s2 Physics Presentation-1

GS RUSHARA
TEACHER: TWAGIRAYESU
EMMANUEL
2023-2024
SUMMARY
OF PHYSICS S2
WELCOME TO THE WORLD OF SCIENCE AND WORLD OF PHYSICS
STUDENT
NAMES:……………………………………………………………………..
CLASS:…………………………………………………………………………………
CONTACT:………………………………………………………………………………
TABLE OF CONTENT
UNIT 1: Sources of errors in measurement of physical quantity.
UNIT2:Quantitative analysis of linear motion
UNIT 3:Friction force
UNIT 4:Density and Pressure in solid and Fluid
UNIT5: Measuring liquid Pressure With Manometer
UNIT6:Application of Pascal’s principal
UNIT7:Archimedes principle And atmospheric pressure
continued
UNIT8:Work,Power and Energy
UNIT9:Conservation of Mechanical Energy in Isolated Systems
UNIT10:Gas laws’ Experiments
UNIT 11:Magnetization and Demagnetization
UNIT12:Applications of Electrostatic
UNIT 13:Arrangement of Resistors in Electric circuit.
UNIT 14:Reflection of Light in Curved Mirrors
UNIT15:Basic electronic Components
UNIT 1: Sources of errors in
measurement of physical quantity.
REVIEW ON PHYSICAL QUANTITIES AND THEIR DIMENSIONS
Physical quantities: All those quantities which can be measured directly or
indirectly and in terms of which the laws of physics can be expressed are called
physical quantities.
For example, length ,mass, temperature, speed ,force ,etc……
 Two types of Physical quantities
 Fundamental quantities
 Derived quantities
a. FUNDAMENTAL QUANTITIES
Definition:
Fundamental(basic) quantities: are quantities that can not be expressed in terms of
other quantities.
SEVEN FUNDAMENTAL QUANTITIES
NAME SYMBOL FOR DIMENSION
Length [L]
Time [T]
Mass [M]
Electric current [I]
Temperature [ϴ] or [K]
Amount of substance(mole) [N] or [Mol]
Luminous intensity(Candela) [cd]

Continued
The dimension of any quantity “Q” is written in the form of a dimensional
product, dimension of
Q= 𝑳𝒂 𝑴𝒃 𝑻𝑪 𝑻𝒅 𝑵𝒆 𝑰𝒇 𝒄𝒅𝒈 where 7 are dimensional exponents.
b) DERIVED QUANTITIES
Definition: DERIVED QUANTITIES are quantities that can be expressed in
terms of other quantities.
EX: Velocity, force , area , pressure ,etc…………………….
Question :Although the number of physical quantities which we measure is

very large, yet we do not need a very large number of units for this
measurement. Why?
ANS
This is possible because the various physical quantities are related to each
other and so their units can be expressed in terms of just seven basic or
fundamental units.
Continued
Derived quantity Definition Formula Units Dimension
Area 𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ𝑥𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝐴 = 𝑑2 𝑚2 [𝐿]2
= 𝐿2
Volume 𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ × 𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑉 = 𝑑3 𝑚3 [𝐿]3
× 𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ = 𝐿3
Density 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑚 𝑘𝑔 [𝑀]

𝜌=
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑉 𝑚3 [𝐿]3
Velocity 𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑑 𝑜𝑟 𝐿 𝑚 [𝐿]
V= 𝑠
𝑡
𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 [𝑇]
Acceleration 𝑉𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑉 𝑚 [𝐿]
a= 𝑠2
𝑡
𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 [𝑇]2
REVIEW ON VECTOR AND
SCALAR QUANTITIES
a) Vector quantities are quantities that are defined by Magnitude and
Direction.
Example: Force, momentum, velocity, displacement, Electric
field………….
b) Scalar quantities are quantities that are defined by only magnitude.
Example: mass, Speed, work, power, electric current………..
EXERCISES
1)Write systematic international unit of the following physical quantities
and say which one is fundamental or derived quantity?.
Mass,length,Distance,Displacement, speed, velocity, Acceleration,
force,work,power,kinetic energy.
2)Differentiate between a Vector with scalar quantities
3) Give 3 examples of vector and 3examples of scalar quantities.
4.Distinguish distance with displacement.
5.Distinguish Speed with velocity.
6.Write dimension formula and unit of power, work and
𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒
pressure=
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎
ERRORS IN MEASUREMENT
MEASUREMENT: is the process of comparing the quantity with a
standard amount of the physical quantity of the same kind, called unit
1.1TYPES OF ERRORS
They are two types of errors
Random errors.
Systematic errors.
a) RANDOM ERRORS
Usually result from the experimenter’s inability to take the same
measurement in exactly the same way to get exact the same number.
• NB: Random errors are caused by unknown and unpredictable changes
in the experiment.
SYSTEMATIC ERRORS
Systematic errors are caused from the measuring instruments.
THEY ARE TWO TYPES OF SYSTEMATIC ERRORS
Zero setting error : In which the instrument does not read zero when
the quantity to be measured is zero.
inaccurate calibration : In which the instrument consistently reads
changes in the quantity to be measured greater or less than the actual
changes.
NB: The uncertainty of measurements is closer between measured
value and a true value or accepted value.
ANALYSIS ERRORS AND MEASUREMENT
To analyse errors we should define the following terms:

-Accuracy
-Precision
-Uncertainty
Accuracy is degree of closeness between measured value and true
value. or how close you are to the actual value.
-Precision the degree of exactness with which the object is measured or
how consistent a series of values are with each other.
continued
-Uncertainty is that which you don’t know for certain.

The last digit in any quantitative measurement is certain
Example: 6.62 ml would be both accurate and precise to the right if
0.02ml is uncercertain.
CALCULATION OF ERRORS
Calculation of Absolute and relative

errors(Uncertainties)
Relative
𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑜𝑟 𝑘𝑛𝑜𝑤𝑛 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑙𝑜 −𝐸𝑥𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒(𝑙)
error=
𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑜𝑟𝑘𝑛𝑜𝑤𝑛 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑙𝑜
Percentage error= 𝑅𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 × 100%
Percentage error=
𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝒐𝒓 𝒌𝒏𝒐𝒘𝒏 𝒗𝒂𝒍𝒖𝒆 𝒍𝒐 −𝑬𝒙𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒗𝒂𝒍𝒖𝒆(𝒍)
( )× 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝒐𝒓 𝒌𝒏𝒐𝒘𝒏 𝒗𝒂𝒍𝒖𝒆 𝒍𝒐
EXERCISES
1.In calculation of percentage error the experimental value of speed of light
is 2× 108 𝑚 𝑠. if the theoretical value or known value is 3× 108 m/s
.calculate the
i) Relative error
ii)percentage error.
2. In calculation of percentage error the experimental value of acceleration
due to gravity is 7.8ms-2 if the theoretical value
or known value is 9.8ms-2.calculate:
i) Relative error
ii)percentage error.
continued
3.The learners listed below measured the density of a piece of lead three
times. The density of lead is actually 11.34g/cm3. Below are the results:
a)Rachel:11.32g/cm3,11.35g/cm3,11.33g/cm3
b)Daniel:11.43g/cm3,11.44g/cm3,11.42g/cm3
c)Emmy:11.55g/cm3,11.34g/cm3,11.04g/cm3
i) Whose results were accurate?
ii) Whose result were precise?
iii) Whose measurement were both accurate and precise?
Group exercises
1. The learner measured the length of a piece of metal and got three
measures. If the actual length of that metal is 500cm.
The results are listed below:472.4cm,476cm,475cm.
a)Are the result accurate with actual value?
b)Are they precise?
The results are listed below:503.5cm,502.8cm and,497.4cm.
b)Are they precise?
Continued , Q1
The results are listed below:430.2cm,480.5cm,521cm.
b)Are they precise?
Continued Q2
1. Look at the picture , boy travels from D to A, A to B, B to C and C to
D. Displacement from D to D.
Find distance and displacement covered.

