV radiation can cause e.g. sunburn inflammation or cataracts in the eyes.
Laser radiation bears a risk of causing injury to the eye or the skin, for example. Lasers are
classified according to their risk, as presented in the SFS-EN 60825-1 standard.
Class 3B and 4 lasers can cause permanent eye damage as a result of exposure to direct or
diffuse beams (reflected from shiny surfaces).
Infrared radiation: Infrared radiation is present near e.g. heating and smelting furnaces and
infrared dryers and heaters. Excessive radiation can be reduced by using reflective materials.
Microwaves are electromagnetic waves. Microwaves are used in e.g. radar and Communications
technology and in microwave ovens. The microwave-induced hazards are the heating effects,
which are determined by the intensity of the field.
Electromagnetic fields: Electric and magnetic fields are present near e.g. induction heaters and
ovens. There is no indisputable evidence of the health effects of electromagnetic fields.
Accident hazards (A)
Items on the checklist
Accident hazards involve a sudden and uncontrolled energy source: moving objects,
uncontrolled motion or energy. The accident hazards checklist is very well suited to the
inspection of jobs involving many different work stages, machines or equipment or where the
work is done in changeable working conditions.
Slipping. A slipping hazard refers to a situation in which there is too little friction to permit a
walking person to stay upright. The hazard is usually related to smooth and even surfaces. It can
be increased by ice, water or other liquid on the surface, and the inclination of the surface. The
quality of the footwear and the method of moving also affect safety.
Tripping. A tripping hazard relates to obstacles on the access way (e.g. pipes, tubes, waste) or
irregularities (e.g. thresholds, depressions, pit-holes, level variations) that may lead to a fall.
The hazard is increased by e.g. attention being fixed on something else when carrying a load or
when doing other work at the same time.
Being lifted or falling from a height. A falling hazard refers to a situation in which it is

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necessary to rise (e.g. by climbing) above the working level or access way, or in which the
working level or access way has a free unprotected edge from where it is possible to fall to a
lower level (e.g. there is no railing or there is an unprotected hole in the working level). There is
a special falling hazard with respect to ladders and steep flights or f steps.
Being crushed between objects. Moving objects (e.g. machine parts) may lead to a crushing
hazard, in which some body part (e.g. hands or feet) or the whole body becomes crushed
between two moving objects or against a fixed structure.
Being trapped in a locked space. Being trapped when a door or hatch does not open from the
inside may cause a serious hazard in cramped or locked cold spaces, for example.
Electrical devices and static electricity. An electric shock hazard arises when a person touches
an unprotected live electric wire or other live device. With high voltages it is not even necessary
to touch; merely entering the danger area is enough to receive an electric shock. An electric
shock or outbreak of static electricity can as such be fatal, or it can lead to other dangerous
situations such as staggering, falling or a reflexive clinging to something. In addition, electricity
can indirectly cause mortal danger if an overheated wire or sparking joint causes a fire.
Goods transports and other traffic: Internal traffic (forklifts, bicycles, mobile work machines,
vehicles) moving on the same routes both indoors and outdoors can cause accident hazards (e.g.
collisions). In addition, working time errands (e.g. business visits) and commuting safety should
be investigated.
Oxygen deficiency: An oxygen deficiency can occur e.g. in tanks or other closed spaces used to
store oxygen-consuming substances or goods such as wood chips or scrap.
Being plunged into water. Drowning hazards arise in work that takes place near water (e.g.
rivers, lakes, the sea, pools) without any barrier against falling. Examples include the
construction of bridges and harbours, and the maintenance and cleaning of pools.
Objects being dropped: There is a danger of objects being dropped when they are stored or
moved above floor level. The danger is particularly high when the objects are above head level,
e.g. when lifting loads above people.
Objects falling over: Objects can fall over when they are being moved or stored. This hazard
can arise when the objects are in an unstable position or there is no binding. Examples include
piled sheets, boxes, gas bottles, etc.
Objects/materials being hurled around: Objects and materials can be hurled around when
machining takes place at high velocity, as in grinding or milling operations.
A 13. Hit caused by a moving object. Moving objects such as machine parts or transferrable
pieces can lead to unexpected hits and knocks if people are working in the hazard area.
Being entangled in a moving object: The drains and moving edges of machines, conveyors,
cylinders and rolls, and the heads of rotating axles give rise to an entanglement hazard. This
hazard is increased by the wearing of loose clothing or, for example, loose hair.
Being slashed or cut. Sharp, thin metal, plastic or glass materials and knives, etc. can cause a
slashing or cutting hazard.
Being stabbed: Sharp-pointed objects (e.g. nails) can cause a stabbing hazard. Deficient
protective equipment. The risk of accidents is increased if the appropriate personal protective
equipment or machine/equipment guards and safety devices are in bad condition or are lacking .

