Nutrition

The word nutrition is derived from the Latin word ‘nutrire' meaning to feed or to
nourish.

What are nutrients?

The word nutrients can be defined as the substances which an organism obtains from its
surroundings and uses them either as an energy source or for biosynthesis of body
constituents. Thus nutrition is a process of intake as well as utilisation of nutrients by an
organism. Good is a kind of fuel which provides energy to all living organisms.
Nutrients are the compounds in food that provide us with energy that facilitates repair and
growth and helps to carry out different life processes.
Not all nutrients provide energy but are necessary for some form or the other. These nutrients
are divided into two categories:
● Macronutrients, which are required by the body in large amounts. Ex: Carbs,
proteins and lipids.
● Micronutrients, which are required by the body in small amounts. Ex: vitamins,
minerals and water.

Nutrients can be organic and inorganic in nature. The organic constituents are carbohydrates,
proteins, vitamins, and lipids. The inorganic constituents are minerals and water. Co2 is also
an inorganic constituent. (The primary difference that lies between
these organic compounds and inorganic compounds is that organic compounds always have a carbon
atom while most of the inorganic compounds do not contain the carbon atom in them. Almost all the
organic compounds contain carbon-hydrogen or a simple C-H bond in them.)

Classes of nutrients:
Carbohydrates
These are compounds of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen.

Carbohydrates are referred to as energy-giving foods. They provide energy in the form of
calories that the body needs to be able to work, and to support other functions.
Carbohydrates are needed in large amounts by the body. Indeed, up to 65% of our energy
comes from carbohydrates. They are the body’s main source of fuel because they are easily
converted into energy. This energy is usually in the form of glucose, which all tissues and
cells in our bodies readily use.

For the brain, kidneys, central nervous system and muscles to function properly, they need
carbohydrates. These carbohydrates are usually stored in the muscles and the liver, where
they are later used for energy.

The main sources of carbohydrates are bread, wheat, potatoes of all kinds, maize, rice,
cassava , pasta, macaroni, banana, sweets, sugar cane, sweet fruits, and honey. Other foods
like vegetables, beans, nuts and seeds contain carbohydrates, but in lesser amounts.

Classification of carbohydrates

Based on the number of sugar units, carbohydrates are classified into three groups; these are
monosaccharides, disaccharides and polysaccharides.

Monosaccharides are referred to as simple sugars or simple carbohydrates that our body can
easily utilise. For this reason, people with diabetes mellitus shouldn’t eat too many of these
carbohydrates. Examples include glucose, fructose, and galactose

Disaccharides contain 2 units of monosaccharides. They are broken down into simple sugars
and then absorbed by the body. Examples include maltose (malt sugar=glucose+glucose),
sucrose (table sugar=glucose+fructose), and lactose (milk sugar=glucose+galactose).

Polysaccharides are called complex carbohydrates and they need to be broken down into
simple sugars to be used by our body. They can be consumed by diabetic patients without
restriction. Examples include glycogen(in animals), starch and cellulose ( in plants).
Proteins
These are complex and large chemical molecules made up of many amino acids which
are simple and smaller units of protein. They usually contain carbon, hydrogen, oxygen,
and nitrogen; but some proteins may also contain sulphur and phosphorus.
There are about 200 amino acids in nature, out of these 20 amino acids are present in most of
the proteins. Of these 20 amino acids, the human body cannot synthesise eight amino acids.
These are called essential amino acids. They are phenylalanine, valine, tryptophan,threonine,
isoleucine, methionine, leucine, and lysine. Out of the remaining 12, two are semi
indispensable amino acids because their synthesis in the human body is slow. They are
histidine and arginine. The remaining 10 amino acids are known as non essential amino acids
as they are synthesised in adequate amounts in the human body. These are alanine,
asparagine, aspartic acid, cysteine, glutamic acid, glutamine, proline, serine, and tyrosine.

About 10–35% of calories should come from protein. Proteins are needed in our diets for
growth (especially important for children, teens and pregnant women) and to improve
immune functions. They also play an important role in making essential hormones and
enzymes, in tissue repair, preserving lean muscle mass, and supplying energy in times when
carbohydrates are not available.

Pregnant women need protein to build their bodies and that of the babies and placentas,
to make extra blood and for fat storage. Breastfeeding mothers need protein to make
breastmilk.

The main sources of proteins are meats, chicken, eggs, breastmilk, beans, ground nuts,
lentils, fish, cheese and milk.

All animal foods contain more protein than plants and are therefore usually better sources of
body building foods. However, even though plant proteins are usually not as good for body-
building as animal proteins, they can become more effective nutritionally when both are
mixed with each other.
Fats and oils
Fats and oils are concentrated sources of energy and so are important nutrients for young
children who need a lot of energy-rich food. Fats can also make meals more tasty and
satisfying. Fat is found in meat, chicken, milk products, butters, creams, avocado, cooking
oils and fats, cheese, fish and ground nuts.