continued
2. John walks from the point A to B to C. What does the distance he
travel? What is the displacement?
Continued Q & A
1. What is a physical quantity?
• A physical quantity is a characteristic or property of any physical object that can
be measured or quantified using units of measurement.
2. What are sources of errors in the measurement of a physical quantity?
• Sources of errors in measurement can arise from limitations in the measuring
instrument, the experimenter, the environment, or the object being measured.
3. What is systematic error?
• Systematic error is a type of error that consistently occurs in the same direction,
leading to a deviation between the measured value and the true value of a physical
quantity.
4. Give an example of systematic error.
• An example of systematic error is a digital weighing scale that always measures
0.1 grams less than the actual weight of an object due to a calibration issue.
5. What is random error?
• Random error is a type of error that occurs unpredictably and cannot be eliminated
completely, leading to fluctuations in measured values around the true value of a
physical quantity.
Continued Q & A
6. Give an example of random error.
• If an experimenter measures the temperature of a liquid multiple times and obtains slightly
different values each time due to uncontrollable factors like temperature fluctuations in the
surroundings, these variations would be considered random errors.
7. What is instrument error?
• Instrument error is a type of systematic error caused by faults or defects in the measuring
instrument itself, leading to inaccuracies in measured values.
8. Give an example of instrument error.
• If a measuring device has a faulty sensor that consistently reads a temperature value 2°C higher
than the actual temperature, all measurements taken with this instrument will have a systematic
error of +2°C.
9. What is personal error?
• Personal error is a type of systematic error caused by mistakes or limitations in the experimenter's
technique or perception, resulting in measurement inconsistencies.
10. Give an example of personal error.
• An experimenter might read a value from a measurement instrument incorrectly by accidentally
misreading the scale or misaligning the sight-line. This would introduce a systematic error due to
personal error.
UNIT2:QUALITATIVE ANALYSIS OF
LINEAR MOTION
Definition:
Linear motion is motion of a body in a straight line.
TYPES OF LINEAR MOTION
They are two types of linear motion
1:Uniform linear motion
2:Non-uniform linear motion
Uniform linear motion is motion with constant velocity or zero
acceleration.
Non-uniform linear motion is motion with variable velocity or non
zero acceleration.
UNIFORM LINEAR MOTION OR
UNIFORM RECTILINEAR MOTION
Some definitions.
REST occur when a body does not move.
MOTION occur when a body goes.
TRAJECTORY: is path followed by a moving body.
DISTANCE is total length covered by a moving body.
DISPLACEMENT is oriented distance.
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN DISTANCE
AND DISPLACEMENT
DISTANCE DISPLACEMENT
DISTANCE IS total length DISPLACEMENT is
covered by a moving body. oriented distance.
DISTANCE is scalar DISPLACEMENT is a

quantity. vector quantity.
DISTANCE is bigger than DISPLACEMENT is

displacement. smaller than distance.
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN SPEED AND
VELOCITY
Speed is distance divide by time.
𝑫𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝐦
Speed= unit of speed is " 𝐬"
𝑻𝒊𝒎𝒆
Velocity is displacement divide by time.

𝑫𝒊𝒔𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒄𝒆𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝐦
Velocity= unit of Velocity is " 𝐬"
𝑻𝒊𝒎𝒆
continued
SPEED VELOCITY
SPEED IS distance divide by Velocity is displacement

𝑫𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆
time (Speed= ). divide by time.
𝑻𝒊𝒎𝒆 𝑫𝒊𝒔𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒄𝒆𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕
( Velocity= )
𝑻𝒊𝒎𝒆
SPEED is a Scalar quantity. Velocity is vector quantity.

GRAPHS OF UNIFORM RECTILINEAR
MOTION OR LINEAR MOTION.
NB: To draw the graph time must be on horizontal axis(X-axis)
other quantities must be on vertical axis (y-axis).
a)Graph of velocity against time at constant velocity
Velocity
(𝐦 𝐬 )
its slope or gradient is equal to zero
TIME(Second)
b)Graph of speed versus time at constant
speed.
Speed(m/s)
Slope is equal to zero
Time(s)
c)Graph of distance versus time
Distance(m) y-axis
𝑦2 ……………………………
𝒚𝟐 −𝒚𝟏
Gradient or Slope= unit of slope is “m/s”
𝒙𝟐 −𝒙𝟏
𝑦1 …………. The gradient or slope represent speed
𝑥1 𝑥2
d)Graph of displacement versus time
Displacement(m)
𝒚𝟐 −𝒚𝟏
𝒚𝟐 …………………………. Gradient or slope= =
𝒙𝟐 −𝒙𝟏
unit of slope is “m/s”
𝒚𝟏 …………… The slope represent velocity
Time(s)
𝒙𝟏 𝒙𝟐
EXERCISES
1.Plot graph of the following data and find its slope or gradient.
Speed 3 3 3 3 3 3
(m/s)
Time(s) 0 2 4 6 8 10
What is slope or Gradient of your slope or gradient.

2.Draw graph of the following data and find its slope or gradient.
continued
3.The table below shows how the distance of a moving body changes
with time.
Distance(m) 0 2 4 6 8 10
Time(s) 0 1 2 3 4 5
a)Plot the graph of distance against time.

b)What do you say about the form of graph obtained?.
c)Show on the graph how you can calculate the gradient.
d)Calculate the gradient?
e)What is unit of gradient?
f) What gradient represent?
continued
4. The table below shows how the displacement of a moving body changes
with time.
Displacement 0 3 6 9 12 15
(m)
Time(s) 0 2 4 6 8 10
a)Plot the graph of distance against time.

b)What do you say about the form of graph obtained.
d)Calculate the gradient?
e)What is unit of gradient?
NON-UNIFORM LINEAR MOTION
NON-UNIFORM LINEAR MOTION is motion with variable velocity.
TYPES OF NON-UNIFORM LINEAR MOTION are:
-Uniform Accelerated Rectilinear Motion(UARM)
-Uniform Decelerated Rectilinear Motion(UDRM)
Uniform Accelerated Rectilinear Motion(UARM)
-Uniform Accelerated Rectilinear Motion(UARM) is a motion where

velocity increase.
NB:in Uniform Accelerated Rectilinear Motion(UARM) Acceleration
is Positive because initial velocity is less than final velocity.
The general formulae used are:
𝑉𝑓−𝑉𝑖
a= → 𝑉𝑓 = 𝑉𝑖 + 𝑎𝑡
𝑡
1
x= 𝑉𝑖 𝑡 + 𝑎𝑡 2
2
𝑉𝑓 2 = 𝑉 2 𝑖 + 2𝑎𝑥
GRAPH OF UNIFORM ACCELERATED
RECTILINEAR MOTION(a)GRAPH OF
VELOCITY VERSUS TIME
Velocity(m/s)
𝑦2 ……………
𝒚𝟐 −𝒚𝟏
Gradient or slope =
𝒙𝟐 −𝒙𝟏
𝑦1 …… Slope represent acceleration
𝑥1 𝑥2 time(s)
Uniform Decelerated Rectilinear
Motion(UDRM)
-Uniform Decelerated Rectilinear Motion(UDRM) is a motion where
velocity decrease.
NB: in Uniform Decelerated Rectilinear Motion(UDRM) Acceleration
is Negative because initial velocity is greater than final velocity.
The general formulae used are:
1
x= 𝑉𝑖 𝑡 − 𝑎𝑡 2
2
𝑉𝑓 2 = 𝑉 2 𝑖 − 2𝑎(𝑥 − 𝑥𝑜 )
𝑉𝑓 = 𝑉𝑖 − 𝑎𝑡
Continued
Conversion from Kilometre per hour(Km/h) into metre per
second(m/s)
1000𝑚
1Km/h=
3600𝑠
Continued
GRAPH OF UNIFORM DECELERATED
RECTILINEAR MOTION(UDRM)
Velocity(m/s)
Time(s)
EXERCISES
1.Use this table to answer the following questions.
Time(s) 0 2 4 6 8
Velocity(m/s) 0 5 10 15 20
a)Plot the graph of velocity against time.

