The Lymphatic System and Body Defenses

• Chapter 12

• The Lymphatic System and Body Defenses

• Part one : The Lymphatic System

• Consists of two parts:

1. Lymphatic vessels

2. Lymphoid tissues and organs

• Lymphatic system functions

1. Transports escaped fluids from the cardiovascular system back to the blood

2. Plays essential roles in body defense and resistance to disease

• Concept Link 1

Recall that the hydrostatic and osmotic pressures operating at capillary beds force fluid out of the blood
at the arterial ends of the beds (“upstream”) and cause most of the expelled fluid to be reabsorbed at
the venous ends (“downstream”) (Chapter 11, p. 405).

• Lymphatic Vessels (1 of 5)

• Lymph consists of excess tissue fluid and plasma proteins carried by lymphatic vessels

• If fluids are not picked up, edema occurs as fluid accumulates in tissues

• Lymphatic vessels (lymphatics) pick up excess fluid (lymph) and return it to the blood

• Figure 12.1 Relationship of Lymphatic Vessels to Blood Vessels

• Lymphatic Vessels (2 of 5)

• Lymphatic vessels (lymphatics)

– Form a one-way system

– Lymph flows only toward the heart

• Lymphatic Vessels (3 of 5)

• Lymph capillaries

– Weave between tissue cells and blood capillaries

– Walls overlap to form flaplike minivalves

– Fluid leaks into lymph capillaries

– Capillaries are anchored to connective tissue by filaments

– Higher pressure on the inside closes minivalves

 The Lymphatic System and Body Defenses
– Fluid is forced along the vessel

• Concept Link 2

This is very similar to the way that valves in veins work to ensure blood returns to the heart, despite
being under low pressure (Chapter 11, p. 389).

• Figure 12.2a Special Structural Features of Lymphatic Capillaries

• Figure 12.2b Special Structural Features of Lymphatic Capillaries

• Lymphatic Vessels (4 of 5)

• Lymphatic collecting vessels

– Collect lymph from lymph capillaries

– Return fluid to circulatory veins near the heart

▪ Right lymphatic duct drains the lymph from the right arm and the right side of
the head and thorax

▪ Thoracic duct drains lymph from rest of body

• Figure 12.3 Distribution of Lymphatic Vessels and Lymph Nodes

• Lymphatic Vessels (5 of 5)

• Lymphatic vessels are similar to veins of the cardiovascular system

– Thin-walled

– Larger vessels have valves

– Low-pressure, pumpless system

• Lymph transport is aided by:

– Milking action of skeletal muscles

– Pressure changes in thorax during breathing

– Smooth muscle in walls of lymphatics

• Lymph Nodes (1 of 4)

• Lymph nodes filter lymph before it is returned to the blood

• Harmful materials that are filtered include

– Bacteria

– Viruses
 The Lymphatic System and Body Defenses
– Cancer cells

– Foreign substances

• Lymph Nodes (2 of 4)

• Defense cells within lymph nodes

– Macrophages—engulf and destroy bacteria, viruses, and other foreign substances in

lymph

– Lymphocytes—respond to foreign substances in lymph

• Lymph Nodes (3 of 4)

• Most lymph nodes are kidney-shaped, less than

1 inch long, and buried in connective tissue

– Surrounded by a capsule

– Divided into compartments by trabeculae

• Cortex (outer part)

– Contains follicles—collections of lymphocytes

– Germinal centers enlarge when antibodies are released by plasma cells

• Medulla (inner part)

– Contains phagocytic macrophages

• Figure 12.4 Structure of a Lymph Node

• Lymph Nodes (4 of 4)

• Flow of lymph through nodes

– Lymph enters the convex side through afferent lymphatic vessels

– Lymph flows through a number of sinuses inside the node

– Lymph exits through efferent lymphatic vessels

– Because there are fewer efferent than afferent vessels, flow is slowed

• Other Lymphoid Organs (1 of 6)

• Several other lymphoid organs contribute to lymphatic function (in addition to the lymph nodes)

– Spleen

– Thymus

– Tonsils
 The Lymphatic System and Body Defenses
– Peyer’s patches

– Appendix

• Figure 12.5 Lymphoid Organs

• Other Lymphoid Organs (2 of 6)

• Spleen

– Located on the left side of the abdomen

– Filters and cleans blood of bacteria, viruses, debris

– Provides a site for lymphocyte proliferation and immune surveillance

– Destroys worn-out red blood cells

– Stores platelets and acts as a blood reservoir

• Other Lymphoid Organs (3 of 6)

• Thymus

– Found overlying the heart

– Functions at peak levels only during youth

• Concept Link 3

Recall that the thymus produces hormones, thymosin and others, that function in the programming of T
lymphocytes so they can carry out their protective roles in the body (Chapter 9, p. 336).