Classification of fats

Fats are classified into saturated and unsaturated fats. The classification is important to
enable you to advise your community about which fats can be consumed with less risk to
people’s health. Saturated fats are not good for a person’s health.

Saturated fats are usually solid at cool temperatures. Eating too much saturated fat is not
good for a person’s health, as it can cause heart and blood vessel problems.

Unsaturated fats are usually liquid at room temperature. These types of fats are healthy
fats. Examples include fats from fish, oil seeds (sesame and sunflower), maize oil and
groundnut oil and breastmilk.

Water
It usually forms around 70 to 90 percent of the cytoplasm of the cell and about 70 percent
of our body weight.

People can live without solid food for a few weeks, but we cannot live without water for
more than a few days. An adult needs about 2–3 litres of water each day. That is why
giving drinks are so important when people lose a lot of water, such as when they have
diarrhoea.

Water is essential for life. We need water for a number of reasons:

● For the body to make cells and fluids such as tears, digestive juices and
breastmilk
● For the body to make sweat for cooling itself
● For essential body processes — most take place in water
 ● For keeping the lining of the mouth, intestine, eyelids and lungs wet and
healthy
● For the production of urine, which carries waste from the body.

It is also an universal solvent and is a medium for metabolic activities. It helps in

transportation of substances such as absorbed food, minerals, vitamins, excretory wastes
etc. it helps in regulation of body temperature. Drinking water, metabolic water, and water
from food are the sources for this substance.

Fibre
Fibre is a mixture of different carbohydrates which are not digested like other nutrients but
pass through the gut nearly unchanged. Foods rich in fibre are vegetables like cabbage,
carrots, cassava; fruits like banana and avocado; peas and beans; whole-grain cereals like
wheat flour and refined maize or sorghum.

Fibre should be included in the diet for the following reasons:

● Fibre makes food bulky or bigger — this can help a person who is
overweight to eat less food
● Fibre makes the faeces soft and bulky; this can help prevent constipation
● Fibre slows the absorption of nutrients, so it helps nutrients to enter the blood
stream slowly. This is important for patients with diabetes mellitus.
vitamins
from Latin vita ‘life’ + amine, because vitamins were originally thought to contain an
amino acid.

Vitamins can be defined as naturally occurring organic substances which are required in
minute quantities to maintain normal health and are to be supplied in food as they cannot be
synthesised by the organism normally. Vitamins are groups of related substances present in
small amounts in foodstuffs and are necessary for the body to function normally. Vitamins
are also called protective foods. They are grouped together because, as their name implies,
they are a vital factor in the diet.

Classification of vitamins
Vitamins are classified into two groups:

Fat soluble vitamins (vitamins A, D, E and K) are soluble in fats and fat solvents. They
are insoluble in water. So these are utilised only if there is enough fat in the body.

Water soluble vitamins (vitamins B and C, and folic acid) are soluble in water and so they
cannot be stored in the body.

The best sources of micronutrients in our diets are fruits and vegetables. These two food
groups contain essential vitamins and minerals. Animal sources of foods are also both good
sources of micronutrients. However, an adequate micronutrient intake can only be achieved
through sufficient intake of a balanced diet that includes plenty of fruits and vegetables. The
below table sets out the functions of some of the important vitamins and examples of sources
of food for each of these.

Table: Functions and sources of vitamins.

vitamin Sources Deficiency disease

Fat soluble vitamins

A/ Breastmilk, tomatoes, Night blindness and

Retinol, retinoic acid, retinol keratomalacia,xeropthalmia,
cabbage, lettuce, keratinised conjunctiva
pumpkins, Mangoes,
 papaya, carrots, Liver,
kidney, egg yolk, milk,
butter, cheese cream,
synthesised in cells of liver
and intestinal mucosal
membrane from carotenoid
(Carotenoids are yellow,
orange, and red pigments
synthesized by plants. The
most common carotenoids
in North American diets are
α-carotene, β-carotene,
β-cryptoxanthin, lutein,
zeaxanthin, and lycopene.)
pigments (pigments or
biochromes, are substances
produced by living
organisms that have a colour
resulting from selective
colour absorption.
Biological pigments include
plant pigments and flower
pigments. Many biological
structures, such as skin,
eyes, feathers, fur and hair
contain pigments such as
melanin in specialised cells.