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Chemical and biological hazards

4.1 Items on the checklist
Chemical hazards refer to health hazards caused by hazardous substances, compounds and
particles.
The chemical hazards checklist allows a preliminary survey to be made of the need for more
detailed measurements and the need for an assessment of chemical hazards.
The risk assessment involves identifying chemical exposures at the workplace and the
hazardous properties of the chemicals. Hazardous properties are identified from the package
labels and from the latest guidelines on safe handling and use.
Hazardous or harmful chemicals. Employee exposures to hazardous or harmful chemical
agents must be restricted to such an extent that they pose no threat to employee health, safety or
reproductive health. The employer must have adequate information about the properties and
dangers of the chemical agents used. The quantity and nature of employee exposures to
chemical agents must be investigated so that an estimate can be made of the health hazards and
the necessary actions can be taken.
Cancer-causing chemicals. In all activities bearing a risk of exposure to cancer-causing
chemicals, the nature, quantity and duration of the employee exposure must be assessed, and
alternative substances and methods must be considered in order to reduce the exposure.
Exposed employees must be notified in the Finnish Register of Occupational Exposure to
carcinogens (the ASA register). The assessment of exposures is a job for experts.
Allergy-causing chemicals. This refers to the exposure of employees to chemicals by way of
inhalation that causes asthma, allergic colds or other over-sensitive reactions, or by way of skin
contact that causes skin sensitising. The harm is usually permanent. The assessment of
exposures is a job for experts.
Flammable or explosive substances. Utmost caution must be observed when handling and
storing explosive, flammable, corrosive or other such hazardous substances. Dust-air mixtures
can cause an explosion hazard.
Dust and fibre. Dust consists of solid particles floating in the air and is generally created by a
mechanical process or by mixing. Fibre refers to the mineral fibres used in industry (e.g. textile
dust) or to synthetic, inorganic fibres (e.g. glass or mineral wool). Dust and fibres irritate the
skin, eyes and breathing organs, so that exposure must be prevented/minimised.
Gases. Gases refer to all gaseous substances at the workplace that are harmful to health and
safety.
Vapour, fume and smoke. Vapour arises during the evaporation of a liquid substance into the air
(e.g. solvent vapour). Fumes arise when machining solid material in hot processes (e.g. welding
fumes). Smoke comprises solid particles floating in the air after burning (e.g. oil smoke).
Labelling of chemical packages: Employers have a responsibility to ensure that, when they
receive hazardous chemical packages, they have appropriate, clear and permanent labels.
Storage tanks must also be labelled.
Guidelines on safe handling and use: The employer must keep, order and archive guidelines
on safe handling and usage at the workplace. The archive must contain an alphabetically
arranged directory of the chemicals used at the workplace. The guidelines and directory must be
available to employees upon request.

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Methods of using chemicals: Chemicals must be used in such a way that their use does not
cause a hazard to the health and safety of employees. Employee exposure to the chemicals must
be investigated so that the hazards they cause can be assessed.
Storage of chemicals: Chemicals must be stored at the workplace in such an effective way that
they do not cause harm to people, property or the environment. Chemical stores must be
labelled clearly.
Disposal of chemical waste: Chemicals must be disposed of in such a way that they do not
cause a hazard to people or the environment.
Condition and use of protective devices. Personal protective devices must be used against
chemical exposure in situations where technical measures cannot adequately reduce the risk.
The devices must be sound, appropriate, sufficiently protective and suitable for the work.
Condition and use of first aid equipment. The workplace must have enough surgical
dressings, medicines and other first aid equipment, whose condition and place of storage must
be checked once a month. If necessary, the employees must be instructed on how to obtain
quick first aid.
Condition and use of electrical devices. Attention must be paid, in installing, using and
maintaining electrical devices, to the risk of fire or accident due to wrong connections, faults or
overheating.
Hot work permits and practice. Hot work refers to work in which sparks arise or a flame or
other heat is used, and which causes a fire hazard. When hot work is done in a temporary hot
work location, a hot work permit is mandatory.
Fire-fighting equipment and its labelling. Every workplace must have access to water and a
sufficient quantity of fire-fighting equipment, i.e. fire extinguishers, smothering blankets, hoses,
fire extinguishing agents, etc. The equipment must be appropriately and visibly labelled, sound
and fit for use, and easily available.
Exits and exit signs. Every workplace must have a sufficient number of appropriately
labelled, clearly visible and easily accessed exits leading to the ground, which must always be
kept free.
Infection risk, e.g. bacteria and viruses. At workplaces with an infection risk (e.g. health
care facilities), the nature, duration and magnitude of employee exposure must be estimated.
Bacteria and viruses can cause inflammation, allergies or diseases. The assessment of exposures
is a job for experts. A special government decision has been made on biological agents.
Fungi, e.g. mould. At workplaces with a risk of hazardous fungi (e.g. agricultural work and
waste disposal), the nature, duration and magnitude of employee exposure must be estimated.
Fungi can cause allergic diseases (e.g. hypersensitivity pneumonitis) and/or rashes. The
assessment of exposures is a job for experts.
Computer Vision Syndrome
Computer Vision Syndrome, also referred to as Digital Eye Strain, describes a group of eye
and vision-related problems that result from prolonged computer, tablet, e-reader and cell phone
use. Many individuals experience eye discomfort and vision problems when viewing digital
screens for extended periods. The level of discomfort appears to increase with the amount of
digital screen use. The average American worker spends seven hours a day on the computer
either in the office or working from home. March is Save Your Vision Month and the American