b)What do you say about the form of graph obtained.
d)Calculate the gradient
e)What is unit of gradient
CONTINUED
2.A motor car is uniformly retarded and brought to rest from a speed of
108Km/h in 15s.find its acceleration.
3.A bus comes to stop, it slows from 9m/s to 0.00m/s in 360s.Find the
average acceleration of the bus.
4.A plane starting at rest at one end of a runway undergoes a constant
acceleration of 4.8m/𝑠 2 for 15s before takeoff.What is its speed at take
off? How long must the runway be for the plane to be able to take off?
5.A car accelerates along a straight road from rest to 75Km/h
in 5seconds.What is the magnitude of its acceleration in m/𝒔𝟐
6.A car with an initial speed of 23.7Km/h accelerates at a uniform rate
of 0.92m/𝑠 2 for 3.6s.Find the final speed and the displacement of the car
during this time.
continued
7. The table below shows the motion of moving body.
TIME(S) 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 10 15
Velocity 0 5 10 15 15 15 15 30 0
(m/s)
(a) Use the above data and plot a graph of velocity on Y-axis against time on X-axis.
(b) From your graph, determine:
i. The acceleration for the first 3 s
ii. The time the acceleration is constant
iii. The deceleration
iv. The distance moved by the body during the first 3 s.
v. Find total distance covered by a moving body.
continued
8 a) Calculate acceleration between OA, AB and BC
b) Calculate the total distance moved by the body.
continued
9. a) What is meant by a uniform velocity?
b) Sketch a graph of a body moving with a uniform velocity. Label
distance on Y-axis and time on X-axis.
c) Write the standard unit of acceleration.
d) The initial velocity of a moving body is 10 m/s. In 5 s time, the
velocity of the body reaches 30 m/s. The body maintains the velocity.
i. Calculate the acceleration of this body.
ii. Calculate the distance moved by the body during the 5 s.
iii. What distance does the body travel in 45 minutes times?
Instantaneous and Average
Velocity
NB:Instantaneous velocity can equal average velocity at any time.
However, if the object is moving at a constant velocity, its instantaneous
velocity will always be its average velocity. We have
considered average over time interval from initial time(t)=0 to final time
(t)=T.
a) Average Velocity
change in position 𝒙𝟐 −𝒙𝟏
average velocity = =
change in time 𝒕𝟐 −𝒕𝟏
Where 𝒙𝟐 is final position
𝒙𝟏 is initial position
𝒕𝟐 is final time
𝒕𝟏 is initial time.
Instantaneous Velocity &Velocity
with constant acceleration
Instantaneous velocity is the velocity of the object at a single instant in
time.
Velocity with constant acceleration By rearranging the equation for
acceleration, we can find a value for the final velocity
Do not confuse acceleration and velocity. Acceleration tells us how fast

