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Home > Journals > Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies > Volume 60 Issue 2 > Madrasas in Mecca during the medieval period: a descriptive... English Français

Madrasas in Mecca during the medieval period: 7

a descriptive study based on literary sources Cited by

Published online by Cambridge University Press: 05 February 2009

Richard T. Mortel Show author details

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Bulletin of the School

of Oriental and African
Extract
Studies

The madrasa as an institution dedicated to the teaching of one or more of the

Article contents four madhhabs, or schools, of Sunni Islamic jurisprudence, often in conjunction
with the ancillary Islamic sciences, including Arabic grammar, the study of
Extract
quranic exegesis (tafsīr) and Prophetic Traditions (ḥadīth) alongside more
References secular disciplines such as history, literature, rhetoric, mathematics and
astronomy, began to proliferate in the eastern Islamic lands from the fifth
century/eleventh century, although its origins are traceable as far back as the
early fourth/tenth century in eastern Iran. As the religion of Islam and its
accompanying civilization spread into new territories, e.g., Anatolia, sub-
Saharan Africa and the Indian subcontinent, the institution of the madrasa not
only accompanied this diffusion but also lent it active support.

Type Articles

Information Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies , Volume 60 , Issue 2 ,
June 1997 , pp. 236 - 252
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/S0041977X00036387

Copyright Copyright © School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London

1997

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References
1 The origins, characteristics and diffusion of the madrasa have been the subject of
much debate among Islamicists in the twentieth century; cf. Pedersen, J. (G. Makdisi),
2
‘Madrasa’, in the Encyclopedia of Islam, 2nd. ed. (hereafter EI ) Google Scholar ;
Pedersen, J., ‘Some aspects of the history of the madrasa’, Islamic Culture, 3, 1929,
525–537 Google Scholar ; Makdisi, George, ‘Muslim institutions of learning in
eleventh-century Baghdad’, BSOAS, 24/1, 1961, 1–56 CrossRef Google Scholar ;
Tibawi, A. L., ‘Origins and character of al-madrasah’, BSOAS, 25/2, 1962,
225–238 CrossRef Google Scholar . Cairene madrasas and their curricula have been
considered in Petry, Carl F., The civilian elite of Cairo in the Later Middle Ages (Princeton,
1981), 138–139 Google Scholar . Questions of the architectural origins and the
2
typology of the madrasa are discussed in R. Hillenbrand, ‘Madrasa—architecture’, EI .
2
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A point emphasized in the last century by one of the few non-Muslims to have had
direct experience of Mecca; Hurgronje, C. Snouck, Mekka in the latter part of the
nineteenth century, (tr.) Monahan, J. H. (Leiden, 1970), 172 Google Scholar .

3 With the exception of a limited number of foundation inscriptions preserved in the

Museum of the Great Mosque (Matḥaf al-Ḥaram al-Makkī) in Mecca, and mentioned,
with photographs, in Muḥammad Fahd ՙAbd Allāh al-Faՙr, Taṭawwur al-kitābāt wa'l-
nuqūsh fī al-Ḥijāz mundhu fajr al-Islām ḥattā muntaṣaf al-qarn al-sābīՙ al-Hijrī (Jedda,
1405/1984), passim.

4 cf. ՙAnqāwī, ՙAbd Allāh ՙAqīl, 'al-Mu'arrikh Taqī al-Dīn al-Fāsī wa kitībuhu “Shifā' al-
gharām bi-akhbār al-Balad al-Ḥarām”’, Dirāsāt ta'rīkh al-Jazīra al-ՙArabiyya, 1, part 2,
Maṣddir ta'rīkh al-Jazīra al-ՙArabiyya, (ed.) Abdalla, Abdelgadir M., al-Sakkar, Sami and
Mortel, Richard T. (Riyadh, 1979), 61–67 Google Scholar .

5 cf. al-Rashīd, Nāṣir b. Saՙd, ‘Banū Fahd, mu'arrikhū Makka al-Mukarrama wa'1-taՙrīfbi-
makhṭūt al-Najm b. Fahd “Itḥāf al-warā fi-akhbār Umm al-Qurā”’, Dirāsāt ta'rīkh al-
Jazīra al-ՙArabiyya, part 2, 69–90 Google Scholar .