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Optometric Association is working to educate both employers and employees about how to
avoid digital eye strain in the workplace. To help alleviate digital eye strain, follow the 20-20-
20 rule; take a 20-second break to view something 20 feet away every 20 minutes.
The most common symptoms associated with Computer Vision Syndrome (CVS) or Digital Eye
Strain are
• eyestrain
• headaches
• blurred vision
• dry eyes
• neck and shoulder pain
These symptoms may be caused by:
• poor lighting
• glare on a digital screen
• improper viewing distances
• poor seating posture
• uncorrected vision problems
• a combination of these factors
The extent to which individuals experience visual symptoms often depends on the level of their
visual abilities and the amount of time spent looking at a digital screen. Uncorrected vision
problems like farsightedness and astigmatism, inadequate eye focusing or eye
coordination abilities, and aging changes of the eyes, such as presbyopia, can all contribute to
the development of visual symptoms when using a computer or digital screen device.
Many of the visual symptoms experienced by users are only temporary and will decline after
stopping computer work or use of the digital device. However, some individuals may
experience continued reduced visual abilities, such as blurred distance vision, even after
stopping work at a computer. If nothing is done to address the cause of the problem, the
symptoms will continue to recur and perhaps worsen with future digital screen use.
Prevention or reduction of the vision problems associated with Computer Vision Syndrome or
Digital Eye Strain involves taking steps to control lighting and glare on the device screen,
establishing proper working distances and posture for screen viewing, and assuring that even
minor vision problems are properly corrected.
What causes Computer Vision Syndrome or Digital Eye Strain?
Viewing a computer or digital screen often makes the eyes work harder. As a result, the unique
characteristics and high visual demands of computer and digital screen device viewing make
many individuals susceptible to the development of vision-related symptoms.Uncorrected vision
problems can increase the severity of Computer Vision Syndrome or Digital Eye Strain
symptoms.
Viewing a computer or digital screen is different than reading a printed page. Often the letters
on the computer or handheld device are not as precise or sharply defined, the level of contrast of
the letters to the background is reduced, and the presence of glare and reflections on the screen
may make viewing difficult.Viewing distances and angles used for this type of work are also
often different from those commonly used for other reading or writing tasks. As a result, the eye
focusing and eye movement requirements for digital screen viewing can place additional
demands on the visual system.In addition, the presence of even minor vision problems can often
significantly affect comfort and performance at a computer or while using other digital screen