D Ultra violet light from the sun Rickets and osteomalacia

D2-ergocalciferol,
D3-cholecalciferol Eggs, butter, fish
Fortified oils, fats and
cereals
Synthesised in skin cells in
sunlight from
7-dehydrocholesterol
E Green vegetables, oils ,
Group tocopherol eggs,wheat, animal tissues.
K Green leafy vegetables
K1-Phylloquinone,
K2-menaquinones Fruits, cereals, meat, dairy
products, synthesised in
colon bacteria.
Water soluble vitamins
B1 Rice bran, whole wheat flour,
thiamine oatmeal, eggs, yeast etc.
(Rickets is a condition
that affects bone
development in
children. It causes bone
pain, poor growth and soft,
weak bones that can lead to
bone deformities. Adults can
experience a similar
condition, which is known
as osteomalacia or soft
bones.)
Mild hemolytic anaemia
Muscular atrophy, ataxia
(loss of coordination of
voluntary muscles),
peripheral
neuropathy(Peripheral
neuropathy, a result of
damage to the nerves located
outside of the brain and spinal
cord (peripheral nerves),
often causes weakness,
numbness and pain, usually in
the hands and feet.(
Haemorrhage, excessive
bleeding in injury
beri-beri— Beriberi can affect
the cardiovascular system or
central nervous system.
Wet beriberi affects the
cardiovascular system. Since
it involves the functioning of
the heart, it's a life-
threatening medical
emergency that needs
immediate treatment.
Dry beriberi can damage the
central nervous system (CNS).
It disrupts motor functioning
(the movement of the
muscles). It can also cause
impaired reflexes and
numbness in the
 extremities, but it’s generally
easier to treat than beriberi that
impacts the heart. Also loss of
appetite and vigour,
constipation, nerve damage.

B2 Cheese, eggs, yeast, The signs and symptoms of

Riboflavin tomatoes,green vegetables riboflavin deficiency
G (also known as
ariboflavinosis) include skin
disorders, hyperemia
(excess blood) and
edema of the mouth and
throat, angular stomatitis
(lesions at the corners of
the mouth), cheilosis
(swollen, cracked lips),
hair loss, reproductive
problems, sore throat,
itchy and red eyes, and
degeneration of the liver
and nervous system

B3 Fresh meat, liver, fish, Pellagra (dementia, diarrhoea,

Pellagra prevention(PP) fortified cereals, milk, and dermatitis, also known as
Niacin pulses,yeast “the three Ds”. If left
Nicotinic acid untreated, pellagra can be
fatal.)

B5 All food, more in yeast, milk, Paresthesia (abnormal

Pantothenic acid liver, kidneys, eggs, sensation, typically tingling or
meat,sugarcane. pricking (‘pins and needles’),
caused chiefly by pressure on
or damage to peripheral
nerves.), Dermatitis, graying
of har, retarded body and
mental growth.

B6 Milk, cereals, fish, meat, liver, Anaemia, peripheral

Pyridoxine yeast, synthesised by intestinal neuropathy, dermatitis,
Pyridoxamine, bacteria. convulsions,nausea, vomiting,
pyridoxal mental disorders

B7 Yeast, vegetables, fruits, wheat, Dermatitis, loss of appetite,

H chocolate, eggs, weakness, hair fall, skin lesions
Biotin groundnut,synthesised by
intestinal bacteria

B9 Green vegetables, soybeans, Retarded growth,neural tube

Folic acid yeast,kidneys, defects, megaloblastic
 liver, synthesised by anemia.
intestinal bacteria

B12 Meat, fish, liver, eggs, milk, Pernicious anaemia

Cyanocobalamin synthesised by intestinal (Megaloblastic anaemia)
Cobalt containing vitamin bacteria Retarded growth.

Citrus (oranges, kiwi, lemon, Scurvy, the hallmark

C grapefruit) disease of severe vitamin C
Ascorbic acid Bell peppers deficiency, displays
Strawberries symptoms resulting from
Tomatoes loss of collagen that
weakens connective tissues:
Skin spots caused by
bleeding and bruising from
broken blood vessels
Swelling or bleeding of
gums, and eventual loss of
teeth
Hair loss
Delayed healing of skin
wounds
Fatigue

Minerals
Minerals are the substances that people need to ensure the health and correct working of
their soft tissues, fluids and their skeleton. More than 50 minerals can be found in the
human body. They are required for growth,repair, regulation of osmotic pressure and other
vital processes. Examples of minerals include calcium, iron, iodine, fluorine, phosphorus,
potassium, zinc, selenium,magnesium,manganese,cobalt,chlorine, copper, and sodium.

Minerals Function Food sources

Calcium Gives bones and teeth rigidity Milk, cheese and dairy
and strength
products

Foods fortified with calcium,

e.g. flour, cereals. eggs, fish
cabbage

Iron Formation of haemoglobin Meat and meat products

 Eggs, bread, green leafy
vegetables, pulses, fruits

Iodine For normal metabolism of Iodised salt, sea vegetables,

cells yogurt, cow's milk, eggs, and
cheese

Fish; plants grown in

iodine-rich soil

Zinc For children to grow and Maize, fish, breastmilk, meat,

develop normally; for wound beans
healing
Fluorine Helps to keep teeth strong Water

Mode of Nutrition: on the basis of mode of acquiring

food
1. Autotrophic mode of nutrition:
● Organisms can synthesise all the essential nutrients required for them from inorganic
substrates (CO2, NH3, nitrates, water etc) present in the environment. It is of two types.