6 al-Dīn, Taqī Muḥammad b. Aḥmad al-Fāsī, Shifā' al-gharām bi-akhbār al-Balad al-Ḥarām
(Beirut, 1985), I, 526–527 Google Scholar ; idem, al-ՙIqda l-thamīn fī ta'rīkh al-Balad al-
Amīn (Cairo, 1959–69), I, 118.

7 al-Fāsī, Shifī', I, 383; Ibrāhīm Rifՙat, Mir'āt al-Ḥaramayn (Cairo, 1344/1925), I, 233; El-
Hawary, Hassan Mohammed and Wiet, Gaston, Matériaux pour un Corpus Inscriptionum
Arabicarum, part 4, Arabie, inscriptions et monuments de la Mècque: Ḥaram et Kaՙba, I,
fasc. 1 (Cairo, 1985), 13 Google Scholar , 14, 60.

8 Arsūf was a Syrian coastal town located between Qayṣariyya and Yāfā; cf. al-Hamawī,
Yāqūt b. ՙAbd Allāh, Muՙjam al-buldān (Beirut, n.d.), I, 151 Google Scholar .

9 al-Dīn, Zakī Abū Muḥammad ՙAbd al-ՙAẓīm al-Mundhirī, al-Takmila li-wafayāt al-naqala
(Beirut, n.d.), I, 277 Google Scholar .

10 al-Fāsī, Shifā', I, 529; idem, ՙIqd, I, 117, 119; VI, 34; al-Qādir, ՙAbd b. Muḥammad al-
Nuՙaymī, al-Dāris fī ta'rīkh al-madāris (Damascus, 1948), I, 526 Google Scholar ;
Muḥammad, Abū ՙAbd Allāh al-Ṭayyib, Bā Makhrama, Ta'rīkh Thaghr ՙAdan (Leiden,
1936), II, 131 Google Scholar .

11 al-Fāsī, ՙIqd, VI, 34, 35; also relevant is Hurgronje, Mekka, 172, who claims that the term
madrasa had come to denote ‘a fine house near the mosque and the population at
large had lost all idea of its original meaning.’

12 al-Dīn, ՙImād Ismāՙīl b. Kathīr, al-Biāaya wa'l-nihāya fī al-ta'rīkh (Cairo, 1335–38 A.H.), XII,
309–310 Google Scholar ; al-Fāsī, ՙIqd, IV, 34–5.

13 Makhrama, Bā, Ta'rīkh, II, 132 Google Scholar .

14 al-Fāsī, ՙIqd, VI, 34, where al-Zanjīlī is described as the ‘amir of the two Ḥarams’—i.e.,
Mecca and Madina, in the original waqf document.

15 al-Fāsī, ՙIqd, VI, 35; Bā Makhrama, Ta'rīkh, II, 132; al-Nuՙaymī, Dāris, I, 526, where the
year of his death is fixed as 626/1229, and it is also mentioned that he endowed
another college in Damascus.

16 al-Fāsī, ՙIqd, I, 117; VIII, 261–2.

17 al-Walīd, Abū Muḥammad b. ՙAbd Allāh al-Azraqī, Akhbār Makka wa mā jā'a fīhā min al-
āthār, 3rd. ed. (Mecca, 1978), II, 266 Google Scholar ; al-Fāsī, Shifā', I, 364; El-Hawary
and Wiet, Matériaux, 76.

18 For the original text with analysis, cf. al-Faՙr, , Taṭawwur, 323–328 Google Scholar .

19 ibid., 326–7.

20 Rifՙat, , Mir'āt, I, 231 Google Scholar ; El-Hawary, and Wiet, , Matériaux, 55 Google
Scholar .

21 Yāqūt, , Muՙjam, I, 138 Google Scholar ; al-Mundhirī, , Takmila, III, 354 Google Scholar ;
al-ՙAbbās, Abū Shams al-Dīn Aḥmad b. Muḥammad b. Khallikān, Wafayāt al-aՙyān wa
anbā' abnā' al-zamān (Beirut, 1968–1972), IV, 113–120 Google Scholar ; al-Fāsī, ՙIqd, VII,
100–7; al-Maḥāsin, Abū Jamāl al-Dīn Yūsuf b. Taghrī Birdī, al-Nujūm al-zāhira fī mulūk
Misr wa'l-Qāhira (Cairo, ?–1972), VI, 282 Google Scholar ; al-Falāh, Abū ՙAbd al-Muḥsin
b. al-ՙImād al-Ḥanbalī, Ṣhadharāt al-dhahab fī akhbār man dhahaba (Beirut, n.d.), V,
 138–140 Google Scholar ; al-Dīn, Khayr al-Ziriklī, al-AUlām (Beirut, 1980), V, 98 Google
Scholar . HiQPdf Evaluation 10/21/2021