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devices. Uncorrected or under corrected vision problems can be major contributing factors to
computer-related eyestrain.Even people who have an eyeglass or contact lens prescription may
find it's not suitable for the specific viewing distances of their computer screen. Some people tilt
their heads at odd angles because their glasses aren't designed for looking at a computer. Or
they bend toward the screen in order to see it clearly. Their postures can result in muscle spasms
or pain in the neck, shoulder or back.
In most cases, symptoms of CVS or Digital Eye Strain occur because the visual demands of the
task exceed the visual abilities of the individual to comfortably perform them. At greatest risk
for developing CVS or Digital Eye Strain are those persons who spend two or more continuous
hours at a computer or using a digital screen device every day.
How is Computer Vision Syndrome or Digital Eye Strain diagnosed?
Computer Vision Syndrome, or Digital Eye Strain, can be diagnosed through a comprehensive
eye examination. Testing, with special emphasis on visual requirements at the computer or
digital device working distance, may include:
• Patient history to determine any symptoms the patient is experiencing and the presence of
any general health problems, medications taken, or environmental factors that may be
contributing to the symptoms related to computer use.
• Visual acuity measurements to assess the extent to which vision may be affected.
• A refraction to determine the appropriate lens power needed to compensate for any
refractive errors (nearsightedness, farsightedness or astigmatism).
• Testing how the eyes focus, move and work together. In order to obtain a clear, single
image of what is being viewed, the eyes must effectively change focus, move and work in
unison. This testing will look for problems that keep your eyes from focusing effectively
or make it difficult to use both eyes together.
This testing may be done without the use of eye drops to determine how the eyes respond under
normal seeing conditions. In some cases, such as when some of the eyes' focusing power may
be hidden, eye drops may be used. They temporarily keep the eyes from changing focus while
testing is done.
Using the information obtained from these tests, along with results of other tests, your
optometrist can determine if you have Computer Vision Syndrome or Digital Eye Strain and
advise you on treatment options.
How is Computer Vision Syndrome, or Digital Eye Strain treated?
Solutions to digital screen-related vision problems are varied. However, they can usually be
alleviated by obtaining regular eye care and making changes in how you view the screen.
Eye Care: In some cases, individuals who do not require the use of eyeglasses for other daily
activities may benefit from glasses prescribed specifically for computer use. In addition, persons
already wearing glasses may find their current prescription does not provide optimal vision for
viewing a computer.
• Eyeglasses or contact lenses prescribed for general use may not be adequate for computer
work. Lenses prescribed to meet the unique visual demands of computer viewing may be
needed. Special lens designs, lens powers or lens tints or coatings may help to maximize
visual abilities and comfort.
• Some computer users experience problems with eye focusing or eye coordination that can't
be adequately corrected with eyeglasses or contact lenses. A program of vision therapy
may be needed to treat these specific problems. Vision therapy, also called visual training,

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is a structured program of visual activities prescribed to improve visual abilities. It trains

the eyes and brain to work together more effectively. These eye exercises help remediate
deficiencies in eye movement, eye focusing and eye teaming and reinforce the eye-brain
connection. Treatment may include office-based as well as home training procedures.
Proper body positioning for computer use. Some important factors in preventing or reducing the
symptoms of CVS have to do with the computer and how it is used. This includes lighting
conditions, chair comfort, location of reference materials, position of the monitor, and the use of
rest breaks.
• Location of computer screen - Most people find it more comfortable to view a computer
when the eyes are looking downward. Optimally, the computer screen should be 15 to 20
degrees below eye level (about 4 or 5 inches) as measured from the center of the screen
and 20 to 28 inches from the eyes.
• Reference materials - These materials should be located above the keyboard and below
the monitor. If this is not possible, a document holder can be used beside the monitor.
The goal is to position the documents so you do not need to move your head to look
from the document to the screen.
• Lighting - Position the computer screen to avoid glare, particularly from overhead lighting
or windows. Use blinds or drapes on windows and replace the light bulbs in desk lamps
with bulbs of lower wattage.
• Anti-glare screens - If there is no way to
minimize glare from light sources, consider
using a screen glare filter. These filters
decrease the amount of light reflected from the
screen.
• Seating position - Chairs should be
comfortably padded and conform to the body.
Chair height should be adjusted so your feet
rest flat on the floor. If your chair has arms,
they should be adjusted to provide arm support
while you are typing. Your wrists shouldn't
rest on the keyboard when typing.
• Rest breaks - To prevent eyestrain, try to rest
your eyes when using the computer for long
periods. Rest your eyes for 15 minutes after
two hours of continuous computer use. Also,
for every 20 minutes of computer viewing,
look into the distance for 20 seconds to allow your eyes a chance to refocus.
• Blinking - To minimize your chances of developing dry eye when using a computer, make
an effort to blink frequently. Blinking keeps the front surface of your eye moist.
Carpal tunnel syndrome (CTS) - symptoms, causes, surgery
Carpal tunnel syndrome is a disorder that affects the hand and wrist. It occurs when the median
nerve which runs through the wrist is compressed, causing such symptoms as changes in
sensation, pain, and restricted use of the hand.
Carpal tunnel syndrome (CTS) most commonly occurs in women, with those aged between 30
and 60 years having the highest rates of the condition. Initial treatment aims to reduce and

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manage symptoms without surgery but if this is unsuccessful, a surgical procedure called carpal
tunnel release may be recommended.
Signs and symptoms
The onset of CTS symptoms is usually gradual and can involve either one or both hands. The
most common symptoms are numbness and tingling of the hand and fingers. Other symptoms
may include:
• Burning, prickly, pin-like sensations in the hand and fingers
• Hand stiffness - particularly in the morning
• A feeling of swelling in the fingers – even though they may not be visibly swollen
• Wasting of the muscles in the hand can occur in long-term (chronic) cases
• Weakened grip
• Pain in the hand and fingers. The pain may: be intermittent or constant; worsen at night;
worsen with increased use of the hand; radiate from the hand to the forearm or shoulder.
Causes
The carpal tunnel is a narrow passageway in the wrist that is surrounded by bones and
ligaments. Running through the carpal tunnel are tendons that move the fingers and the median
nerve, which is responsible for both sensation and movement in the hand, thumb, index finger,
middle finger and ring finger.
Any condition that causes swelling of the membranes or other contents of the carpal tunnel can
lead to CTS. When the tissues of the carpal tunnel become swollen, pressure inside the carpal
tunnel is increased. This causes the median nerve to be compressed, which is known as nerve
entrapment.
Factors that increase the likelihood of developing CTS include:
• Female gender
• Being overweight or obese
• Pregnancy and menopause (fluid retention may increase pressure within the carpal
tunnel)
• Certain medical conditions such as rheumatoid arthritis, diabetes and hypothyroidism
• A wrist injury such as a fracture or dislocation
• A family history of the condition.