the velocity changes, whereas velocity tells us how fast the position
changes.
Displacement with constant acceleration
• For an object moving with constant acceleration, the average velocity
is equal to the average of the initial velocity and final velocity;
ACCELERATION DUE TO GRAVITY AND
FREE FALL
FREE FALL is a motion influenced by gravitational acceleration.
Acceleration due to gravity(g)= 𝟗. 𝟖𝒎/𝒔𝟐 or 10𝒎/𝒔𝟐
Acceleration due to gravity is acceleration used by the earth to attract
object toward itself.
When a body is projected upward it is in Uniform decelerated
rectilinear motion(UDRM) the formulae used are:
1
h= 𝑉𝑖 𝑡 − 𝑔𝑡 2
2
𝑉𝑓 = 𝑉𝑖 − 𝑔𝑡
𝐕f = 𝟎
When a body fall down freely it is in
UNIFORM ACCELERATED RECTILINEAR
MOTION(UARM)
1
The formulae used are:h= 𝑔𝑡 2
2
𝑉𝑓 = 𝑉𝑖 + 𝑔𝑡
𝑉𝑖 is Zero at maximum point.
Were g is acceleration due to gravity in m/𝒔𝟐
𝑉𝑓 is final velocity in m/s
𝑉𝑖 is initial velocity in m/s
h: is height in (m)
NB:Gravitational field is a space where gravitational force can act.
-Above gravitational field a body can not return to the earth.
q2
1. What is uniform rectilinear motion?
• a) Motion in a straight line with constant speed
• b) Motion in a curved path with constant speed
• c) Motion in a straight line with varying speed
• d) Motion in a curved path with varying speed
2. Which of the following is NOT necessary for an object to be in uniform rectilinear motion?
• a) Velocity
• b) Acceleration
• c) Time
• d) Distance
3. A car travels 200 meters in 20 seconds. What is its average speed in uniform rectilinear
motion?
• a) 8 m/s
• b) 10 m/s
• c) 12 m/s
• d) 15 m/s
Q2……………………..
4. If an object is in uniform rectilinear motion, its acceleration is:
• a) Zero
• b) Constant
• c) Increasing
• d) Decreasing
5. An object is moving at a speed of 10 m/s. If it takes 5 seconds to come to a stop, what is its
acceleration in uniform rectilinear motion?
• a) 2 m/s2
• b) 4 m/s2
• c) 8 m/s2
• d) 10 m/s2
6. Two cars are traveling in uniform rectilinear motion. Car A covers a distance of 100 meters in 10
seconds, while car B covers a distance of 200 meters in 20 seconds. Which car has a higher average
speed?
• a) Car A
• b) Car B
• c) Both have the same average speed
• d) Cannot determine from the given information
Q2……………..
7. A ball is thrown upwards in uniform rectilinear motion. What is its acceleration at
the highest point of its trajectory?
• a) Zero
• b) Positive
• c) Negative
• d) Cannot be determined without additional information
8. An object is thrown vertically upwards in uniform rectilinear motion. What is the
sign of its velocity at the highest point of its trajectory?
• a) Positive
• b) Negative
• c) Zero
• d) Cannot be determined without additional information
9. A train is moving at a constant speed of 80 km/h for a distance of 200 km. How long
will it take to cover this distance in uniform rectilinear motion?
• a) 2 hours
• b) 2.5 hours
• c) 3 hours
• d) 4 hours
EXERCISES
1.A stone dropped from the top of a building takes 6s to reach the
ground.
a)What is the height of the building?
b)How far will the stone fall during fifth second.
2. A man fires a stone out of a slingshot directly upwards. The stone has
an initial velocity of 15m/s. How long will take for the stone to return to
the level he fired it at?
3. A ball is thrown upwards with an initial velocity( 𝑉𝑖 ). After 3s the
velocity of the ball upwards is determined to be 10m/s. Calculate the
value of the initial velocity u. Use g = 10m/s2.
4. Is it possible to add a vector quantity to a scalar quantity? Explain
continued
5. a) Is an object accelerating if its speed is constant? b) Is an object
accelerating if its velocity is constant?
6. If you know the position vectors of a particle at two points along its
path and also know the time it took to get from one point to the other,
explain how you will determine the particle’s instantaneous velocity and
its average velocity.
UNIT3:FRICTION FORCE
REVIEW ON CONTACT AND NON-CONTACT FORCES
NON-CONTACT FORCES are forces that act on an object without
coming physically in contact.
Examples: Gravitational force, Magnetic force and all forces which act
in a Field.
CONTACT FORCES are forces that require contact to occur.
Examples-Air resistance force: Force that air exert.
-Upthrust force :Force that water use to push object upward.
-Friction force: Force between two surfaces in contact that
oppose motion of bodies.
continued
NB:Forces between two surfaces enable us to write, to walk, lighting on
a match box, to lift heavy object upward.
FRICTION FORCE
DEFINITION:
FRICTION FORCE is a force between two surfaces in contact that
oppose motion of bodies.
TYPES OF FRICTION FORCE
They are two types of friction force:
-static friction force
-kinetic friction force
a) STATIC FRICTION FORCE
STATIC FRICTION FORCE :Static friction is a force
between two bodies in physical contact that are NOT moving.
Mathematically this force is: 𝑭𝒔𝒕 = 𝝁𝒔 × 𝑭𝑵
Where:𝑭𝒔𝒕 :static friction force
-𝝁𝒔 Coefficient of static friction force
-𝑭𝑵 is normal reaction force.
NB:-(𝑭𝑵 ) normal reaction force=Gravitational force= 𝑚𝑔
Where: 𝑚 is mass
𝑔is acceleration due to gravity
b)KINETIC FRICTION
KINETIC FRICTION :Kinetic friction is the frictional force between
bodies that are in physical contact but are in motion relative to one
another.
MATHEMATICALLY: 𝑭𝒌𝒇 = 𝝁𝒌 × 𝑭𝑵
where: -𝑭𝒌𝒇 :kinetic friction force
-𝝁𝒌 Coefficient of kinetic friction force
-𝑭𝑵 is normal reaction force.
Example
1. A block weighing 200 N is pushed along a surface. If static friction
force is 80 N and the kinetic friction force of 40 N is needed to keep the
block moving at a constant velocity, what are the coefficients of friction
μs and μk?.
ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES
OF FRICTION FORCE
a)ADVANTAGES OF FRICTION FORCE
-Friction force enable us to write
-Friction force enable us to make fire
-Friction force enable us to make brakes of cars, bicycle.
-Friction force reduce speed of a moving body
- Friction force generate heat
- Friction force in general control the motion
- Friction reduce accident of cars
NB:-Without Friction we can’t walk because our feet would slip so
friction control our motion.
-The car can cause more accident as car slides.
b) DISADVANTAGES OF FRICTION
FORCE
-Friction force damages our shoes
-Friction force Damages tyres of car,bicycle,motor.
-Friction force produce unwanted noise
-Friction force produce unnecessary heat.
-Friction damages sliding surfaces that are in contact.
FACTORS AFFECTING FRICTION
-The nature of the surface.
-The force pressing surface
-The types of shape
-Speed of a moving body.
METHOD OF REDUCING OR DECREASING