22 al-Fāsī, , Shifā', I, 527 Google Scholar .

23 This estimate is based on internal evidence in the work itself; cf. Shifā', II, 335, for the
latest date mentioned therein.

1
24 cf. V. Minorsky, ‘Nihāwand’, EI.

25 Rifՙat, , Mir'at, I, 234 Google Scholar ; El-Hawary, and Wiet, , Matériaux, 61 Google
Scholar .

26 al-Fāsī, , Shifā', I, 526 Google Scholar ; idem, ՙIqd, I, 118.

27 al-Fāsī, , ՙIqd, VIII, 133 Google Scholar ; El-Hawary, and Wiet, , Matériaux, 12, 13,
14 Google Scholar .

28 al-Fāsī, , Shifā', I, 527 Google Scholar ; idem, ՙIqd, I, 118; V, 335.

29 Badr, al-Amir al-Dīn Muḥammad b. Ḥātim al-Yāmī, al-Simṭ al-ghālī al-thaman fī akhbār al-
mulūk min al-Ghuzz bi-l-Yaman (London, 1974), 220–221 Google Scholar ; al-Khazrajī, ՙAlī
b. al-Ḥasan, al-ՙUqūd al-Lu' lu' iyya fī ta'rīkh al-dawla al-Rasūliyya (Cairo, 1911–1914), I,
69, 77 Google Scholar ; al-Fāsī, , ՙIqd, IV, 378 Google Scholar ; VI, 347; Mortel, Richard
T., al-Aḥwāl al-siyāsiyya wa'l-iqtisādiyya bi-Makka fī 'l-ՙaṣr al-Mamlūkī (Riyadh 1985),
49–50 Google Scholar ; cf. also the biographical notice for al-Shallāaḥ in al-Fāsī, , ՙIqd,
VIII, 160, 175–6 Google Scholar .

30 al-Fāsī, , Shifā', I, 523 Google Scholar ; idem, ՙIqd, I, 84.

31 For further details, cf. Mortel, , Ahwāl, 46–50, 53–6, 59–63, 73 Google Scholar .

32 al-Khazrajī, , ՙUqūd, I, 84 Google Scholar ; al-Fāsī, ՙiqd, VI, 348 Google Scholar ;
Makhrama, Bā, Ta'rīkh, II, 179 Google Scholar ; al-Qādir, ՙAbd b. Muḥammad al-Anṣārī
al-Jazīrī, al-Durar al-farā'id al-munaẓẓama fī akhbār al-ḥājj wa ṭartīq Makka al-Mu'aẓẓama
(Riyadh, 1983), I, 595 Google Scholar .

33 al-Fāsī, ՙIqd, I, 117.

34 al-Tujībī, al-Qāsim b. Yūsuf al-Sabtī, Mustafād al-riḥla wa'l-ightirāb (Tunis, 1975),

246 Google Scholar .

35 ՙAbd, Abū Allāh Muḥammad b. ՙAbd Allāh b. Baṭṭūta, Tuḥfat al-nuẓẓār fī gharā'ib al-
amṣār wa ՙajā'ib al-asfār (Beirut, 1964), 139 Google Scholar .

36 al-Ḥasan, b. ՙUmar b. Habīb al-Ḥalabī, Tadhkirat al-nabīh fī ayvām al-Manṣūr via banīthi
(Cairo, 1976–1982), II, 211–212 Google Scholar ; al-Dīn, Shihāb Aḥmad b. ՙAlī b. Ḥaj'ar
al-ՙAsqalānī, al-Durar al-kāmina fī aՙyān al-mi'a al-thāmina (Cairo, 1966), I, 374 Google
Scholar ; al-Maḥāsin, Abū Jamāl al-Dīn Yūsuf b. Taghrī Birdī, al-Manhal al-sāfī wa'l-
mustawfī baՙd al-wāfī (Cairo, 1984–), II, 306–307 Google Scholar ; idem, Nujūm, IX, 288–
9; Ibn al-ՙImād, Shadharāt, VI, 95.