The risk of developing CTS can be increased by activities or occupations that involve prolonged
and highly repetitious flexion (bending) or extension (straightening) of the wrist, especially
when a forceful grip is required. Hand-transmitted vibration is also thought to increase risk.
However there is no conclusive evidence to link keyboard and computer work with the
development of CTS. In the majority of cases the cause will be unknown (idiopathic).
Diagnosis
If CTS is suspected, a doctor should be consulted so that an accurate diagnosis can be made and
appropriate treatment recommended.
The doctor will take a full medical history, discussing symptoms and the activities/situations
that worsen them. The affected hand will be examined and an assessment of the ways in which
the hand is used will be made. The doctor may also perform several simple tests on the affected
hand to see if the symptoms can be induced.
If the initial examination clearly indicates the presence of CTS then further tests may not be
required. However, if there is doubt about the diagnosis then nerve conduction tests may be
required. These tests measure how quickly nerves can transmit electrical impulses. CTS may be
indicated if impulses along the median nerve are slowed in the carpal tunnel. This is a

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specialised test and a referral to a specialist will be required in order for this test to be
performed.
Ultrasound or MRI scans may be recommended in some cases to confirm compression of the
median nerve. Blood tests may also be performed to rule out other possible causes for the
symptoms.
Treatment
Treatment will depend on the nature and severity of the symptoms. Initial treatment will aim to
reduce and manage symptoms without surgery.
Non-surgical treatment:
• Taking frequent breaks to rest the hands
• Applying a cold pack to reduce swelling
• Wearing a splint to support the wrist and prevent it moving into a position that further
increases compression of the median nerve.
• Modifying techniques and practices
• Avoiding activities that worsen symptoms
• Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) and/or corticosteroids (eg: cortisone
injections)
• Physiotherapy.
If non-surgical treatment is unsuccessful, surgery may be recommended.
Surgical treatment: Surgery is normally performed on a day stay basis and can usually be
carried out using a local anaesthetic and/or a nerve block. The surgery is commonly referred to
as a carpal tunnel release. There are two main techniques used for carpal tunnel release. The
decision as to which is used will be decided largely by the surgeon.
Open release surgery: An incision is made in the wrist and palm and the surgeon locates the
flexor retinaculum (a strong band of tissue within the carpal tunnel that wraps the median nerve
and the tendons that move the fingers). The flexor retinaculum is cut and released, thereby
relieving the pressure on the median nerve. The skin is stitched back together and a dressing is
applied.
Endoscopic surgery: This technique uses a narrow telescope called an arthroscope to view the
structures of the carpal tunnel from the inside. Usually, two small incisions are made – one in
the wrist and one in the palm. The arthroscope is passed through one incision and the surgical
instruments through the other. The surgeon is able to see the structures of the carpal tunnel on a
television monitor whilst using the surgical instruments to release the flexor retinaculum. The
incisions are closed with either stitches or small paper tapes (steristrips) and a dressing is
applied. Endoscopic carpal tunnel release usually has a quicker recovery time, produces less
postoperative pain and causes less scaring than open release surgery. However, this type of
surgery is not suitable for all people.
Post-operative recovery: Recovery from carpal tunnel release surgery is usually quick and
complications are unusual. Approximately 95% of those who undergo carpal tunnel release
surgery will have complete relief of symptoms.
It is important to follow post-operative recovery and activity guidelines. Some surgeons will
recommend the use of a splint. This helps to restrict movement and promote healing. Gentle
hand exercises or physiotherapy may also be recommended.