• Other Lymphoid Organs (4 of 6)

• Tonsils

– Small masses of lymphoid tissue deep to the mucosa surrounding the pharynx (throat)

– Trap and remove bacteria and other foreign pathogens entering the throat

– Tonsillitis results when the tonsils become congested with bacteria

• Other Lymphoid Organs (5 of 6)

• Peyer’s patches

– Found in the wall of the small intestine

– Similar lymphoid follicles are found in the appendix

– Macrophages capture and destroy bacteria in the intestine

• Other Lymphoid Organs (6 of 6)

• Mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue (M A L T)

 The Lymphatic System and Body Defenses
– Includes:

▪ Peyer’s patches

▪ Tonsils

▪ Appendix

– Acts as a sentinel to protect respiratory and digestive tracts from foreign matter

• Part 2 : Body Defenses

• Two mechanisms that make up the immune system defend us from foreign materials

– Innate (nonspecific) defense system

– Adaptive (specific) defense system

• Immunity—specific resistance to disease

• Immune system is a functional system rather than an organ system in an anatomical sense

• Figure 12.6 An Overview of the Body’s Defenses

The Immune System

• Body Defenses

• Innate (nonspecific) defense system

– Responds immediately to protect body from all foreign materials

– Includes intact skin, mucous membranes, inflammatory response, various proteins

• Innate (Nonspecific) Body Defenses

• Adaptive (specific) defense system

– Fights invaders that get past the innate system

– Specific defense is required for each type of invader

– The highly specific resistance to disease is immunity

– Table 12.1 provides a more detailed summary

• Table 12.1 Summary of Innate (Nonspecific) Body Defenses (1 of 3)

Surface membrane barriers—first line of defense

• Table 12.1 Summary of Innate (Nonspecific) Body Defenses (2 of 3)

Cellular and chemical defenses—second line of defense

 The Lymphatic System and Body Defenses
• Table 12.1 Summary of Innate (Nonspecific) Body Defenses (3 of 3)

Cellular and chemical defenses—second line of defense

• Surface Membrane Barriers: First Line of Defense

• Surface membrane barriers, such as the skin and mucous membranes, provide the first line of
defense against the invasion of microorganisms

– Protective secretions produced by these membranes

▪ Acidic skin secretions inhibit bacterial growth

▪ Mucus traps microorganisms

▪ Gastric juices are acidic and kill pathogens

▪ Saliva and tears contain lysozyme (enzyme that destroys bacteria)

• Cells and Chemicals: Second Line of Defense (1 of 12)

• Cells and chemicals provide a second line of defense

– Natural killer cells and phagocytes

– Inflammatory response

– Chemicals that kill pathogens

– Fever

• Cells and Chemicals: Second Line of Defense (2 of 12)

• Natural killer (N K) cells

– Roam the body in blood and lymph

– Lyse (burst) and kill cancer cells, virus-infected cells, and some other non-specific targets

– Release chemicals called perforin and granzymes to degrade target cell contents

– Release powerful inflammatory chemicals

• Cells and Chemicals: Second Line of Defense (3 of 12)

• Inflammatory response

– Triggered when body tissues are injured

– Four most common indicators (cardinal signs) of acute inflammation

 The Lymphatic System and Body Defenses

▪ Redness

▪ Heat

▪ Pain

▪ Swelling (edema)

• Figure 12.7 Flowchart of Inflammatory Events

• Cells and Chemicals: Second Line of Defense (4 of 12)

• Inflammatory response

– Damaged cells release inflammatory chemicals

▪ Histamine

▪ Kinin

– These chemicals cause:

▪ Blood vessels to dilate

▪ Capillaries to become leaky

▪ Phagocytes and white blood cells to move into the area (called positive
chemotaxis)

• Cells and Chemicals: Second Line of Defense (5 of 12)

• Functions of the inflammatory response

– Prevents spread of damaging agents to nearby areas

– Disposes of cell debris and pathogens

– Sets the stage for repair

• Cells and Chemicals: Second Line of Defense (6 of 12)

• Process of the inflammatory response

– Neutrophils migrate to the area of inflammation by rolling along the vessel wall
(following the scent of chemicals from inflammation)

– Neutrophils squeeze through the capillary walls by diapedesis to sites of inflammation

 The Lymphatic System and Body Defenses
– Neutrophils gather in the precise site of tissue injury (positive chemotaxis) and consume
any foreign material present

• Figure 12.8 Phagocyte Mobilization During Inflammation

• Cells and Chemicals: Second Line of Defense (7 of 12)

• Clotting proteins wall off damaged area with fibrin

• Local heat speeds metabolism and repair

• Phagocytes

– Cells such as neutrophils and macrophages engulf foreign material by phagocytosis

– The phagocytic vesicle is fused with a lysosome, and enzymes digest the cell’s contents

• Figure 12.9a Phagocytosis by a Macrophage

• Figure 12.9b Phagocytosis by a Macrophage (1 of 6)

• Figure 12.9b Phagocytosis by a Macrophage (2 of 6)

• Figure 12.9b Phagocytosis by a Macrophage (3 of 6)

• Figure 12.9b Phagocytosis by a Macrophage (4 of 6)

• Figure 12.9b Phagocytosis by a Macrophage (5 of 6)

• Figure 12.9b Phagocytosis by a Macrophage (6 of 6)

• Cells and Chemicals: Second Line of Defense (8 of 12)

• Antimicrobial proteins

– Enhance innate defenses by:

▪ Attacking microorganisms directly

▪ Hindering reproduction of microorganisms

– Most important types

▪ Complement proteins

▪ Interferon

• Cells and Chemicals: Second Line of Defense (9 of 12)

• Antimicrobial proteins: complement proteins

– Complement refers to a group of at least 20 plasma proteins that circulate in the plasma
 The Lymphatic System and Body Defenses
– Complement is activated when these plasma proteins encounter and attach to cells
(known as complement fixation)

• Cells and Chemicals: Second Line of Defense (10 of 12)

• Antimicrobial proteins: complement proteins

– Membrane attack complexes (M A C s), one result of complement fixation, produce

holes or pores in cells

▪ Pores allow water to rush into the cell

▪ Cell bursts (lyses)

– Activated complement enhances the inflammatory response

• Figure 12.10 Activation of Complement, Resulting in Lysis of a Target Cell

• Cells and Chemicals: Second Line of Defense (11 of 12)

• Antimicrobial proteins: interferons

– Small proteins secreted by virus-infected cells

– Bind to membrane receptors on healthy cell surfaces to interfere with the ability of
viruses to multiply

– Do not help fight bacterial or fungal infections

• Cells and Chemicals: Second Line of Defense (12 of 12)

• Fever

– Abnormally high body temperature is a systemic response to invasion by

microorganisms

– Hypothalamus regulates body temperature at 37°Celsius (98.6°Fahrenheit)

– The hypothalamus thermostat can be reset higher by pyrogens (secreted by white blood
cells)

– High temperatures inhibit the release of iron and zinc (needed by bacteria) from the
liver and spleen

– Fever also increases the speed of repair processes

• Adaptive Body Defenses (1 of 3)

• Adaptive body defenses are the body’s specific defense system, or the third line of defense

– Immune response is the immune system’s response to a threat

 The Lymphatic System and Body Defenses
– Antigens are targeted and destroyed by antibodies

• Adaptive Body Defenses (2 of 3)

• Three aspects of adaptive defense

– Antigen specific—the adaptive defense system recognizes and acts against particular
foreign substances

– Systemic—immunity is not restricted to the initial infection site

– Memory—the adaptive defense system recognizes and mounts a stronger attack on

previously encountered pathogens

• Adaptive Body Defenses (3 of 3)