i) Photoautotrophs nutrition: Organisms synthesise their food in the presence of sunlight using
Carbon-dioxide and water as substrate. Such organisms are known as Photo-Autotrophs. It is also known
as holophytic mode (plant-like nutrition). Green plants are also known as producers as they produce food
for others. Eg. Green plants

OIL RIG-Oxidation Is Loss, Reduction Is Gain (of electrons)

ii) Chemoautotrophs nutrition: Organisms synthesise their organic food by the chemical reactions
(Oxidation) utilizing inorganic substrates like nitrates, Hydrogen sulphate, iron etc. such organisms are
known as chemo-autotrophs. Eg. Sulphur bacteria, Nitrobacter, Nitrosomonas

2H2S + O2 —-> 2H2O + S + 126 K.CAL

2S + 2H2 + o2--------->2H2SO4 + 141.8 K.CAL

2. Heterotrophic mode of nutrition:

● organisms cannot synthesise their food by themselves rather they depend on the food
prepared by Autotrophs (directly or indirectly). Such organisms are known as
heterotrophs.
● Known as consumers as they depend on other organisms.
● According to the types of food or mode of feeding, heterotrophic nutrition are of
following types

i) Holotropic nutrition: it is known as an animal-like mode of nutrition. In this mode, animals feed on
plants or other animals (whole or their parts) for food. Such animals are free living and have the
characteristics of Ingestion, digestion, absorption, assimilation and egestion. Majority of invertebrates and
all vertebrates take plants, animals, or their products through the mouth and break up the large organic
molecules into smaller ones in their own body with the help of digestive enzymes. The simple molecules
are then absorbed into the cells while the undigested food is expelled out by the body. Since it is
characteristic of animals, it is also called holozoic nutrition. Such animals are classified into following
types

● Herbivorous: Animals which feed on plants for nutrition. Eg. Cow , goat, buffalo etc
● Carnivorous: Animals which feed on other animals or animal products. Eg. Tiger, lion,
kingfisher
 ● Omnivorous: Animals having mixed diets (feeding on both animals and plants and their
products). Eg. Human, crow
● Coprophagous: Animals feeding upon faeces of other animals. Eg. Pig
● Cannibalism: Animals feeding upon smaller animals of the same species. Eg.
Snakes, frog
● Sanguivorous: Animals feeding upon blood. Eg. Leech, Vampire bat

ii) Saprotrophic nutrition: organisms obtain their nutrition from dead and decaying organic matter.
They are decomposers. These organisms absorb fluid food through the body surface, hence also called
absorptive nutrition.they secrete digestive enzymes onto the matter they are growing on. The enzymes
hydrolyse the organic matter into simple soluble products that are then absorbed. Eg. Fungi (yeast and
mushroom), bacteria, earthworm etc. They include saprophytes and saprozoic.

iii) Parasitism: One partner (parasite) depends completely upon the other partner (Host) for nutrition.
Parasites living outside the host body known as ecto-parasites Eg. Leech, ticks etc. and those parasites
living inside the host body known as endoparasites. Eg. Plasmodium, Taenia solium, Ascaris etc.

iv) Mixotrophic nutrition: organisms like Euglena carries on autotrophic as well as

saprotrophic(heterotrophic) nutrition at the same time.

3. Symbiotic nutrition:

In symbiosis two or more organisms of different species live together in close association.
Nutrition involved in symbiotic association are

● Mutualism: both partner organisms benefit from each other. Eg. Lichen,
Rhizobium on root nodules of legumes.
● Commensalism: one partner gets benefit while the other is neither harmed or
benefited. Eg. E. coli in Human gut

Nutrition in plants: photosynthesis

● All living organisms require energy to carry out their different life activities. This energy
directly or indirectly comes from the sun.
● The green plants are unique in the respect that they synthesize food in the presence of sunlight
from simple substances like carbon dioxide and water.
● Photosynthesis is the only process of biological importance that can harvest this energy.
● Energy stored as chemical energy in food (carbohydrates, fats and proteins) by photosynthesis
is released in living cells during the process of respiration and is utilized to generate heat or
converted into energy rich compounds (e.g., ATP and NADP).
 ● Photosynthesis is a biochemical process (anabolic and endergonic) in which organic compounds

(carbohydrates) are synthesised from the inorganic raw materials (H2O and

CO2) in presence of light and pigments. O2 is evolved as a by-product.

● 90% of total photosynthesis is carried out by aquatic plants.

● First true and oxygenic photosynthesis started in cyanobacteria (Blue - green algae).
● In the Cuscuta (parasitic) and fungi (achlorophyllous), photosynthesis is absent.
● Euglena is a photosynthetic organism and is the link between animals and plants. Though they
are photosynthetic in the presence of sunlight, when deprived of sunlight they behave like
heterotrophs by preying on other smaller organisms.