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If CTS has been a long-term (chronic) condition, it may take longer for symptoms to disappear
and normal function to return to the hand. Also, some muscle wasting may remain even though
a complete relief of CTS symptoms has been achieved.
Repetitive Strain Injury
Repetitive strain injury (RSI) is a condition where pain and other symptoms occur in an area of
the body which has done repetitive tasks (often the arms or hands). Repetitive strain means
strain related to actions which are frequently repeated.
What is repetitive strain injury?
The term repetitive strain injury (RSI) is used to describe a range of painful conditions of the
muscles, tendons and other soft tissues. It is mainly caused by repetitive use of part of the body.
It is usually related to a task or occupation but leisure activities can also be a cause. Unlike a
normal strain following a sudden injury, symptoms of RSI can persist well beyond the time it
would take symptoms of a normal strain to ease.
You may also see the term overuse injury. This is a general name for conditions in which the
muscles, tendons or soft tissues are used excessively but, unlike RSI, do not necessarily involve
repetition of the same movement.
Which areas of the body are affected by repetitive strain injury?
Symptoms depend on what the repetitive actions are. In most cases the symptoms develop in an
arm, wrist or hand, as these parts of the body most commonly do repetitive tasks. In recent years
it is computer operators, typists, musicians and people doing repetitive tasks in factories who
most commonly develop repetitive strain injury (RSI). People who do a lot of DIY around the
house may develop RSI, or people who do certain sports which involve repetitive movements.
Which areas of the body are affected by repetitive strain injury?
Commonly it's the arm, wrist or hand but of course it depends on which part of the body is
being repeatedly used. In wheelchair users it's often the shoulders which are jerked when the
chair is manually propelled. It's commonly seen in computer operators, factory workers and
people who do certain sports. And if you want to avoid doing DIY, repetitive strain injury (RSI)
is as good an excuse as any.
The symptoms tend to develop gradually. At first the symptoms may only occur whilst you do
the repetitive task and ease off when you rest.
What are the symptoms of repetitive strain injury?
Repetitive strain injury (RSI) symptoms in the affected area can include:
• Pain
• Tightness
• Dull ache
• Throbbing
• Numbness
• Tingling
The symptoms tend to develop gradually. At first the symptoms may only occur whilst you do
the repetitive task and ease off when you rest. In time the symptoms can be present all the time
but tend to be made worse by doing the repetitive task. Symptoms can range from mild to
severe.
Some people divide RSI into two main categories: Type 1 RSI and Type 2 RSI.

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Type 1 RSI
This includes well-defined syndromes such as:
• Carpal tunnel syndrome: pain and squashing (compression) of a nerve in the wrist.
• Tendinopathy: inflammation of a tendon.
• Tenosynovitis: inflammation of a tendon sheath.
These conditions may be due to, or be made worse by, repetitive tasks. However, these
syndromes are also common in people who have not done repetitive tasks. These syndromes
may have other symptoms such as swelling, inflammation, nerve compression problems, etc.
Type 2 RSI
This is where symptoms do not fit into a well-defined syndrome. Also, there are no objective or
measurable signs such as inflammation, swelling or problems with nerve function. It is
sometimes called diffuse RSI or nonspecific pain syndrome.
What causes repetitive strain injury?
o The main cause is frequent and repetitive movements of a part of the body - for
example, typing, using a computer mouse a lot, etc. Other factors may contribute, such
as poor posture whilst doing the movement, using excessive force whilst doing the
movement and not having enough breaks from the task.
o However, the precise reason why repetitive strain injury (RSI) develops is not clear. In
many cases there is no swelling or inflammation and there are no other obvious
problems which develop in the muscles or tendons, and yet symptoms develop. Also, it
is not clear why some people develop RSI and not others who do the same repetitive
tasks.
o Research suggests that psychosocial workplace factors (which usually means stress at
work) can also contribute to RSI. It may be that stress increases muscle tension and/or
affects how the body feels pain in general.
How is repetitive strain injury diagnosed?
o There is no test that a doctor can do to diagnose repetitive strain injury (RSI). This is
where difficulties may arise. Pains in the areas affected by RSI are common and can be
due to various causes.
o If you develop a well-defined condition, such as carpal tunnel syndrome, frozen
shoulder, tendinopathy, etc, it may or may not be related to repetitive tasks.
Biomechanics may help to sort this out. Biomechanics use the science of mechanics to
study the way various parts of the body move. In certain sports, for example,
biomechanics have discovered that people sometimes overstretch their muscles when
doing various movements, such as kicking a football. Some wheelchair users have been
found to jerk their shoulders when manually propelling their chairs, leading to persistent
pain in the joint. This sort of information can help to plan treatment strategies.
o Blood tests are sometimes done to rule out inflammatory joint disease. X-rays, scans or
nerve conduction tests may be needed if surgical treatment of a Type 1 condition is
being considered. Otherwise, the diagnosis is usually made on the basis that the
condition developed only following a repetitive task and is relieved or partially relieved
by rest from that task.
Treatment
The causes and symptoms of RSIs are varied, so treatment also varies.