• Two arms of the adaptive defense system

– Humoral immunity = antibody-mediated immunity

▪ Provided by antibodies present in body fluids

– Cellular immunity = cell-mediated immunity

▪ Targets virus-infected cells, cancer cells, and cells of foreign grafts

• Antigens (1 of 3)

• Antigens (Ag) are any substance capable of exciting the immune system and provoking an
immune response

– Nonself antigens are foreign intruders

– Examples of common nonself antigens

▪ Foreign proteins provoke the strongest response

▪ Nucleic acids

▪ Large carbohydrates

▪ Some lipids

▪ Pollen grains

▪ Microorganisms (bacteria, fungi, viruses)

• Antigens (2 of 3)
 The Lymphatic System and Body Defenses
• Self-antigens

– Human cells have many protein and carbohydrate molecules which are recognized as
self

– Self-antigens do not trigger an immune response in us but can be strongly antigenic to

other people

– The presence of our cells in another person’s body can trigger an immune response
because they are foreign

▪ Restricts donors for transplants

• Concept Link 4

Likewise, this explains why only people of compatible blood types can donate blood to one another.
Recall our discussion of blood antigens (Chapter 10, p. 365). Depending on your individual blood type,
one or more blood antigen types may be self to your body, and one or more may be non-self. For
example, if you are blood type A, type A antigen is self, but type B antigen is non-self. However, in a
person with type AB blood, both A and B antigens are self-antigens.

• Antigens (3 of 3)

• Haptens, or incomplete antigens, are not antigenic by themselves

– When they link up with our own proteins, the immune system may recognize the
combination as foreign and respond with an attack

– Found in poison ivy, animal dander, detergents, hair dyes, cosmetics

• Cells of the Adaptive Defense System: An Overview (1 of 5)

• Crucial cells of the adaptive system

– Lymphocytes—respond to specific antigens

▪ B lymphocytes (B cells) produce antibodies and oversee humoral immunity

▪ T lymphocytes (T cells) constitute the cell-mediated arm of the adaptive

defenses; do not make antibodies

– Antigen-presenting cells (A P C s)—help the lymphocytes but do not respond to specific

antigens

• Cells of the Adaptive Defense System: An Overview (2 of 5)

• Lymphocytes

– Arise from hemocytoblasts of bone marrow

 The Lymphatic System and Body Defenses
– Whether a lymphocyte matures into a B cell or T cell depends on where it becomes
immunocompetent

• Immunocompetence

– The capability to respond to a specific antigen by binding to it with antigen-specific

receptors that appear on the lymphocyte’s surface

• Cells of the Adaptive Defense System: An Overview (3 of 5)

• Lymphocytes

– T cells develop immunocompetence in the thymus and oversee cell-mediated immunity

▪ Identify foreign antigens

▪ Those that bind self-antigens are destroyed

▪ Self-tolerance is important part of lymphocyte “education”

– B cells develop immunocompetence in bone marrow and provide humoral immunity

• Cells of the Adaptive Defense System: An Overview (4 of 5)

• Lymphocytes are immunocompetent for specific antigens

• Genes determine what foreign substances immune system recognizes and resists

• Immunocompetent T and B lymphocytes migrate to the lymph nodes and spleen, where
encounters with antigens occur

• Differentiation from naïve cells into mature lymphocytes is complete when they bind with
recognized antigens

• Mature lymphocytes (especially T cells) circulate continuously throughout the body

• Figure 12.11 Lymphocyte Differentiation and Activation (1 of 4)

• Figure 12.11 Lymphocyte Differentiation and Activation (2 of 4)

• Figure 12.11 Lymphocyte Differentiation and Activation (3 of 4)

• Figure 12.11 Lymphocyte Differentiation and Activation (4 of 4)

• Cells of the Adaptive Defense System: An Overview (5 of 5)

• Antigen-presenting cells (A P C s)

– Engulf antigens and then present fragments of them on their own surfaces to be
recognized by T cells

– Major types of cells behaving as A P C s

 The Lymphatic System and Body Defenses

▪ Dendritic cells

▪ Macrophages

▪ B lymphocytes

– Dendritic cells and macrophages present antigens to activate T cells that release
chemicals to activate macrophages

