Mechanics Lab SM Department

University of Algiers 1

Faculty of Science
SM Department
2023/2024

Mechanical Practical Work

MEASUREMENT IN PHYSICS: ERRORS AND UNCERTAINTIES

Introduction

When we want to determine a physical quantity and we carry out several simultaneous
measurements with equivalent equipment, or repeated measurements under similar conditions
with a single piece of equipment, we find that they give different values. This means that the
variety of circumstances has provided us with distorted values of the quantity itself. These
observations allow us to state the problem of measurement as follows:

The aim is to capture an optimal estimate of a quantity that is assumed to exist objectively.

Accurate measurements

By definition, a measurement is the comparison of a physical quantity with a standard

quantity of the same kind. To make sense, the number expressing a measurement must be
completed by:

- The precision (or degree of uncertainty) with which it was obtained

- The unit chosen

Example: the speed of light in a vacuum: c = (2.997 91 ± 0.000 01) 108 m.𝑠 −1 .

Every physical measurement therefore involves an "uncertainty", even if the measurement is

carried out carefully and all the equipment is working and properly adjusted. There are two
types of uncertainty:

1. Systematic uncertainties (constant and predictable)

2. Random or statistical uncertainties (unpredictable)

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I. ERRORS
1. Definition of error
The error (or measurement error) is the difference between the measured value 𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑠 and the
true value a:

𝜹𝒂 = 𝒂𝒎𝒆𝒔 − 𝒂

The true value (a) is unknown (because we're trying to measure it!).

2. Random measurement error

When the same operator repeats the measurement of the same quantity several times, the
values measured may differ. This phenomenon can be detected by a statistical study, known
as random measurement error. This dispersion of measurements is due to the quality of the
measurement carried out by the operator and the quality of the measuring instrument.
Example: When the period of oscillation of a pendulum is measured using a stopwatch,
slightly different results are obtained when the measurements are repeated. These differences
are essentially due to the delay in triggering the chronometer. It is not possible to compensate
for the random measurement error, but it can be reduced by increasing the number of
observations.

3. Systematic measurement error

A faulty device (a stopwatch always indicates times that are too low), one that has been
incorrectly calibrated or used incorrectly (a parameter, temperature or the internal resistance
of the devices has been forgotten) can lead to values that are far from the true value. This is
known as systematic measurement error. Systematic errors are difficult to detect a priori, but
once detected, they can often be corrected (by taking the forgotten parameter into account, for
example). The concepts of random error and systematic error can be illustrated by shooting at
a target:

all impacts close to impacts widely impacts grouped impacts spread out
the centre: low spread out, but together but far and far from the
random error, low centered on the from the centre: centre: high random
systematic error target on average: low random error, error, high
high random error, high systematic systematic error
low systematic error
error

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Unfortunately, during a physical measurement, we don't know the center of the target, i.e. the
true value!

-Accuracy is the ability of an instrument to give indications free from systematic error.

-The fidelity of a measuring instrument is its ability to give a result with a low random error.

II. UNCERTAINTIES
The uncertainty reflects attempts to estimate the measurement error on the quantity a. Only
the random error is estimated by the uncertainty.

1. Absolute uncertainty
The absolute uncertainty Δa is the upper limit of the absolute error:

𝜹𝒂 ≤ ∆𝒂

Uncertainty makes it possible to define an interval in which the true value has a high chance
of being found, these chances being quantified by the confidence level. This interval is
centered on the measured value noted 𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑠 . The confidence interval is therefore:
[𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑠 - ∆a ; 𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑠 + ∆a].

2. Relative uncertainty
It is the ratio of the absolute uncertainty to the measured value:

𝚫𝒂

𝒂me𝐬

CALCULATION OF UNCERTAINTY

1- Find the algebraic expression of the errors using the method of total differentials or
logarithmic differentials.
2- Group similar terms when related errors occur.
3- Proceed to the absolute uncertainties by taking the absolute values of the error
coefficients.