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Types of treatment that are commonly used include:

• Medication: Anti-inflammatory painkillers (such as aspirin or ibuprofen), muscle relaxants,
and antidepressants may help. Sleeping tablets may be suitable, if sleeping is affected.
• Heat or cold: Applying heat packs or ice packs. Avoid excessive heat or applying ice directly
to the skin, as these can burn.
• Splints: Some people use an elastic support or splint.
• Physical therapy: This Includes exercises, manual therapy, bracing or splinting, and advice on
adapting activities to cope with tasks or reduce the risk of worsening the injury.
• Steroid injections: These are only advised if there is inflammation associated with a specific
medical condition, as they can have adverse effects.
• Surgery: : As a last resort, surgery can correct problems with specific tendons and nerves.
Shopping Mall:
A day out at the local shopping mall is supposed to be fun. Many people turn to shopping for
stress relief, relaxation, and for a good time out with their friends or family.
An injury from a slip and fall accident while you‘re out shopping is the last thing anybody
wants to happen when they‘re trying to enjoy their day, but there are many hazards in shopping
malls that can turn your day sour very fast if you are not aware of them. We‘ve put together a
list of common slip and fall hazards that can be found in shopping malls so you can protect
yourself while you are out.
Potential Slip, Trip, and Fall Hazards in a Shopping Mall
There are usually many different types of stores in shopping malls and each present different
hazard depending on the type of store. For this blog, we are going to focus on general hazards
that present themselves in most shopping malls and things that most shopping malls would have
in common no matter where they are in the country or how upscale they are.
Spilled Beverages
Most malls have some type of food court or at least a snack stand or coffee shop and it‘s
common to see people window shopping with some sort of beverage in their hands. If the
beverage spills and management fails to clean it up, it can be very hazardous for patrons,
especially if their hands are full of shopping bags which can compromise their balance.
Shopping malls often have staircases or escalators and a spilled beverage that is not cleaned up
near one of these can be even more dangerous for customers.
Wet Floors in the Bathroom
If the mall‘s management wants their customers to keep coming back, clean bathrooms are
essential. In the effort to keep bathrooms clean, floors will have to be wet down and mopped.
If the floors are not properly dried or management does not place the appropriate signage to
warn customers of the risk of a wet floor, customers are at risk to slip, fall, and injure
themselves on wet floors. Water on tile can be especially hard to see, even more so if the
bathroom is poorly lit or the customer has vision problems.
Wires from Holiday Displays
At some point in their life, most people have been to a shopping mall to see Santa or the Easter
Bunny. These fun characters are often accompanied by a large holiday display full of lights and
decorations and are usually placed in the center of the mall where they are guaranteed lots of
foot traffic. To light up these displays and provide power for moving parts, often time wires
and electrical cords will have to be run across the walkways. Wires and electrical cords that are

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not taped down and maintained by mall management can present a huge tripping hazard,
especially when the traffic around these displays is often made up of young children with their
families and grandparents.
Steps to Take After a Slip and Fall Accident
1. Regain Your Composure
The first thing to do after a slip and fall accident is to try to relax. If you are hysterical and
distraught, it will be more difficult for you to communicate to others what happened and how
they will best be able to help you. Take a few deep breaths and try to clear your head.
2. Collect Evidence and Document the Scene
Take detailed notes of your surroundings and exactly what your slipped or tripped on. If
possible, take pictures of the scene and the cause of your accident. If there were any witnesses,
be sure to get their contact information because their statements to what happened could be
important later on.
3. Seek Medical Attention
If you are seriously hurt, seek medical attention immediately! Your health is paramount to
everything else. Even if you do not feel as though you are seriously injured it is important to
see a doctor to acquire official documentation of your injuries. This official documentation will
be paramount if you choose to pursue a legal route to gain compensation for the injuries you
sustained.
4. Contact a Slip and Fall Attorney with Experience
An experienced slip and fall attorney will be able to expertly handle your case. With slip and
fall cases, as with most legal matters, there is a timeline in which papers must be processed and
legal matters filed. These things are very difficult to do on your own if you do not have
experience, and a slip and fall attorney who has handled situations like this many times will be
able to guide you through the process and help you seek justice.
The Slip and Fall Attorneys at Lever Injury Law
The Slip and Fall attorneys at Lever Injury Law will help you gain compensation for your
injuries. For more information on our additional practice areas, click here and do not hesitate to
contact us for a free case evaluation and consultation.
Parking Lot Hazards
Parking Lot Hazards Parking lots carry a number of inherent risks—risks that any organization
that owns a lot or provides one to employees or patrons through a third party should be aware
of. Slips, falls, auto accidents, theft, harassment and assaults are just some of the risks
individuals face while utilizing parking lots. Thankfully, there are a number of measures
property managers and employers can implement to mitigate those risks.
Design The most important safety features of a parking lot can be implemented during the
initial design phase. For instance, placing speed bumps on long straightaways can prevent
drivers from accelerating to dangerous speeds. In addition, placing concrete blocks at the front
end of parking spaces can help prevent drivers from hitting obstacles, like buildings, planters or
walkways. Similarly, guard rails placed around the perimeter of a parking lot can protect
specific areas from collisions and help direct the flow of traffic. Parking lot safety specialists
can help you determine optimal placement of these types of protective equipment. For added
pedestrian safety, consider including wellmarked pedestrian crosswalks to allow patrons to