AND INCREASING FRICTION FORCE.
METHOD OF REDUCING OR DECREASING FRICTION
FORCE
-Friction is generally decreased by making the surface very smooth.
-by oiling
-by painting
-by lubrication: separation of two contacting surfaces with an
intermediate layer of softer material.
INCREASING FRICTION FORCE
Friction force is increased by making surface very rough.
continued
LAWS OF SOLID FRICTION
a)Friction is a force between two surfaces that oppose their relative
motion.
b)The frictional force is independent of the area of contact of a given
surfaces when the normal reaction is constant.
c)The limiting frictional force is proportional to the normal reaction for
the case of static friction.
FORCES THAT ACT ON A MOVING CAR
CONTINUED
NB: A car moves if friction force is less than driving
force.
Other resistance forces
1. Tensional forces: is force transmitted through a
string,rope,cable or wire.
2. Normal forces: Is a force perpendicular to the surface.
3. Air Resistance forces: force exerted by compressed or
stretched spring.
4. Magnetic force: Force used by magnet to attract object.
5. Gravitational forces: Force that earth use to attract object.
FREE BODY DIAGRAM
Free-body diagrams are diagrams that show us all forces acting upon
an object in a given situation.
STRATEGIES TO SOLVE QUESTION
USING FREE BODY DIAGRAM
1.The net force is sum of all forces applied on object= mass ×
𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝑭𝒏𝒆𝒕 = 𝒎 × 𝒂
where 𝒎 is mass
𝒂 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
2.If there is no directional acceleration the opposite forces are equal.
EXERCISE
1. A rightward force is applied to a 6-kg object to move it across a rough
surface at constant velocity. The object encounters 15 N of frictional
force. Use the diagram to determine the gravitational force, normal
force, net force, and applied force. (Neglect air resistance.) Use g= 9.8 𝑠𝑚
2
continued
Fnet = 0 N; Fgrav = 58.8 N; Fnorm = 58.8 N; F applied = 15 N
When the velocity is constant, a = 0 m/s/s and F net = 0 N
Since the mass is known, F gravity can be found: F gravity = m • g = 6 kg •
9.8 N/Kg = 58.8 N
Since there is no vertical acceleration, the normal force equals the
gravity force.
Since there is no horizontal acceleration, F friction = F applied = 15 N
continued
2. A rightward force is applied to a 5kg object to move it across a rough
surface with a rightward acceleration of 2m/𝑠 2 . The coefficient of
friction between the object and the surface is 0.1. Use the diagram to
determine the gravitational force, normal force, applied force, frictional
force, and net force. (Neglect air resistance).
continued
3. A rightward force is applied to a 10kg object to move it across a
rough surface at constant velocity. The coefficient of friction between
the object and the surface is 0.2. Use the diagram to determine the
gravitational force, normal force, applied force, frictional force, and net
force. (Neglect air resistance).
continued
4. Free-body diagrams for four situations are shown below. The net
force is known for each situation. However, the magnitudes of a few of
the individual forces are not known. Analyse each situation individually
and determine the magnitude of the unknown forces.
continued
5. A 5kg object is sliding to the right and encountering a friction force
which slows it down. The coefficient of friction (μ) between the object
and the surface is 0.1. Determine the force of gravity, the normal force,
the force of friction. (Neglect air resistance)
Exercises(HOMEWORK)
6.You spill a bucket of soapy water on a marble floor accidentally. Would it
make it easier or more difficult for you to walk on the floor? Why?
7.Explain why athletes use shoes with spikes
8.Ineza has to push a lighter box and Shema has to push a similar heavier box
on the same floor. Who will have to apply a larger force and why?
9.Give examples to show that friction is both a friend and a foe.
10.Explain why objects moving in fluids must have special shapes.
11.How friction force help us to walk on the land
12.How can we increase friction?
13.How can we decrease friction?
continued
14.Free-body diagrams for four situations are shown below. For each
situation, determine the net force acting upon the object.
continued
15. Eduardo applies a 4.25N rightward force to a 0.765kg book to
accelerate it across a table top. The coefficient of friction between the
book and the table top is 0.410. Determine the acceleration of the book.
UNIT 4: DENSITY AND PRESSURE
IN SOLIDS AND FLUIDS
REVIEW ON DENSITY
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠
Definition: DENSITY=
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
𝑔 𝐾𝑔
unity of density is 3 𝑜𝑟 3
𝑐𝑚 𝑚
The symbol of density is ρ read Rho
NB:water has maximum density of 1000kg/𝑚3 at 4ºC because water has
minimum or smaller volume at 4ºC
𝑫𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝒐𝒇 𝒍𝒊𝒒𝒖𝒊𝒅
SPECIFIC GRAVITY=
𝑫𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝒐𝒇 𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓
NB:-OBJECT SINK IN WATER BECAUSE THEY HAVE BIGGER
DENSITY THAN THAT OF WATER.
- OBJECT FLOAT BECAUSE THEY HAVE SMALLER DENSITY
THAN THAT OF WATER
EXERCISES
1. a liquid has a specific gravity of 0.9 .Find its density if density of
water is 1000kg/𝑚3
2. a) The density of sea water is greater than the density of pure water.
Why?
b) The volume of a substance is 280 𝑐𝑚3 and its mass is 336 g.
Calculate the density of the substance.
3. The mass of a body is 0.026 kg and its density is 1.3 kg/𝑚3 . Calculate
the volume of the body. Express the answer in standard form.
4. a) Explain why a piece of iron sinks in water but an iron ship floats in
water.
b) Calculate the mass of cement of 0.4 𝑐𝑚3 and a density of 3000
kg/𝑚3 .
continued
5.Calculate the mass of 6𝑐𝑚3 copper. The density of copper
36 g/ 𝑐𝑚3 .
6. a) Why does a piece of dry wood float in water?
b) A cylindrical metal has a diameter of 14 cm and height 5 cm. Find its
mass if its density is 19 g/𝑐𝑚3 . (π = 22/7) Express the answer in Kg
7. (a) Why is the density of the ocean water greater than the density of
rain water?
(b) 5000𝑐𝑚3 of paint has a mass of 6.5 kg. Calculate the density of the
paint.
8. Why does the water have maximum density at 4 ℃
continued
9. A body has a volume of 15𝑐𝑚3 and mass of 27 𝑔 what is its density?
Give the answer in kg/𝑚3 .
10. A student curried out an experiment to determine the density of a
liquid. Different masses of the liquid were measured and their respective
volumes. The table below shows the results obtained.
Mass/g 4 8 12 16 20 24
Volume/ 5 10 15 20 25 30
𝑐𝑚3
a) Plot a graph of mass (Y-axis) against volume (X-axis).