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4- Proceed to the absolute uncertainties by taking the absolute values of the error
coefficients.

TOTAL DIFFERENTIAL METHOD

𝐆 = 𝒇(𝒙, 𝒚, 𝒛)
Let be the function:

Where x, y and z are measured quantities. The total differential of G is given by:

𝝏𝒇 𝛛𝒇 𝛛𝒇
𝐝𝐆 = 𝐝𝒙 + 𝐝𝒚 + 𝐝𝒛
𝝏𝒙 𝝏𝒚 𝝏𝒛

Which can also be written as :

𝐝𝐆 = 𝒇′ᵪ𝐝𝒙 + 𝒇′ᵧ𝐝𝒚 + 𝒇′𝒛𝐝𝒛

The absolute uncertainty is calculated by taking the absolute values of the error coefficients:

∆𝐆 = ⎸𝒇′ᵪ⎸∆𝒙 + ⎸𝒇′ᵧ⎸∆𝒚 + ⎸𝒇𝒛′ ⎸∆𝒛

The relative uncertainty is:

∆𝐺 ∆x ∆y ∆z
= ⎸𝑓′ᵪ⎸ + ⎸𝑓′ᵧ⎸ + ⎸𝑓 ⎸
′
𝑧
𝐺 𝐺 𝐺 𝐺

This formula makes it possible to calculate uncertainty in simple cases, for example:

∆𝐺 = ∆𝑥 + ∆𝑦 when 𝐺 = 𝑥 + 𝑦 or 𝐺 = 𝑥 − 𝑦

∆𝑥 ∆𝑦
∆𝐺 = + when 𝐺 = 𝑥 × 𝑦 or 𝐺 = 𝑥/𝑦
𝐺 𝑋 𝑦

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Activity 1:
𝑳
The period T of a pendulum is given by: 𝑇 = 2𝜋√𝒈

Where L is the length of the pendulum and g is the constant of gravity.

-Calculate g and the uncertainty on g from the results of the following measurements:

L = 99.8 ± 0.3 cm and T = 2.03 ± 0.05 s, assuming L and T are uncorrelated.

Answer:

…………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………....

Activity 2:
𝟏
The translational kinetic energy of a body is given by: 𝑬𝒄 =𝟐 𝒎𝒗𝟐

m = mass, v = speed

-Calculate the uncertainty in 𝑬𝒄 where m = 9.5 ± 1.8 kg and v = 7.35 ± 0.23 m/s.

Answer:

…………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………....

METHOD OF LOGARITHMIC DIFFERENTIALS

This method is used when the function G is in the form of a product or a ratio.

As an example, consider the following function:

𝑥𝑦
G = f(x, y, z) = 𝑧

We take the Napierian logarithm of G:

𝑥𝑦
𝐿𝑜𝑔𝐺 = 𝐿𝑜𝑔 ( ) = 𝐿𝑜𝑔 (𝑥) + 𝐿𝑜𝑔 (𝑦) − 𝐿𝑜𝑔 (𝑧)
𝑧

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The logarithmic differential of G gives:

dG dx dy dz
= + +
G x y z

We move on to relative uncertainty by taking the absolute values of the error coefficients.

∆𝐺 ∆𝑋 ∆𝑌 ∆𝑍
=| |+| |+| |
𝐺 𝑋 𝑌 𝑍

From this we derive the absolute uncertainty of G:

∆𝒙 ∆𝒚 ∆𝒛
∆𝑮 = 𝑮 [│ │+│ │ + │ │]
𝒙 𝒚 𝒛

Activity 3:

A capacitor with a capacitance equal to 1000 𝜇𝐹, known to the nearest 10%, is charged with a
stable power supply whose DC voltage E, known to the nearest 10−5 , is 12 V.