HISTORICAL BACKGROUND

Before the 17th century, it was considered that plants take their food from the soil.
● Van Helmont (1648) concluded that "all food of the plant is derived from water and not from
soil".
● Stephen Hales (1727) reported that plants obtain a part of their nutrition from air and light
may also play a role in this process.
● In 1772, Joseph Priestly, carried out some interesting experiments. He took a half filled pot
of water and placed a burning candle in its center and covered it with a bell-jar. After sometime,
the candle extinguished. Priestly kept a living mouse under the jar and noted that it died
immediately. Later he placed a mouse and a potted mint plant under the
bell-jar and found that the mouse survived for a long time. He also found that if a mint plant
was kept under a bell-jar for a long time and then a burning candle was placed under the jar it
continued to burn for a long time. On the basis of these experiments, he concluded that "plants
have the capacity to purify foul air".
● Jan Ingen-Housz (1779) concluded by his experiment that purification of air was done by
green parts of plant only and that too in the presence of sunlight.
● Jean Senebier (1782) proved that plants absorb CO2 and release O2 in the presence of

light. He also showed that the rate of O2 evolution depends upon the rate of CO2

consumption.
● Nicolus de Saussure (1804) showed the importance of water in the process of

photosynthesis. He further showed that the amount of CO2 absorbed is equal to the

amount of O2 released.

● Julius Robert Mayer (1845) proposed that light has radiant energy and this radiant energy is
converted to chemical energy by plants, which serves to maintain the life of the plants and also
animals.
● Julius Von Sachs (1862) demonstrated that the first visible product of photosynthesis is
starch. He also showed that chlorophyll is confined to the chloroplasts. Thus, he led the
foundation of the modern concept of photosynthesis.
● An interesting experiment done by T.W. Engelmann (1843 – 1909) by using a prism showed
that it split light into its spectral components and then illuminated a green alga, Cladophora,
placed in a suspension of aerobic bacteria. The bacteria were used to detect

the sites of O2 evolution.

He observed that the bacteria accumulated mainly in the region of blue and red light of the split
spectrum. A first action spectrum of photosynthesis was thus described. It resembles roughly
the absorption spectra of chlorophyll a and b.
● In 1930, C.B. van Niel proved the discovery of Nicolas de Saussure wrong. He showed

that sulphur bacteria used H2S (in place of water) and CO2 to synthesize carbohydrates as

follows :

6CO2 + 12H2S C6H12O6 + 6H2O + 12S

This led van Niel to the postulation that in green plants, water (H2O) is utilized in place of H2S

and O2 is evolved in place of sulphur (S).

6CO2 + 12H2O C6H12O6 + 6H2O + 6O2.

● The discovery of van Niel confirmed by Ruben and Kamen in 1941 using Chlorella, a green
18
alga. He used water (H2O), having heavy isotope of oxygen (O ), oxygen of 18

atomic weight (normal oxygen is of 16 atomic weight) and found that oxygen released in the
18
process of photosynthesis was of O type (i.e., heavy oxygen). On the contrary,

18 16
when CO2 was used, the released oxygen was of normal type, i.e., O2 . From this it
 can be concluded that, oxygen released by green plants comes from splitting of
water (oxidation of water).
● Huber, Michel and Deisenhofer (1985) crystallised the photosynthetic reaction center from
the purple photosynthetic bacterium, Rhodopseudomonas viridis. They analysed its structure by
X-ray diffraction technique. In 1988, they were awarded the Nobel prize in chemistry for this
work.

PHOTOSYNTHESIS IN HIGHER PLANTS

● In higher plants photosynthesis occurs particularly in specialized cells called mesophyll cells
of leaves. These cells contain chloroplasts, which are the actual sites for

photosynthesis. It fixes CO2 into carbohydrates.

● Chloroplasts are double membrane bound organelles. The space limited by the inner
membrane of the chloroplast is called the stroma.
● A number of organised flattened membranous sacs (called the thylakoids) are present in the
stroma. Thylakoids are arranged in stacks like piles of coins called grana.
● The thylakoids in the chloroplast contain most of the machinery for the photochemical
reaction of photosynthesis. They contain pigments for capturing solar energy.
PHOTOSYNTHETIC PIGMENTS
● Pigments are organic molecules that absorb light of specific wavelengths in the visible region
due to the presence of conjugated double bonds in their structures.
● Many pigments are present in photosynthetic cells.
● Chlorophyll a
● Chlorophyll b
● Chlorophyll c
● Chlorophyll d
● Carotenes
● Xanthophylls.

● Chl-a and carotenoids are universal pigments, which are found in all O2 liberating cells.