37 al-Fāsī, , ՙIqd, I, 117. Google Scholar

38 For the site, cf. al-Fāsī, , Shifā', I, 384 Google Scholar . al-ՙAjala, Dār is described in al-
Azraqī, Akhbār Makka, II, 252 Google Scholar ; and the period of ՙAbd Allāh b. al-
Zubayr's control of Mecca has been discussed in Kennedy, Hugh, The Prophet and the
age of the caliphates: the Islamic Near East from the sixth to the eleventh century (London,
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39 El-Hawary, and Wiet, , Matériaux, 61 Google Scholar .

40 al-Fāsī, , Shifā', I, 34 Google Scholar .

41 al-Fāsī, , ՙIqd, VII, 485 Google Scholar ; Birdī, Ibn Taghrī, Manhal, II, 308 Google
Scholar .

42 For al-Makkī, cf. Birdī, Ibn Taghrī, Manhal, II, 308, esp. n. 2 Google Scholar .

43 ibid., II, 308.

44 al-Fāsī, , ՙIqd, IV, 379 Google Scholar .

45 Birdī, Ibn Taghrī, Manhal, II, 308 Google Scholar .

46 al-Khazrajī, ՙUqūd, II, 68, mentions that this madrasa was founded in the following
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year, 740/1339–40; however, al-Fāsī asserts that the later date was ‘most certainly
erroneous’; cf. ՙIqd, VI, 158.

47 al-Khazrajī, , ՙUqud, II, 68 Google Scholar ; al-Fāsī, , Shifā', I, 524 Google Scholar ; idem,
ՙIqd, I, 118; VI, 158; Birdī, Ibn Taghrī, Nujūm, XI, 91 Google Scholar ; al-Dīn, Najm ՙUmar
b. Muḥammad b. Fahd, Itḥāf al-warā bi-akhbār Umm al-Qurā (Jedda, n.d.), III,
217–218 Google Scholar .

48 al-Fāsī, , Shifā', I, 382 Google Scholar ; Rifՙat, , Mir'at, I, 232 Google Scholar .

49 al-Fāsī, , ՙIqd, VI, 158 Google Scholar ; Fahd, Ibn, Itḥāf III, 217–218 Google Scholar .

50 al-Khazrajī, , ՙUqūd, II, 68 Google Scholar .

51 ibid., II, 159; al-Fāsī, Shifā', I, 523; Birdī, Ibn Taghrī, Nujūm, XI, 146. Google Scholar

52 Fahd, Ibn, Itḥāf, III, 306, 309. Google Scholar

53 al-Khazrajī, , ՙUqūd, II, 159. Google Scholar

54 cf. my article, ‘Zaydī Shīՙism and the Ḥasanid Sharifs of Mecca’, International Journal of
Middle East Studies, 19, 1987, 455–472. CrossRef Google Scholar

55 For the amirate of ՙAjlān b. Rumaytha, cf. Mortel, , Aḥwāl, 91–106, 177–8; idem, ‘Zaydī
Shīՙism’, 466–7. Google Scholar

56 Birdī, Ibn Taghrī, Nujūm, XI, 139. Google Scholar

57 al-Fāsī, , ՙIqd, VI, 71. Google Scholar

58 al-Fāsī, , Shifī', I, 383 Google Scholar ; Rifՙat, , Mir'āt, I, 232 Google Scholar ; El-Hawary,
and Wiet, , Matériaux, 57. Google Scholar

59 cf. al-Fāsī, , ՙIqd, III, 405–406. Google Scholar

60 Fahd, Ibn, Itḥāf, III, 368–369. Google Scholar

61 Mortel, , Aḥwāl, 116. Google Scholar

62 al-Fāsī, , ՙIqd, III, 405. Google Scholar

63 The reign of Ḥasan b. ՙAjlān, which culminated in the de facto extension of Mamluk
sovereignty to the amirate of Mecca, has been considered at length in Mortel, , Aḥwāl,
119–140 Google Scholar ; al-Sibāՙī, Aḥmad, Ta'rīkh Makka, 4th. ed. (Mecca, 1979),
290–300 Google Scholar ; also al-Fāsī, , ՙIqd, IV, 86–155 Google Scholar , for a detailed
contemporary biography.