b) Does the graph start from the origin? explain your answer.
c) Show on graph how you can calculate slope or gradient.
continued
d)Find slope or gradient from graph
e) Write unit of slope or gradient
f)What slope represent.
continued
1. You are required to find the density of an irregular stone (stone
without a define geometrical shape).
a) List the apparatus you may use.
b) Describe how you carry out the experiment to determine:
i. The volume of the stone
ii. The mass of the stone
c) Write the equation you may use to calculate the density of the stone.
CONTINUED
2. (a) Why is the density of the ocean water greater than the density of
rain water
b.Calculate the mass of 6𝑐𝑚3 copper. The density of copper
36 g/ 𝑐𝑚3 .
3. a) Why does a piece of dry wood float in water?
The mass of a body is 0.026 kg and its density is 1.3 kg/𝑚3 . Calculate
the volume of the body. Express the answer in standard form.
b) A cylindrical metal has a diameter of 14 cm and height 5 cm. Find its
mass if its density is 19 g/𝑐𝑚3 . (π = 22/7) Express the answer in Kg
continued
4. A body has a volume of 15𝑐𝑚3 and mass of 27 𝑔 what is its density?
Give the answer in kg/𝑚3 .
5. 5000𝑐𝑚3 of paint has a mass of 6.5 kg. Calculate the density of the
paint.
6. Why does the water have maximum density at 4 ℃
continued
continued
1.Definition and units of pressure
PRESSURE is the force per unit area.
The symbol of pressure is “p”
Formulae of pressure
𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒
Pressure(p)=
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎
Systematic international Unit of pressure is 𝑁/𝑚2
continued
Using symbol
𝐹
𝑃= where -F is Force in Newton(N)
𝐴
-A is Area in 𝑚2
-P is pressure in 𝑁/𝑚2
NB:The Pascal (symbol: Pa) from Blaise Pascal is the Systematic
international unit of pressure.
1Pa =1 N/𝒎𝟐 = 1 kg/m·𝒔𝟐
continued
ONE PASCAL(1pa) is a force of one newton that acts on an area of
one meter squared(1𝑚2 )
NB:-As area increase ,pressure decrease.
-As area decrease, pressure increase.
Exercises
1.Calculate the Pressure on the surface when a force of 30N acts
on area of 0.2𝑚2 .
continued
2. (a) Define pressure and state its SI unit.
(b) Find the pressure in Pa of force, F = 45N and applied on a
triangle of base of 5m and height of 3m.
3.Why a nail has a sharp edge?
continued
5. Which of the shoes shown below causes most damage?
4.Why high heeled shoes damage surface of a wooden floor?

5. A substance has mass of 3kg submitted by acceleration of
9m/𝑠 2 .
a) Find the force in Newton.
b) What is the pressure of it on a square of 4m for a side?
GREATEST AND SMALLEST PRESSURE
𝑭𝑶𝑹𝑪𝑬
a) GREATEST Pressure=
𝑺𝒎𝒂𝒍𝒍𝒆𝒔𝒕 𝑨𝒓𝒆𝒂
𝑺𝒎𝒂𝒍𝒍𝒆𝒔𝒕 𝑨𝒓𝒆𝒂 = 𝑷𝒓𝒐𝒅𝒖𝒄𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒘𝒐 𝒔𝒎𝒂𝒍𝒍𝒆𝒔𝒕 𝒏𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒔
𝑭𝑶𝑹𝑪𝑬
b) SMALLEST PRESSURE=
𝑮𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒔𝒕 𝑨𝒓𝒆𝒂
𝑮𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒔𝒕 𝑨𝒓𝒆𝒂=𝑷𝒓𝒐𝒅𝒖𝒄𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒘𝒐 𝒃𝒊𝒈𝒈𝒆𝒔𝒕 𝒏𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒔.
Example
1. a) Define pressure and state the S.I unit in which pressure
can be expressed.
b) A brick of mass 3kg measures 6cm by 4cm by 3cm.
(i) What is the greatest pressure it can exert when placed on
a flat surface.
(ii) What is the least pressure it can exert?
Use g=10N/kg
continued
2. a) Define the term pressure.
b) A stone exerts a pressure of 500 N/𝑚2 on a surface. If the stone is 0.5 kg,
calculate the area of the stone in contact with the surface.
3. A mass of 20 kg rests on a square surface measuring 0.2 m by 0.2 m.
Calculate the pressure exerted by the mass on the surface. Take g = 10 N/kg.
4. a) Calculate the pressure on a surface when a force of 30 N acts on an area
of:
i. 0.2𝑚2
ii. 0.1𝑚2
b) Explain why a nail is pointed at one end.
continued
5. A stone exerts a pressure of 500 N/𝑚2 on a surface. If the stone is 0.5
kg, calculate the area of the stone in contact with the surface.
TWO KINDS OF SOURCE OF PRESSURE
1. Ambient sources of pressure
are usually occurred when a force is exerted on a gas or a liquid.
Ambient pressure. is the pressure of the surrounding medium, such as
a gas or liquid, in contact with the object
2. Localised pressure sources
are usually discrete objects, when a force is exerted on solids and liquid.
OTHER UNITS OF PRESSURE
1hPa =100 Pa = 1 millibar(mb)
1Atmosphere(Atm)=100,000 Pa = 1 bar = 760
Torricelli(Torr)=760millimeter of mercury(mmHg)
INSTRUMENTS THAT MEASURE PRESSURE
1.MANOMETER measures pressure in liquids.
2. MERCURY BAROMETER measures pressure in air or in gas.
STATIC FLUID PRESSURE
FLUID is any substance that can flow and take shape of container.
FACTORS THAT PRESSURE IN STATIC FLUID DEPENDS ON ARE:
- depth of the fluid.
- the density of the fluid
- acceleration of gravity.
CALCULATION OF PRESSURE IN FLUID
𝑷static fluid = ρ𝒇 × 𝒈 × 𝒉
MEANS THAT PRESSURE IN FLUIDS INCREASE AS
-Depth or height increase.
-Density of fluid increase.
-Acceleration due to gravity increase.
DERIVATION of pressure in fluids
Static fluid pressure does not depend on the
Shape, total mass, or surface area of the liquid.
Volume(V)= hA
𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑚𝑔 ρ𝑉𝑔
PRESSURE= = = = ρgh
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝐴 𝐴
EXERCISES
1.a) i) With the aid of a diagram show how pressure in a liquid increases
with depth of the liquid.
ii) Name another quantity, besides depth of a liquid, on which variation
of pressure in liquids depends.
b) The density of lake water is 1000 kg/𝑚3 . The pressure at a point A
below the surface of the lake water is 45000 Pa. Calculate the depth of
the point A under the surface of the lake water.
2. The pressure in water pipe at a mouth of a tap is 3× 103 Pa. What is
the height of the water pipe? g=10m/𝑠 2 and the density of water is
1000kg/𝑚3 .
continued
3. a) Which instrument would you use to measure atmospheric
pressure?
b) Calculates the pressure exerted by water at 10 m below the surface of
the water in a lake. and density 1000 kg/𝑚3 . g=10N/Kg
ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE
Definition.
𝑾𝑬𝑰𝑮𝑯𝑻 𝑶𝑭 𝑨𝑰𝑹 𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒓 ×𝒈
ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE= =
𝑨𝑹𝑬𝑨 𝑶𝑪𝑪𝑼𝑷𝑰𝑬𝑫 𝑩𝒀 𝑨𝑰𝑹 𝑨
UNIT OF ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE IS ATMOSPHERE(Atm)
1Atmosphere(Atm)=100,000 Pa = 1 bar = 760
Torricelli(Torr)=70millimeter of mercury(mmHg)
1Atm=100,000 Pa = 1 bar = 760 Torr=70mmHg
INSTRUMENT THAT MEASURES ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE
We measure Atmospheric pressure by using MERCURY BAROMETER.