● Chlorophylls are soluble only in organic solvents like ketones, ethers etc.
● Stroma lamellae/stroma thylakoids lack PS II and enzyme NADP reductase.
 ● different pigment colours which appear as:
○ Chlorophyll a - blue-green.
○ Chlorophyll b - yellow green.
○ Xanthophyll - yellow
○ Carotenoids - yellow to yellow - orange
● Carotenoids absorb light energy and transfer it to Chl a and thus act as accessory
pigments. They protect the chlorophyll molecules from photo-oxidation (oxidation under the
influence of radiant energy (such as light)) by picking up nascent oxygen and converting it into a
harmless molecular stage. Carotenoids can be classified into two groups namely carotenes and
xanthophylls.
○ Carotenes : They are orange red in colour. They are isolated from carrots. They are
found in all groups of plants i.e., from algae to angiosperms. Some of the common
carotenes are α, β, γ and δ carotene; lycopene, neurosporene etc.
Lycopene is a red pigment found in ripe tomatoes and red pepper fruits. The β-
carotene on hydrolysis gives vitamin A, hence the carotenes are also called
provitamin A. β-carotene is black yellow pigment of carrot roots.
○ Xanthophylls : They are yellow coloured carotenoid also called as xanthols or
carotenols.
■ Lutein is a widely distributed xanthophyll which is responsible for yellow
colour in autumn foliage. Fucoxanthin is an another important xanthophyll
present in Phaeophyceae (brown algae).
● Phycobilins : These pigments are mainly found in blue-green algae (cyanobacteria) and red
algae.
● Blue-green algae have higher quantities of phycocyanin and red algae have more phycoerythrin.
Phycocyanin and phycoerythrin together form phycobilins. These water soluble pigments are
thought to be associated with small granules attached with lamellae. Like carotenoids,
phycobilins are accessory pigments i.e., they absorb light and transfer it to chlorophyll a.

MECHANISM OF PHOTOSYNTHESIS

● Photosynthesis is an oxidation reduction process in which water is oxidised to release O2

and CO2 is reduced to form starch and sugars.

● Scientists have shown that photosynthesis is completed in two phases –

○ Light phase or photochemical reactions or light dependent reactions
or Hill's reactions : During this stage, energy from sunlight is absorbed and
+
converted to chemical energy which is stored in ATP and NADPH + H .

○ Dark phase or chemical dark reactions or light independent reactions or

Blackmann reaction or biosynthetic phase : During this stage, carbohydrates
 are synthesized from carbon dioxide using the energy stored in the ATP and
NADPH formed in the light dependent reactions.

LIGHT PHASE OR PHOTOCHEMICAL REACTIONS OR LIGHT

DEPENDENT REACTIONS OR HILL'S REACTIONS

Light reaction occurs in the grana fraction of the chloroplast and in this reaction are included

those activities, which are dependent on light. Assimilatory powers (ATP and NADPH2) are mainly

produced in this light reaction.

Robin Hill (1939), first of all showed that if chloroplasts extracted from leaves of Stellaria media and
Lamium album are suspended in a test tube containing suitable electron acceptors, e.g., potassium
ferroxalate (some plants require only this chemical) and potassium ferricyanide,

oxygen is released due to photochemical splitting of water. Under these conditions, no CO2 was

consumed and no carbohydrate was produced, but light-driven reduction of the electron

acceptors was accompanied by O2 evolution.

The splitting of water during photosynthesis is called photolysis. This reaction is known as Hill
reaction.
Hills reaction proves that
● In photosynthesis, oxygen is released from water.

● Electrons for the reduction of CO2 are obtained from water [i.e., a reduced substance

(hydrogen donor) is produced which later reduces CO2].

According to Arnon (1961), in this process, light energy is converted to chemical energy. This energy
is stored in ATP (this process of ATP formation in chloroplasts is known as
+
photophosphorylation) and from electron acceptor NADP ,a substance found in all living

beings, NADPH is formed as hydrogen donor. Formation of hydrogen donor NADPH from
+
electron acceptor NADP is known as photoreduction or production of reducing power NADPH.

● During light reaction, the photosynthetic pigments absorb light energy in the form of
protons.
● Chlorophyll molecule gets excited and emits electrons.
● The emitted electrons travel through the electron transport chain present in the
chloroplast. This process is mediated by a number of electron acceptors.
● ATP is synthesised from ADP and inorganic phosphate, which is used as a source of energy
during dark reaction.
● In light reactions, photolysis (breakdown of water in the presence of light) of water also takes
place
PIGMENT SYSTEMS

● The pigments are organised into two discrete photochemical light harvesting complexes (LHC)
within Photosystem I (PS I) and Photosystem II (PS II).
● These pigments help to make photosynthesis more efficient by absorbing different wavelengths
of light. The single chlorophyll a molecule forms the reaction centre. The reaction centre is
different in both the photosystems. In PS I, the reaction centre chlorophyll a has an absorption
peak at 700 nm, hence is called P700, while in PS II it has absorption maxima at 680 nm, and
is called P680.
● Pigment system I or Photosystem I (PS I) : The important pigments of this system are

chlorophyll a 670, chlorophyll a 683, chlorophyll a 695, P700. Some physiologists also include
carotenes and chlorophyll b in pigment system I. Thus, this system absorbs both wavelengths
that are shorter and longer than 680nm.
● Pigment system II or Photosystem II (PS II) : The main pigments of this system are

chlorophyll a 673, P680, chlorophyll b and phycobilins. This pigment system absorbs

wavelengths shorter than 680nm only.