64 al-Fāsī, , ՙIqd, IV, 96. Google Scholar

65 Fahd, Ibn, Itḥāf, III, 423. Google Scholar

66 The contemporary sources invariably have ‘Banjaliyya’, but I have substituted ‘g’ for ‘j’
to reflect what certainly must have been the original pronunciation.

67 cf. Ali, Muhammad Mohar, History of the Muslims of Bengal, vol. Ia, Muslim rule in Bengal
(600–1170/1203–1757) (Riyadh, 1985), 140–146 Google Scholar ; the madrasa is
mentioned pp. 143–4.

68 al-Fāsī, , Shifā', I, 524 Google Scholar ; Fahd, Ibn, Itḥāf III, 481 Google Scholar . The
mithqāl refers to a theoretical gold standard coin weighing 4.25 grams, or to a real
gold dinar whose weight was intended to be 4.25 grams; cf. Bacharach, Jere L., ‘The
dinar versus the ducat’, International Journal of Middle East Studies, 4, 1973, 80,
83–85. Google Scholar

69 al-Fāsī, , Shifā', I, 524–525. Google Scholar

70 ibid., I, 525; Fahd, Ibn, Itḥāf, III, 486. Google Scholar

71 al-Fāsī, , Shifā', I, 525 Google Scholar ; Fahd, Ibn, Itḥāf III, 486. Google Scholar

72 al-Dīn, Shams Muhammad b. ՙAbd al-Raḥmān al-Sakhāwī, al-Ḍaw' al-lāmiՙ li-ahl al-qarn
al-tāsiՙ (Beirut, n.d.), VIII, 92–95. Google Scholar
73 al-Fāsī, , ՙIqd, III, 168–170 Google Scholar ; al-Sakhāwī, , Daw', II, 179. Google Scholar
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74 cf. his autobiography in ՙIqd, I, 331–363 Google Scholar ; biographical notice in al-
Sakhāwī, , Ḍaw', VII, 18–20. Google Scholar

75 al-Dīn, Najm ՙUmar b. Fahd, Muՙjam al-shuyūkh (Riyadh, n.d.), 144–145 Google Scholar ;
al-Sakhāwī, , Ḍaw', IV, 333–334. Google Scholar

76 al-Fāsī, , Shifā', I, 525 Google Scholar ; surprisingly, he fails to mention the timings of
his own lectures in the Bangaliyya.

77 ibid.

78 ibid. For al-Rikānī, cf. al-Bilādī, ՙAtiq b. Ghayth, Muՙjam maՙālim at-Ḥijāz (Mecca,
1978–1982), IV, 67–68. Google Scholar

79 al-Fāsī, , Shifā', I, 526 Google Scholar ; the house in question, known as Dār Umm
Hāni', was purported to have been the residence of a paternal aunt of the Prophet
Muḥammad; cf. al-Azraqī, , Akhbār Makka, II, 394. Google Scholar

80 al-Fāsī, , Shifā', I, 526 Google Scholar ; Fahd, Ibn, Itḥāf III, 486. Google Scholar

81 The name of the college variously occurs as ‘Kalbarqiyya’ (Fahd, Ibn, Itḥāf III,
643 Google Scholar ); ‘Kalbarjiyya’ (ibid., IV, 24); the form used here represents an
attempt at approximating the original vocalization.

2
82 cf. J. Burton-Page, ‘Gulbarga’, in EI .