DRAWING OF MERCURY BAROMETER
continued
Mercury barometer, consisting of a long glass tube full of mercury
inverted over a dish of mercury and level of mercury fall down up to
760mm at equilibrium because of atmospheric pressure.
Torricelli’s experiment
The Italian physicist and mathematician Evangelista Torricelli (1608-
1647) in a laboratory measured the atmospheric pressure for the first
time.
NB:The purpose of his experiment is to prove that the source
of vacuum comes from atmospheric pressure.
Procedures: Torricelli filled a mercury barometer, (closed at one end)
and inverted it on a dish full of mercury. Immediately the column of
mercury went down several centimetres, remaining static at some 76cm
(760mm) of height. he observed that the pressure was directly
proportional to the height of the mercury column (Hg), the millimetre of
mercury was adopted as a measurement of pressure. That way, the
pressure corresponded to a column of 760mm.
continued
VARIATION OF ATMOSPHERIC
PRESSURE WITH ALTITUDE
Atmospheric Pressure decreases with increasing altitude.
Because At higher elevations or at higher altitude , there is smaller
weight of air while at lower levels bigger weight of air .
PROVE OF EXISTENCE OF ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE WITH
INVERTED GLASS
Water remain inside because pressure due to water is less than

atmospheric pressure.
Prove of existence of atmospheric pressure by inverting a glass of water
covered by a sheet of paper: when the glass was turned downwards, water
remained inside. because Atmospheric pressure keeps the paper into contact
with the upturned glass, thus keeping the water in the glass.
APPLICATION OF PRESSURE IN REAL LIFE
1.A nail has sharp edge to increase pressure and its penetration.
2. Lorries with many and large tyres to decrease pressure so that
they do not penetrate easily.
3. Camel or elephant wide pads to decrease pressure so that they do
not penetrate easily.
continued
4. Drinking straw
When you suck on a straw, makes atmospheric pressure higher than
the pressure in the straw, which forces the liquid to go up into
the straw, and into your mouth.
continued
5. Siphon
A practical siphon, operating at typical atmospheric pressures and tube
heights, works because gravity pulling down on the taller column of
liquid leaves reduced pressure at the top of the siphon.
EXERCISES
1. Copy and fill in the blanks the missing words:
Pressure tells us how concentrated a ------------ is. It is measured in
------------- or ------------, and is calculated using the equation: p = ---
---------. A force of 12N acting over an area of 2𝑚2 causes a pressure
of ------------. If the area were less, the pressure would be ------------
----------. The dimensions of velocity are ------------. The dimensions
of pressure are ------------.
2. A book of mass 500g is lying on a table. Its cover measures
25cm by 29cm. What pressure does it exert on the table?(g=10N/kg)
continued
3. A pupil carried out the experiment to determine density of stone and obtained
the following results.
-Mass of stone= 26 g
-Volume of water in measuring cylinder = 40 𝑐𝑚3
-First level of water only in the measuring cylinder = 20𝑐𝑚3
-Level of water in the measuring cylinder + stone = 70𝑐𝑚3
Calculate the density of the test tube(stone) and express the answer in kilograms
per cubic meter.
4. The hind tyres of a tractor are larger than those of a car. Give a scientific
explanation for this difference.
5.Why pressure in liquid increase by increasing of depth but atmospheric
pressure decreases with altitude?
6.Why to distribute water tanks must be on mountain? .
7.Why weight of a body on the moon is smaller than its weight on earth?
UNIT 5:Measuring Liquid Pressure
with a Manometer
MANOMETER is instrument used to measure pressure in liquid.
The manometer is a wet meter which means that the fluid whose
pressure is being measured is brought in contact with another fluid.
This manometer is very easily constructed. It consists of a tube of glass
bent into a U shape. It is then filled with a fluid. The density of the
fluid dictates the range of pressures that can be measured. Both ends of
the tube are pressure ports. If one port is left open to the atmosphere
and the other port is connected to the pressure to be measured, the
device acts as a gauge pressure meter.
continued
continued
NB:Liquid inside Manometer is MERCURY because it is denser than
water.
-Pressure is a scalar quantity because it has only magnitude
EQUILIBRIUM OF A LIQUID AT REST
continued
ISO means SAME
ISOBARS is a surface of same pressure.
EQUILIBRIUM OF A LIQUID IN A COMMUNICATING
CONTAINER.
The fluid levels are the same in each tube irrespective of their shape and
size.
Equilibrium of several non-miscible liquids
NON-MISCIBLE LIQUIDS are liquid that can not be mixed.
NB:immiscible fluids are superposed according to their decreasing
relative densities from the lightest to the heaviest or smaller up and
higher density down.
INSTRUMENTS THAT MEASURE
ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE.
1:ANEROID BAROMETER(BOURDON GAUGES)
Aneroid barometer measures pressure but does not use liquid while
barometer use liquid called Mercury.
continued
2.MERCURY BAROMETER: it use liquid called Mercury.
3.FORTIN BAROMETER: It does not use liquid.
EXAMPLE
1. a) Draw a diagram of a mercury barometer (simple barometer) and
labelled it.
b) What would be observed if the mercury barometer were taken up a
high mountain? Explain your observation.
c) What is the difference between mercury barometer and an aneroid
barometer?
continued
2. What would happen to the mercury level in a mercury
barometer if:
(a) The atmospheric pressure went down
(b) The atmospheric pressure went up
(c) A little air leaked into the tube above the mercury
(d) The barometer was taken up a high mountain
(e) The temperature of the room where the barometer was, got higher.
3. Water has a lower density than mercury. Is the column of
liquid in a mercury barometer taller or shorter than one in a barometer
using water?
4. If the density of water is 1000 kg/𝑚3 and atmospheric pressure is
100,000 Pa; how high will the column of water in a perfect water
barometer be?
exercises
5.A nurse administers medication in a saline solution to a patient by
infusion into a vein in the patient’s arm. The density of the solution is 1.0 ×
103 kg/𝑚3 and the gauge pressure inside the vein is 2.5 × 103 𝑃𝑎. How high
above the insertion point must the container be hung so that there is
sufficient pressure to force the fluid into the patient? (Use g= 9.8𝑚/𝑠 2 )
UNIT6:PASCAL’S PRINCIPLE AND
ITS APPLICATIONS.
A fluid is defined as a substance that can be compressed.
Fluids are a subset of the phases of matter and include liquids, gases
and plasmas.
NB:The most common fluid, water, has maximum density of
1000kg/𝑚3 at 4ºC because at this temperature water has small
volume . Air, a mixture composed principally of the gases nitrogen
(78%) and oxygen (21%),
PASCAL’S PRINCIPLE
States that: “pressure applied to a fluid in container, is transmitted
equally to every part of the fluid.”
PASCAL’S PRINCIPLE CALCULATION
A hydraulic pump is used to lift a car, When a small force 𝐹1 is
applied
𝑭𝟏
to a small area A of a movable piston it creates a pressure P= This
𝑨
pressure is transmitted to and acts on a larger movable piston of area
𝑭𝟐 which is then used to lift a car.
continued
APPLICATION OF PASCALS PRINCIPLE
It is used in –Hydraulic lift.
-Hydraulic brake or brake of car
-Water tower (to distribute water) water tanks should be
at high elevation or mountain to increase pressure.
-Hydraulic jack
NB: All involves transmission of pressure in fluids.
-We use liquid in applications of Pascal's principle because is
transmitted easily in liquid.
EXERCISES
1.a) What is the pressure at B?
b) What is the pressure at A?
c) What is the weight of the vegetable on the large piston A if the weight
bridge is in equilibrium? Use(g=10N/Kg)
continued
2. Calculate force 𝑭𝟐 and 𝑃1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑃2 .
continued
3.a) It is better to use a liquid in hydraulic machines than a gas. Why?
b) Give two examples where transmission of pressure in liquids is applied.
4.a) Briefly explain how a hydraulic press(brake of car) works. Use a labelled
diagram to make your answer clear.
b)Where is transmission of pressure in liquids applied in cars?
5. (a) The 70kg learner in figure below balances a 1200kg elephant on a
hydraulic lift. i)What is the force exerted by the learner is standing
ii) Find pressure if small area of 2𝑚2 𝑖𝑠 𝑢𝑠𝑒𝑑.
(b) Determine the force that will lift an elephant at an area of 12𝑚2
c)State Pascal's principle.