Comparison between Photosystem I and Photosystem II

DARK PHASE OR CHEMICAL DARK REACTIONS OR LIGHT
INDEPENDENT REACTIONS OR BLACKMANN REACTION
OR BIO-SYNTHETIC PHASE

● The pathway by which all photosynthetic eukaryotic organisms ultimately incorporate CO2

into carbohydrate is known as carbon fixation or photosynthetic carbon

reduction (PCR) cycle or dark reaction.

● The dark reaction is sensitive to temperature changes, but are independent of light hence it is
called dark reaction, however, it depends upon the products of light reaction of
+
photosynthesis, i.e., NADP. 2H and ATP.

● Carbon dioxide fixation takes place in the stroma of chloroplasts because it has enzymes essential

for fixation of CO2 and synthesis of sugar.

CALVIN CYCLE / C3-CYCLE

● Calvin and Benson discovered the path of carbon in this process. First stable compound of

Calvin cycle is 3C-PGA (phosphoglyceric acid), thus Calvin cycle is called as

C3-cycle.
● It was studied by Calvin on Chlorella and Scenedesmus. These are microscopic unicellular
algae and can be easily maintained in the laboratory. During his experiment,
14
he used chromatography and radioactive tracer (C ) techniques for detecting reactions

of C3-cycle.

● RuBisCO (Ribulose bis-phosphate carboxylase oxygenase) is the main enzyme in

C3-cycle, which is present in the stroma and it makes about 16% protein of chloroplast.

RuBisCO is the most abundant enzyme on earth.

● CO2-acceptor in C3 cycle is Ribulose 1,5- diphosphate (RuBp). This carboxylation

reaction is catalysed by RuBisCO.

● Atriplex hastata and A. patula are temperate species, which are C3-plants.

● 6 turns of Calvin cycle are required for the formation of one glucose.
● In this cycle, for formation of one mole of hexose sugar (glucose), 18 ATP and 12

NADPH2 are used.

Calvin cycle is divided into three distinct phases : carboxylation, reduction and
regeneration of RuBP.
1. The nadph molecules as well as the atp produced during the light reaction are utilised in
the stroma of the chloroplast for synthesis of carbohydrate from carbon dioxide. This
process is called dark reaction.
2. In this process, carbon dioxide enters into a chain or cycle of reactions, starting from
RuBP.
3. At the end of the cycle, carbohydrate is synthesised and ribulose biphosphate is
regenerated.
4. The Calvin cycle uses 18 ATP and 12 NADPH molecules to produce
one glucose molecule.
 COMPENSATION POINT
● In photosynthesis, CO2 is utilized in the presence of light to release O2 whereas in
respiration, O2 is taken and CO2 is released. If light factor is saturating, there will
be certain CO2 concentration at which the rate of photosynthesis is just equal to the
rate of respiration, or photosynthesis just compensates respiration or apparent
photosynthesis is nil. It is called CO2 compensation point. It occurs in the morning
and evening hours.

● Compensation Point for Light (of photosynthetic plants) is the intensity of light at
which the rate of carbon dioxide uptake (photosynthesis) is exactly balanced by the
rate of carbon dioxide production (respiration) or equivalently, the light intensity at
which the rate of oxygen production is exactly balanced by the rate of oxygen
consumption. It occurs in the morning and evening hours.

● CO2 compensation point is 25-100 ppm in C3 plants and 0-10 ppm in C4

plants . The reason for the low compensation value fo rC4 plants is the greater
efficiency of CO2 fixation through PEP-carboxylase. The optimum CO2
concentration for C4 plants is 360 ppm and for C3 plants, it is 450 ppm.

Photorespiration
Photorespiration is a wasteful pathway that occurs when the Calvin cycle enzyme rubisco
acts on oxygen rather than carbon dioxide.
The majority of plants are C3 plants, which have no special features to combat
photorespiration. About 85% of the plant species on the planet are C3 plants,
including rice, wheat, soybeans and all trees.
C4 plants minimize photorespiration by separating initial carbon dioxide fixation and the
Calvin cycle in space, performing these steps in different cell types.The C4 pathway is used
in about 3% of all vascular plants; some examples are crabgrass, sugarcane and corn. C4
plants are common in habitats that are hot, but are less abundant in areas that are cooler.
Crassulacean acid metabolism (CAM) plants minimize photorespiration and save water by
separating these steps in time, between night and day. Some plants that are adapted to dry
environments, such as cacti and pineapples, use the crassulacean acid metabolism
(CAM) pathway to minimize photorespiration. This name comes from the family of plants,
the Crassulaceae, in which scientists first
discovered the pathway. Instead of separating the light-dependent reactions and the use of
CO2 in the Calvin cycle in space, CAM plants separate these processes in time.
RuBP oxygenase-carboxylase (rubisco), a key enzyme in photosynthesis, is the
molecular equivalent of a good friend with a bad habit. In the process of carbon fixation,
rubisco incorporates carbon dioxide into an organic molecule during the first stage of the
Calvin cycle. Rubisco is so important to plants that it makes up 30% or more of the soluble
protein in a typical plant leaf. But rubisco also has a major flaw: instead of always using
CO2 as a substrate, it sometimes picks up O2 instead.