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safely traverse the lot. Consider marking crosswalks with signs that include bright colours and
flashing lights in order to draw drivers‘ attention. Overall, a strong parking lot design will
encourage a pedestrian‘s natural surveillance—one‘s ability to observe and assess his or her
surroundings. Ensuring that employees, patrons and the general public can easily view
everything that‘s going on in the parking lot can help prevent auto accidents and deter potential
criminals. To promote natural surveillance, bushes and other surrounding shrubbery should be
trimmed away from the lot. Moreover, it‘s important to create sightlines from the parking lot to
surrounding sidewalks and streets to ensure that passersby can observe incidents and react
quickly.
Parking lots typically have lax security, which can make protecting employees and patrons
all the more difficult:
Signage posting different types of signage in and around a parking lot can bolster overall safety
in a variety of ways. For instance, stop signs that are strategically placed around turns or long
straightaways can reduce the chances of an accident by slowing down drivers. Appropriate
signage can also help direct pedestrians to important safety items—exits and emergency
phones— or away from the path of vehicles. For lots open to the public, regulations that limit or
restrict access to parking spaces may be necessary. Specifically, organizations will need to
determine if their lot will be metered, and, if so, how long patrons may use the lot. Signage
should reflect these regulations.
Lighting: Lighting is one of the most important aspects of parking lot safety. This is because
proper lighting practices can reduce the risk of theft, harassment and assault, as it improves
visibility and eliminates potential hiding places for criminals. Most experts suggest that areas in
the lot be illuminated by at least two sources of light. When weighing lighting options, the
following factors should be taken into consideration:
• Intensity. Avoid soft lighting whenever possible. Most parking lots utilize metal halide
lighting, as it is both bright and easy on the eyes.
• Uniformity. When lighting a parking lot, overlap areas of light. This will help ensure that
there are no major shadows. For added safety, the perimeters of lots should also be illuminated.
Access Control Another way to reduce safety incidents is to restrict access. Some parking lots
utilize ticketing systems that require patrons to purchase access to parking, while others require
key card access. Both of these measures can provide a paper trail that law enforcement officials
can follow in the event of an incident. Fencing placed around the perimeter of a lot can also be a
particularly useful access control measure, as it reduces the potential for trespassing. There‘s a
variety of fencing options to choose from, each with their own strengths and weaknesses:
• Chain link: Chain link fences are some of the most common types of fences you‘ll find around
parking lots—and for a good reason. Chain link fences are not only cost effective, but their
design promotes natural surveillance as well. On the other hand, chain link fences can be easily
climbed over, making it simple for trespassers to access a lot.
• Barbed wire: Barbed wire fencing is most common around areas that house expensive
equipment or vehicles. While they can prevent easy access, barbed wire fences have an
unappealing aesthetic that can deter potential patrons.
• Slide gates: Slide gates, which are fairly common at storage facilities, are good for controlling
both vehicle and foot traffic. This is because slide gates are often equipped with keypad or card

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access controls. The major downside relates to maintenance, as slide gates can be expensive to
repair or replace in the event of malfunction.
Surveillance and Security Measures:
Surveillance and Security Measures For ongoing safety monitoring, active security systems are
often the best option. There are number of surveillance and security measures to consider, all
with their own unique benefits, including the following:
• Security personnel: Simply having a uniformed security officer on-site can be enough to deter
potential criminals. To be effective, patrol officers will have to vary their routes and schedules
to avoid creating predictable gaps in security coverage.
• Closed circuit television (CCTV): CCTV allows for continuous monitoring and creates an
instant record of incidents such as theft, assault or auto accidents. Because CCTV is dependent
on visibility, appropriate lighting measures will need to be in place in order for the surveillance
to be effective. In addition, without a proper response plan in place, CCTV could be a wasted
expense. Ensure that any on-site parking lot staff is trained on what to do when an incident
occurs.
• Emergency phones and intercoms. Easy access to emergency phones and intercoms can be
critical in the event of a safety incident. These systems are best installed in well-lit and easy to
reach areas near parking spots. For added safety, consider including signage that clearly states
that the area is under surveillance. This can be a strong deterrent for criminals.

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