83 For further information on Ahmad Shāh and the Bahmanids in general, cf. H. K.
2
Sherwani, ‘Bahmanis’, in EI ; Sastri, Nilaknata, A history of South India from prehistoric
times to the fall of Vijayanagar, 4th. ed. (Madras, 1976), 248–251 Google Scholar , 490–
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(Hyderabad, 1973), 164–170. Google Scholar

84 al-Sakhāwī, , Ḍaw', I, 210; V, 93. Google Scholar

85 Trade between India and the Hijaz during the ninth/fifteenth century has been
discussed at length in Mortel, , Aḥwāl, 182–190 Google Scholar ; idem, ‘Prices in Mecca
during the Mamlūk Period’, Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient, 32,
1989, 295–298 Google Scholar ; idem, ‘The mercantile community of Mecca during the
late Mamlūk period’, Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, 3rd. series, 4, part 1 (April
1994), 15–17, 27–8 CrossRef Google Scholar ; idem, ‘Aspects of Mamlūk relations with
Jedda during the fifteenth century: the case of Timrāz al-Mu'ayyadī’, Journal of Islamic
Studies, 6/1, 1995, 1–13; idem, ‘Taxation in the amirate of Mecca during the medieval
period’, BSOAS, 58/1, 1995, 12–16.

86 Bayārim, cf. Dozy, Reinhart, Supplément aux dictionnaires arabes (Leiden, 1881), I,
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87 Shāsh, cf. ibid., I, 802; idem, Dictionnaire détaillé des noms des vêtements chez les Arabes
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88 Fahd, Ibn, Itḥāf III, 643 Google Scholar ; al-Sakhāwī, , Ḍaw', I, 210 Google Scholar , who
mistakenly reported that Aḥmad Shāh had endowed a ribāṭ rather than a madrasa in
Mecca.

89 cf. Rifՙat, , Mir'āt, I, 231 Google Scholar ; El-Hawary, and Wiet, , Matériaux, 56. Google
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90 Fahd, Ibn, Itḥāf, III. 643. Google Scholar

91 ibid., IV, 24.

92 ibid., IV, 45.

93 ibid., IV, 25.

94 cf. his biography in al-Dīn, Taqī Aḥmad b. ՙAlī al-Maqrīzī, al-Sulūk li-ma ՙrifat duwala l-
mulūk (Cairo, 1956–1973), IV, 1062 Google Scholar ; Birdī, Ibn Taghrī, Nujūm, XV,
214–216 Google Scholar ; al-Jawharī, al-Khaṭīb, ՙAlī b. Dā'ūd al-ṣayrafī, Nuzhat al-nufūs
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95 cf. his biography in Aḥmad, b. ՙAlī b. Ḥajar al-ՙAsqalānī, Inbā' al-ghumr bi-anbā' al-ՙumr
 (Cairo, 1969–1972), III, 559 Google Scholar ; Fahd, Ibri, Itḥāf IV, 86–87 Google Scholar ;
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Najm al-Dīn ՙUmar b. Fahd, al-Durr al-kamīn bi-dhayl al-ՙIqd al-thamīn fī ta'nkh al-Baladal-
Amīn, MS King Saud University Libraries, Riyadh, no. fā' 113/2, f.141b; al-Sakhāwī, ,
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96 Fahd, Ibn, Itḥāf, IV, 25–26. Google Scholar

97 ibid., IV, 59.

98 cf. his biography in Birdī, Ibn Taghrī, Nujūm, XV, 552–554 Google Scholar ; al-Sakhāwī, ,
Ḍaw', IV, 24–27. Google Scholar

99 Fahd, Ibn, Itḥāf, IV, 59. Google Scholar

100 ibid., IV, 63, 66.

101 cf. his biography in al-Sakhāwī, Ḍaw', IX, 214–16; he also taught in the Bangaliyya,
ibid., IX, 214.

102 ibid., IX, 215.

103 Fahd, Ibn, Itḥāf, IV, 63–64. Google Scholar

104 ibid., IV, 64; for the zimām, cf. al-Dīn, Shihāb Abū '1-ՙAbbās Aḥmad b. ՙAlī al-
Qalqashandī, Ṣubḥ al-aՙshā fī ṣināՙat al-inshā' (Cairo, 1910–1920), V, 459–460 Google
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172 Google Scholar . The biography of the zimām Khushqadam is found in Birdī, Ibn
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105 al-Maqrīzī, , Sulūk, IV, 984–985. Google Scholar