This side reaction initiates a pathway called photorespiration, which, rather than
fixing carbon, actually leads to the loss of already-fixed carbon dioxide.
Photorespiration wastes energy and decreases sugar synthesis, so when rubisco initiates this
pathway, it's committing a serious molecular faux pas. Photorespiration wastes energy and
steals carbon.

Photorespiration is definitely not a win from a carbon fixation standpoint. However, it may
have other benefits for plants. There's some evidence that photorespiration can have
photoprotective effects (preventing light-induced damage to the molecules involved in
photosynthesis), help maintain redox balance in cells.

FACTORS AFFECTING PHOTOSYNTHESIS

1. Light :
Light Quality or wavelength : Maximum photosynthesis takes place in red
light than blue light. But the rate of photosynthesis is highest in white light while
minimum is in green light.

Light Intensity : Rate of photosynthesis is greater in intense light than in diffused

light. But at higher light intensity, photooxidation (solarization) occurs and
photosynthetic apparatus may get destroyed.

P/R (Photosynthesis: Respiration) Ratio at mid day is 10 : 1; but can reach upto
20 : 1. At evening and morning, the rate of photosynthesis equals to respiration,
this situation is called as light compensation point.
 Plants which are adapted to grow in high intensity of light are called
heliophytes and plants which are adapted to grow in shade are called
sciophytes.
2. Temperature : Optimum temperature for photosynthesis is 20-35°C. At high
temperature, the rate of photosynthesis decreases due to denaturation of enzymes.
3. CO2 : An increase in CO2 concentration upto 1% (0.03% to 1%) causes rate of
photosynthesis to increase. Higher CO2 concentration is toxic to plants and also closes
stomata. The amount of CO2 available to a plant if increased causes an increase in rate
of photosynthesis, but after a point it becomes constant. This point is called as
saturation point.
4. Water : Less availability of water reduces the rate of photosynthesis (stomata get
closed).

LAW OF MINIMUM (LIEBIG)

Liebig’s law of the minimum Law of the minimum was originally developed by Carl
Sprengel and then later popularized by Justus von Liebig. This law states that the growth is
regulated by a limiting factor, i.e. the scarcest resource, rather than by the total resources
available. In biology and ecology, this means that the growth of a population is restricted by
the factors that are scarcest and not by the factors that are abundant. This was based on the
observation of crop growth. Accordingly, the addition of nutrients in abundance did not
result in increased growth. Conversely, the addition of nutrients that are scarce, which in this
case is the limiting factor, did lead to increased crop growth. This means that even if some of
the nutrients in the soil are abundant but if the other nutrients are limiting or relatively fewer
then crop growth will not increase. Applying this principle to other biological populations,
this implicates growth occurring only as dictated by the most limiting factor. This principle
was used by William Cumming Rose as a basis in identifying the amino acids that were
labelled as essential.

LAW OF LIMITING FACTORS (BLACKMAN)

It is the modification of Law of minimum by Liebig. "When a process is conditioned to its

rapidity by a number of factors, then rate of the process is limited by the pace of the slowest
factor (CO2, light, chlorophyll, water, temp).
The law of limiting factor was proposed in 1905 by the British plant physiologist, Frederick
Frost Blackman. According to this law, a process that depends on multiple factors will have
a rate limited by the pace of the slowest factor. Photosynthesis, for example, is a biological
process that depends on multiple factors. The general chemical reaction of photosynthesis is
6CO2+12H2O+energy=C6H12O6+6O2+6H2O. Based on this equation, CO2, H2O, and
light energy (sunlight) are the limiting factors of this reaction. If any of them become
accessible at a pace slower or lower than the usual, the rate of photosynthesis is expected to
become slow based on the pace of the slowest factor. For example, if CO2 concentration
becomes scarce (e.g. due to closure of stomatal openings in response to elevated
temperatures in the environment), the rate of photosynthesis becomes slow even if H2O and
light energy levels are amply available. The same result will occur if light energy becomes
less available or less intense, the rate of photosynthesis will be slower despite the abundance
of CO2 and H2O. Light becomes a limiting factor in photosynthesis when the plant is unable
to collect light, for instance, due to shade resulting from the dense population of plants.