• Humoral (Antibody-Mediated) Immune Response (1 of 11)

• B lymphocytes with specific receptors bind to a specific antigen and are stimulated to continue
their development

• The binding event sensitizes, or activates, the lymphocyte to undergo clonal selection

• A large number of clones is produced (primary humoral response)

• Humoral (Antibody-Mediated) Immune Response (2 of 11)

• Most of the B cell clone members (descendants) become plasma cells

– Produce antibodies to destroy antigens

– Activity only lasts for 4 or 5 days

– Peak antibody levels occur about 10 days after the response begins

• Some B cells become long-lived memory cells

– Secondary humoral response

– Provide immunological memory

• Figure 12.12 Clonal Selection of a B Cell

• Figure 12.13 Primary and Secondary Humoral Responses to an Antigen

• Humoral (Antibody-Mediated) Immune Response (3 of 11)

• Active immunity

– Occurs when B cells encounter antigens and produce antibodies

– Active immunity can be:

▪ Naturally acquired during bacterial and viral infections

▪ Artificially acquired from vaccines

• Humoral (Antibody-Mediated) Immune Response (4 of 11)

 The Lymphatic System and Body Defenses
• Active immunity

– Benefits of vaccines

▪ Spare the signs and symptoms of the disease that would otherwise occur during
the primary response

▪ Weakened antigens still stimulate antibody production and promote

immunological memory

• Humoral (Antibody-Mediated) Immune Response (5 of 11)

• Passive immunity

– Occurs when antibodies are obtained from serum of an immune human or animal donor

▪ Naturally acquired from a mother to her fetus or in the breast milk

▪ Artificially acquired from immune serum or gamma globulin (donated

antibodies)

• Antivenom, antitoxin

– Immunological memory does not occur

– Protection is short-lived (2–3 weeks)

• Humoral (Antibody-Mediated) Immune Response (6 of 11)

• Passive immunity

– Monoclonal antibodies

▪ Antibodies prepared for clinical testing for diagnostic services

▪ Produced from descendants of a single cell line

▪ Exhibit specificity for only one antigen

▪ Examples of uses for monoclonal antibodies

• Cancer treatment

• Diagnosis of pregnancy

• Treatment after exposure to hepatitis and rabies

• Figure 12.14 Types of humoral immunity

 The Lymphatic System and Body Defenses
• Humoral (Antibody-Mediated) Immune Response (7 of 11)

• Antibodies (immunoglobulins, I g s)

– Constitute gamma globulin part of blood proteins

– Soluble proteins secreted by activated B cells (plasma cells)

– Formed in response to a huge number of different antigens

• Figure 12.15 Basic Antibody Structure

• Humoral (Antibody-Mediated) Immune Response (8 of 11)

• Antibody structure

– Four polypeptide chains linked by disulfide bonds to form a T- or Y-shaped molecule

– Each polypeptide chain has:

▪ Variable regions (V) form antigen-binding sites, one on each arm of the T or Y

▪ Constant regions (C) determine the type of antibody formed (antibody class)

• Humoral (Antibody-Mediated) Immune Response (9 of 11)

• Antibody classes

– Antibodies of each class have slightly different roles and differ structurally and
functionally

– Five major immunoglobulin classes (M A D G E)

▪ I g M—can fix complement

▪ I g A—found mainly in secretions, such as mucus or tears

▪ I g D—important in activation of B cell

▪ I g G—can cross the placental barrier and fix complement; most abundant
antibody in plasma

▪ I g E—involved in allergies

• Table 12.2 Immunoglobulin Classes (1 of 2)

• Table 12.2 Immunoglobulin Classes (2 of 2)

• Humoral (Antibody-Mediated) Immune Response (10 of 11)

 The Lymphatic System and Body Defenses
• Antibody function

– Antibodies inactivate antigens in a number of ways

▪ Complement fixation: complement is fixed when it binds to antibodies attached

to cell targets

▪ Opsonization: antibody binding tags antigens for phagocytosis

▪ Neutralization: antibodies bind to specific sites on bacterial exotoxins or on

viruses that can cause cell injury

• Humoral (Antibody-Mediated) Immune Response (11 of 11)