106 Fahd, Ibn, Itḥāf, IV, 64. Google Scholar

107 El-Hawary, and Wiet, , Matériaux, 41–43. Google Scholar

108 Fahd, Ibn, Itḥāf, IV, 64. Google Scholar

109 Birdī, Ibn Taghrī, Manhal, V, 210. Google Scholar

110 al-Sakhāwī, , Ḍaw', III, 175. Google Scholar

111 Cf. her biography in al-Sakhāwī, , Ḍaw', XII, 44–45 Google Scholar ; 'l-Barakāt, Abū
Muḥammad b. Aḥmad b. Iyās, Badā'iՙ al-zuhūr fī waqā'iՙ al-duhūr (Cairo, 1982–1984), III,
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112 Fahd, Ibn, Itḥāf, IV, 372. Google Scholar

113 Cambay is located in the present-day Indian state of Gujarat; for the role it played in
2
the history of Islam in India, cf. S. Maqbul Ahmad, ‘Khambāyat’, EI .

114 cf. al-Fāsī, , Shifī', I, 538 Google Scholar ; the hospital (māristān) was originally
endowed in 628/1230–31, and later renovated by the Sharif Ḥasan b. ՙAjlān in
816/1413.

115 Fahd, Ibn, Itḥāf, IV, 423. Google Scholar

116 ibid., IV, 443.

117 cf. his biographical notice in Ibn Fahd, Durr, f. 155b; al-Sakhāwī, , Ḍaw', VI, 80 Google
Scholar . The title khawājā was granted to the great merchants of Mecca, presumably
by their peers, as a token of high esteem; cf. Mortel, ‘Mercantile community’, 17–21ff.

118 The comments made by Hurgronje on the meaning of the word madrasa in the Mecca
of the late nineteenth century are appropriate; cf. Mekka, 172.

119 Relevant aspects of this relationship are conveniently summarized in Mortel, ‘Prices’,
279–88.

120 cf. his biography in al-Sakhāwī, , Ḍaw', VIII, 260–262. Google Scholar

121 al-Dīn, Qutb al-Makkī al-Ḥanafī al-Nahrawālī, al-Iՙlām fī aՙlām Bayt Allāh al-Ḥarām, in the
margins of Aḥmad b. Zaynī Daḥlān, Khulāṣat al-kalām fī bayān umarā' al-Bayt al-Ḥarām
(Cairo, A.H. 1304), 151–152. Google Scholar
 122 Fahd, Ibn, Itḥāf, IV, 619–620, 638. Google Scholar
HiQPdf Evaluation 10/21/2021
123 cf. al-Fāsī, , Shifā', I, 527 Google Scholar ; idem, ՙIqd, I, 118.

124 Fahd, Ibn, Itḥāf, IV, 624. Google Scholar

125 cf. Amīn, Muḥammad Muḥammad, al-Awqāf wa'l-ḥayāh al-ijtimāՙiyya fī Miṣr, 648–923
(Cairo, 1980), 341ff Google Scholar , for a detailed discussion of istibdāl.

126 Fahd, Ibn, Itḥāf, IV, 620, 624 Google Scholar ; al-Nahrawālī, I ՙ1ām, 152.

127 Fahd, Ibn, Itḥāf, IV, 638–639. Google Scholar

128 The madrasa incorporated a minaret (al-Nahrawālī, Iՙlām, 152; El-Hawary and Wiet,
Matériaux, 62) which can clearly be seen in some old photographs of the Meccan
Ḥaram and its environs, such as those contained in Rifՙat Mir'āt.

129 Fahd, Ibn, Itḥāf, IV, 647–648. Google Scholar

130 al-Nahrawālī, , I ՙlām, 152. Google Scholar

131 ibid.

132 ibid.

133 ibid.; cf. also Hurgronje, Mekka, 172.

134 cf. Mortel, , ‘Zaydī Shīՙism’, 467–468. Google Scholar

135 Further information on the various aspects of Mamluk-Meccan relations can be found
in Mortel, Richard T., ‘The Kiswa: its origins and development from pre-Islamic times
until the end of the Mamluk period,’ Ages, 3/2, 1988, 39–46 Google Scholar ; idem,
‘Prices’, 281–3.

136 Commercial contacts between India and the amirate of Mecca have been dealt with in
greater detail in Mortel, , Aliwāl, 181–193 Google Scholar ; idem, ‘Prices’, 293–9; idem,
‘Mercantile community’, 15–17, 27–8; idem, ‘Aspects’, passim; idem, ‘Taxation’, 9–16.

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