It is discharged into a resistor R of 12000 𝛺 with an accuracy of 10%. The discharge law is
−𝒕
exponential; if 𝑄0 = 𝐶𝐸 is the initial charge and the charge at time t is: 𝑄(𝑡) = 𝑄0𝒆𝑹𝑪

1. What is the residual charge after 12 s ?

2. Using the logarithmic differential method. Estimate the accuracy of this charge when
t is measured at 0.5 s ?

Answer:

…………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………....
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………....
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………....
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………....
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………....

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III. REPRESENTATION OF MEASURED DATA

After carrying out measurements in an experiment, the experimenter can represent the
values found in graphical or curved form in order to study the evolution or interpretation
of the physical phenomenon or to calculate a parameter from the experimental data. To do
this, we need to choose a good scale of representation for the function being studied and
for these variables.

The scale must satisfy the range of variation of the physical parameter and its variables on
all axes.

The axes must be marked with the index of the physical quantity and its unit.

Measurements should be represented by crosses (+) or error rectangles.

The graph must be titled.

Add a legend if the representation includes several curves so that you can easily
differentiate between them.

Example: If A and B are two moving bodies travelling along a straight trajectory, the
measurements of their respective speeds are given in the following table:

Time t(s) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
SpeedA(m/s) 1 1 1 2 2 2 1 1 1
SpeedB(m/s) 1 2 3 4 5 4 3 2 1

1. Choose a scale to represent the curves: SpeedA=F(t) and SpeedB=G(t) on half a sheet
of paper.
2. Calculate the gradient of the curve G(t) between t=5s and t=9s.
3. Calculate the area under the curve F(t) between instants t=4s and t=6s

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IV. HAZARDS AND PRECAUTIONS IN THE LABORATORY

When entering a scientific laboratory, any person (member or visitor, teacher or student,
staff or any stranger, etc.) must respect the precautions issued by the members or the expert
team of the laboratory in order to be able to work or move around inside in complete safety
and to reduce the risk of accidents at work as much as possible.

To this purpose, posters can be seen (usually at the entrance or inside the lab) giving
explanations or recommendations on the dangers and precautions that must be taken into
account at all costs to ensure that the combination of people, equipment and premises in the
laboratory forms a healthy, comfortable and safe working environment.

Depending on the scientific field studied, each laboratory has its own risks and hazards and
specific recommendations and precautions to counter these hazards and risks.

1. For individuals, i.e., members of personnel or any person carrying out work on the
laboratory premises, they must be familiar with the requirements of the working
environment, as they are responsible for the correct operation of the equipment and the
safety of the laboratory and for ensuring that established precautions are followed and
respected.
2. The laboratory equipment must normally be in good condition for use (e.g. doors
properly locked, walls and windows in good condition, good electricity and water
connections, etc.), otherwise any problems or anomalies must be reported to the
person in charge.

If there are posters with recommendations, they must be visible and legible so that
everyone has information on what to do and what not to do on the premises.

The cleanliness of the premises must also be taken into account, and food and drinks must
not be eaten or brought near equipment and its electrical connections, or in front of bottles
of products used in the lab. Finally, waste can be thrown away in the bins provided.

3. The equipment must be kept in good working order to avoid any risk of damage to the
equipment or accidents in the workplace.

Some general recommendations and precautions to follow:

Ask the teacher or the person in charge for information or clarification on how to use the
equipment.

Check whether the handling needs consumables or adjustment before use.

Follow the steps to ensure that the equipment operates correctly and follow the
recommendations for use of the products or reagents on the laboratory premises.

Do not open bottles of unlabeled products or reactants without permission from the lab
supervisors.

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Check that there are no objects or people obstructing or interfering with the equipment during
the experiment or manipulation.

It is essential to use protective equipment where necessary, such as wearing body blankets,
gloves for the hands, face masks or protective goggles for the eyes, and so on.

Check that the teacher has carried out the operation before using the energy source to operate
the equipment (e.g., connecting the electrical wires or mains to the electricity source).

At the end of use, unplug the equipment, clean the area and return the equipment to its
original place so that it is ready for immediate use again.

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