• Antibody function

– Antibodies inactivate antigens in a number of ways

▪ Agglutination: antibody-antigen reaction that causes clumping of cells

▪ Precipitation: cross-linking reaction in which antigen-antibody complex settles

out of solution

• Figure 12.16 Mechanisms of Antibody Action

• Cellular (Cell-Mediated) Immune Response (1 of 6)

• Main difference between two arms of the adaptive response

– B cells secrete antibodies

– T cells fight antigens directly

• Cellular (Cell-Mediated) Immune Response (2 of 6)

• Like B cells, immunocompetent T cells are activated to form a clone by binding with a recognized
antigen

• Unlike B cells, T cells are unable to bind to free antigens

– Antigens must be presented by a macrophage, and double recognition must occur

– A P C engulfs and presents the processed antigen in combination with a protein from
the A P C

• Cellular (Cell-Mediated) Immune Response (3 of 6)

• Different classes of effector T cells

– Helper T cells
 The Lymphatic System and Body Defenses
– Cytotoxic T cells

• T cells must recognize nonself and self through the process of antigen presentation

– Nonself—the antigen fragment presented by A P C

– Self—coupling with a specific glycoprotein on the A P C’s surface at the same time

• Cytokine chemicals also play a role in immune response

• Figure 12.17 T Cell Activation and Interactions With Other Cells of the Immune Response

• Cellular (Cell-Mediated) Immune Response (4 of 6)

• Cytotoxic (killer) T cells

– Specialize in killing virus-infected, cancer, or foreign graft cells

– Bind and release toxic chemicals (perforin or granzyme) from its granules

▪ Perforin enters the foreign cell’s plasma membrane creating pores

▪ Granzymes (protein-digesting enzymes) enter and kill the foreign cell

– Cytotoxic T cell detaches and seeks other targets

• Figure 12.18 A Proposed Mechanism by Which Cytotoxic T Cells Kill Target Cells (1 of 6)

• Figure 12.18 A Proposed Mechanism by Which Cytotoxic T Cells Kill Target Cells (2 of 6)

• Figure 12.18 A Proposed Mechanism by Which Cytotoxic T Cells Kill Target Cells (3 of 6)

• Figure 12.18 A Proposed Mechanism by Which Cytotoxic T Cells Kill Target Cells (4 of 6)

• Figure 12.18 A Proposed Mechanism by Which Cytotoxic T Cells Kill Target Cells (5 of 6)

• Figure 12.18 A Proposed Mechanism by Which Cytotoxic T Cells Kill Target Cells (6 of 6)

• Cellular (Cell-Mediated) Immune Response (5 of 6)

• Helper T cells

– Recruit other cells to fight invaders

– Interact directly with B cells bound to an antigen, prodding the B cells into clone
production

– Release cytokines, chemicals that act directly to rid the body of antigens by:

▪ Stimulating cytotoxic T cells and B cells to grow and divide

▪ Attracting other white blood cells to the area

 The Lymphatic System and Body Defenses

▪ Enhancing macrophage activity

• Cellular (Cell-Mediated) Immune Response (6 of 6)

• Regulatory T cells

– Release chemicals to suppress the activity of T and B cells

– Stop the immune response to prevent uncontrolled activity

• Memory cells

– Long-lived

– Help with subsequent invasions

• A summary of cells and molecules follows (Figure 12.19)

• Figure 12.19 A Summary of the Adaptive Immune Responses

• Table 12.3 Functions of Cells and Molecules Involved in Immunity (1 of 4)

Cells

• Table 12.3 Functions of Cells and Molecules Involved in Immunity (2 of 4)

Cells

• Table 12.3 Functions of Cells and Molecules Involved in Immunity (3 of 4)

Molecules

• Table 12.3 Functions of Cells and Molecules Involved in Immunity (4 of 4)

Molecules

• Organ Transplants and Rejection (1 of 2)

• Major types of transplants, or grafts

– Autografts—tissue transplanted from one site to another on the same person

– Isografts—tissue grafts from a genetically identical person (identical twin)

– Allografts—tissue taken from a person other than an identical twin (most common type
of graft)

– Xenografts—tissue taken from a different animal species (never successful)

• Organ Transplants and Rejection (2 of 2)

• Blood group and tissue matching is done to ensure the best match possible

– 75% match is needed to attempt a graft

 The Lymphatic System and Body Defenses
• Organ transplant is followed by immunosuppressive therapy to prevent rejection

• Disorders of Immunity (1 of 8)

• The most important disorders of the immune system

– Allergies

– Autoimmune diseases

– Immunodeficiencies

• Disorders of Immunity (2 of 8)

• Allergies

– Allergies, or hypersensitives, are abnormal, vigorous immune responses

– The immune system overreacts to an otherwise harmless antigen, and tissue damage
occurs

• Disorders of Immunity (3 of 8)

• Types of allergies

– Immediate (acute) hypersensitivity

▪ Seen in hives and anaphylaxis

▪ Due to I g E antibodies and histamine

▪ Anaphylactic shock is systemic, acute and rare

– Delayed hypersensitivity

▪ Reflects activity of T cells, macrophages, and cytokines

▪ Symptoms usually appear 1–3 days after contact with antigen

▪ Allergic contact dermatitis (poison ivy, cosmetics)

• Homeostatic Imbalance 12.4 Mechanism of an Immediate (Acute) Hypersensitivity Response (1

of 7)

• Homeostatic Imbalance 12.4 Mechanism of an Immediate (Acute) Hypersensitivity Response (2

of 7)

• Homeostatic Imbalance 12.4 Mechanism of an Immediate (Acute) Hypersensitivity Response (3

of 7)
 The Lymphatic System and Body Defenses
• Homeostatic Imbalance 12.4 Mechanism of an Immediate (Acute) Hypersensitivity Response (4
of 7)

• Homeostatic Imbalance 12.4 Mechanism of an Immediate (Acute) Hypersensitivity Response (5

of 7)

• Homeostatic Imbalance 12.4 Mechanism of an Immediate (Acute) Hypersensitivity Response (6

of 7)

• Homeostatic Imbalance 12.4 Mechanism of an Immediate (Acute) Hypersensitivity Response (7

of 7)

• Disorders of Immunity (4 of 8)

• Autoimmune diseases

– Self-tolerance breaks down

– Auto-antibodies and sensitized T lymphocytes attack the body’s own tissues

• Disorders of Immunity (5 of 8)

• Examples of autoimmune diseases

– Rheumatoid arthritis (RA)—destroys joints

– Myasthenia gravis—impairs communication between nerves and skeletal muscles

– Multiple sclerosis (MS)—white matter of brain and spinal cord is destroyed

– Graves’ disease—thyroid gland produces excess thyroxine

• Disorders of Immunity (6 of 8)

• Examples of autoimmune diseases

– Type

diabetes mellitus—destroys pancreatic beta

cells, resulting in deficient insulin production

– Systemic lupus erythematosus (S L E)—affects kidney, heart, lung, and skin

– Glomerulonephritis—severe impairment of kidney function due to acute inflammation

• Disorders of Immunity (7 of 8)

• Autoimmune diseases

– How does self-tolerance break down?

▪ New self-antigens appear

 The Lymphatic System and Body Defenses

▪ Foreign antigens resemble self-antigens

• Disorders of Immunity (8 of 8)

• Immunodeficiencies

– Congenital or acquired

▪ Severe combined immunodeficiency disease (S C I D) is a congenital disease

▪ AIDS (acquired immune deficiency syndrome) is caused by a virus that attacks

and cripples the helper T cells

– Result from abnormalities in any immune element

– Production or function of immune cells or complement is abnormal

• Part 3 : Developmental Aspects of the Lymphatic System and Body Defenses (1 of 2)

• Lymphatic vessels form by budding off from veins

• Lymph nodes present by fifth week of development

• The thymus and the spleen are the first lymphoid organs to appear in the embryo

• Other lymphoid organs are poorly developed before birth

• The immune response develops around the time of birth

• Part 3 : Developmental Aspects of the Lymphatic System and Body Defenses (2 of 2)

• The ability of immunocompetent cells to recognize foreign antigens is genetically determined

• Stress appears to interfere with normal immune response

• Efficiency of immune response wanes in old age, and infections, cancer, immunodeficiencies,
and autoimmune diseases become more prevalent