UNIT 7:ARCHIMEDES PRINCIPLE
States that- “When object is placed in water the buoyant force or up
thrust on an object equals the weight of the fluid displaced and
volume of object is equal to volume of water displaced”.
continued
The net force on the object is thus the sum of
the buoyant force and the
object’s weight:
F=W+B
⚫ If the buoyancy of an object exceeds its
weight, it tends to rise.
F=B–W
⚫ An object whose weight exceeds its
buoyancy tends to sink.
F=W–B
⚫ Commonly, the object in question is floating
in equilibrium and the sum of the forces on the
object is zero, therefore; F = W – B = 0
continued
You probably noticed that all of the methods

employing Archimedes’ principle with a
balance scale required the subtraction of
two scale readings. Balances compare
forces (weights), but their scales read mass
units (grams).
Example
continued
The weight of object in air is equal to sum of weight of object in air and
weight of object in water.
𝐹 =𝑊+𝐵
Where 𝐹:is the weight of object in air(F=mg)
𝑊:weight of object in water
𝐵:Upward ,up thrust or buoyancy force.
NB:-If the buoyancy of an object exceeds its weight, it tends to rise.
-An object whose weight exceeds its buoyancy tends to sink.
-The upward force ,up-thrust or buoyancy force increases as liquid
become impure.
Example: Object is very lighter in slat water than in pure water.
q
1. a) State two factors which determine the magnitude of upthrust in
liquid.
b) An object completely immersed in pure water displaces 40 𝑐𝑚3 of
water. Calculate the weight of the object in water if the weight of the
object in air is 2 N.
3. State the difference between mass and weight.
EXERCISES
1. a) State Archimedes principle
b) A piece of a metal is weighted
i. in air
ii. full submerged in water
iii. full submerged in a salt solution
The results obtained, but not in correct order, were 6 N, 5 N and 8 N.
Which reading was obtained for b (i), b (ii) and b (iii)
2.You are provided with the following apparatus: spring balance, an
object, a beaker of known weight, water and eureka-can. Outline how
you can verify Archimedes‟ principle. Use diagrams to make your
answer clear.
RELATIVE DENSITY
Archimedes principle state that “When a body is immersed in water,
volume of object is equal to volume of water displaced .
Up-thrust on the body is equal to the weight of water displaced.”
RELATIVE DENSITY OF SOLIDS
𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑎𝑖𝑟
RELATIVE DENSITY(RD)= =
𝑈𝑝𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑢𝑠𝑡 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝐿𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠
𝑾𝟏
RD=
𝑾𝟏 −𝑾𝟐
Where:
Weight of the solid in air: W1
Weight of the solid in water = W2
exercises
1. A body weighs 600g in air and 400g in water. Calculate:
a) Up-thrust on the body,
b) Volume of the body.
c) Relative density of the solid.
2. A solid weighs 50g in air and 44g when completely immersed in
water. Calculate:
a) R.D of the solid
b) Up-thrust
RELATIVE DENSITY OF A LIQUID
loss of weight of sinker in liquid 𝑤1 −𝑤3
RELATIVE DENSITY(RD)= =
loss of weight of sinker in water 𝑤1 −𝑤2
-Record the observations as shown below:
-Weight of the sinker in air =𝑤1
-Weight of the sinker in water =𝑤2
-Weight of the sinker in liquid =𝑤3
-Loss of weight of the sinker in water =𝑤1 − 𝑤2
-Loss of weight of the sinker in liquid = 𝑤1 − 𝑤3
exercises
1. A solid weights 600g in air, 450g in water and 480g in a liquid. Find the:
a) volume of the solid,
b) R.D. of the solid, and
c) R.D. of the liquid.
2.A body weights 20g in air, 18.2g in a liquid and 18.0g in water.
Calculate:
a) the relative density of the body,
b) and relative density of the liquid.
3. A solid weights 32g in air and 28.8g in water. Find how much
will it weight in a liquid of R.D 0.9.
LAW OF FLOATATION
-If weight of object is greater than buoyancy(upward force) force object sink
-If weight is smaller than buoyancy(upward force) object floats
-If weight is same as buoyancy(upward force) ,object stay in the middle.
1. The mass of a block made of certain material is 13.5kg and its volume is
15 x 10−3 𝑚3 . Will the block float or sink in water? Give a reason for your
answer.
continued
2. The density of aluminium is about 2.7 times greater than that of
water, so a block of aluminium will sink when placed in water?.
3. A 70kg ancient statue lies at the bottom of the sea. Its volume is
3.0 × 104 𝑐𝑚3 . How much force is needed to lift it?
Some instruments and their measurements
HYDROMETER is a scientific instrument used to measure the weight
and specific gravity of a gas or liquid in which it floats.
LACTOMETER
It is a special type of hydrometer used for testing the purity of milk or to
check the richness of milk.
BATTERY HYDROMETER
It is used for measuring the relative density of accumulator acid.
continued
SHIPS
In the case of a ship, its weight is balanced by a buoyant force from the
displaced water, allowing it to float.
Unit 8:Work, Power and Energy
WORK
THE WORK is the product of force and displacement.
Or 𝑾𝑶𝑹𝑲 = 𝑭𝑶𝑹𝑪𝑬 × 𝑫𝑰𝑺𝑷𝑳𝑨𝑪𝑬𝑴𝑬𝑵𝑻
𝑭𝒐𝒓𝒎𝒖𝒍𝒂 𝑾 = 𝑭 × 𝒅
Where 𝑾 is work in Newton meter 𝐍𝐦 or Joule(J)
UNIT OF WORK: The Systematic International unit(S I Unit) of Work
Is JOULE(read jool) (In honour of British physicist James Prescott Joule:
1818–1889)
Other unit of work
The units are the same as the units of work:
𝟏 𝑱 = 𝟏 𝑵. 𝒎 = 𝟏 𝒌𝒈𝒎𝟐 /𝒔𝟐
TYPES OF WORK
1.ZERO WORK The work is zero when the displacement is zero despite of
the action of the force.
Example :when you push a wall, The remains in its own position means
zero displacement.
2.POSITIVE WORK occurs when force and displacement are in same
direction.
Example: When you pull a person your force is in same direction with
the displacement you cover.
3.NEGATIVE WORK: occur when force and displacement are in
opposite direction.
Example :When you pull a moving car your force is in opposite direction
with displacement of the car.
POWER
POWER is the time rate at which work is done..
Power is a physical concept that shows us how work is performed.
𝑾𝒐𝒓𝒌 𝒅𝒐𝒏𝒆
or 𝑷𝑶𝑾𝑬𝑹 =
𝑻𝒊𝒎𝒆 𝒕𝒂𝒌𝒆𝒏
Means that if two or more students do same work, the student who does
work in short time is the most powerful than others who do that work in
long time.
Example: If we are taking one slide of notes, the one who writes in short
time has high power than others.
FORMULA AND UNIT OF POWER
𝑾𝒐𝒓𝒌 𝒅𝒐𝒏𝒆
𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟, 𝑷𝑶𝑾𝑬𝑹 =
𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆 𝒕𝒂𝒌𝒆𝒏
𝑾
Using symbols , 𝑷 =
𝒕
Where P is power
w is work done in Joule(J)
t is time taken in second(s)
𝑼𝑵𝑰𝑻 𝑶𝑭 𝑷𝑶𝑾𝑬𝑹
𝑻𝒉𝒆 𝒔𝒚𝒔𝒕𝒆𝒎𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒄 𝒊𝒏𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒏𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏𝒂𝒍 𝒖𝒏𝒊𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒑𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 𝑺. 𝑰 𝑼𝒏𝒊𝒕 𝒊𝒔 𝑾𝒂𝒕𝒕
In honor of James Watt (1736-1819) who discovered power.
𝟏𝑱𝒐𝒖𝒍𝒆
𝟏 𝑾𝒂𝒕𝒕 = 𝒐𝒓 𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒕 = 𝑱/𝒔
𝟏𝒔𝒆𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒅
DEFINITION OF WATT
Watt is a joule per second.
𝟏𝒋𝒐𝒖𝒍𝒆
𝟏𝑾𝒂𝒕𝒕 =
𝟏 𝒔𝒆𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒅
Other unit of power
1kilowatt(Kw)=1000watt
Megawatt(MW)= 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎𝑲𝒘 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝑾𝒂𝒕𝒕
An imperial unit called the horsepower (hp) is sometimes used in
commercial language:1ℎ𝑝 = 736𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑡 = 0.736𝐾𝑤
The kilowatt-hour is the usual commercial unit of electrical energy.
One kilowatt-hour is the total work done in 1 hour (3600s) when the
power is 1 kilowatt (103 J/s).
1kWh = (1000 J/s) (3600s) = 3.6MW
CALCULATION OF POWER IN TERMS
OF FORCE AND VELOCITY
𝑃𝑂𝑊𝐸𝑅 = 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 × 𝑉𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦
Using symbols,
𝑃 =𝐹×𝑉
Where P is power in watt or J/s or
F is force in Newton(N)
V is velocity in m/s
exercises
1. Each of the four jet engines on an Airbus A380 airliner develops a
thrust (a forward force on the airliner) of 322,000 N .When the airplane
is flying at 250 m/s, what power does each engine develop?
2. A man lifts 50 kg of beans through a vertical height of 2 m in 5 s.
Calculate (g= 10𝑁/𝑘𝑔)
i. the minimum force required
ii. the work done
iii. the power of the man
3. a) Name the unit that is the same as a watt.
b) A person takes 1 minute 15 seconds to run a distance of 100 m.
Calculate the person's power if his weight is 600 N.
continued
4. A 193kg curtain needs to be raised 7.5m in as close to 5.0s as
possible. Three motors are available. The power ratings for the
three motors are listed as 1.0kW, 3.5kW, 5.5kW. Which motor is
best for the job?
5. a) A lorry tows a trailer of mass 1800kg at a speed of 45
km/h along a straight road. If the tension in the coupling is
900N, find the power expended by the lorry’s engine.
b) If the trailer is pulled along a stretch of 800m at a new speed
of 60km/h, find the new power output required to create a tension
of 1200N in the coupling.
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN
WORK,POWER AND ENERGY
NB: -Work and Energy are the same.
-All energies have same unit which is JOULE same as Unit of
WORK.
𝑾𝑶𝑹𝑲 𝑬𝑵𝑬𝑹𝑮𝒀
𝑷𝑶𝑾𝑬𝑹 = =
𝑻𝑰𝑴𝑬 𝑻𝑰𝑴𝑬
CALCULATION OF PERSONAL POWER
𝑊𝑂𝑅𝐾 𝐷𝑂𝑁𝐸 𝐵𝑌 𝑃𝐸𝑂𝑃𝐿𝐸
𝑃𝐸𝑅𝑆𝑂𝑁𝐴𝐿 𝑃𝑂𝑊𝐸𝑅 =
𝑇𝐼𝑀𝐸 𝑇𝐴𝐾𝐸𝑁
𝑾𝑶𝑹𝑲 𝑫𝑶𝑵𝑬 𝑩𝒀 𝑷𝑬𝑶𝑷𝑳𝑬 = 𝒎 × 𝒈 × 𝒉

Where m is mass of people in kg
g is acceleration due to gravity
h is height or displacement travelled
Procedures
-Use balance to measure mass of person
-Find force or weight of person(𝑭 𝒐𝒓 𝑾 = 𝒎 × 𝒈)
-Measure displacement made by person(𝑑 𝑜𝑟 ℎ)
-Find work done 𝑾 = 𝑭 × 𝒅 𝒐𝒓 𝑾 = 𝑭 × 𝒉
-Using stopclock,Measure time taken to do the work.
𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒
-Then 𝑃𝑂𝑊𝐸𝑅 =
𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛
example
1. A 50.0-kg marathon runner runs up the stairs to the top of Chicago’s
443-m-tall Willis Tower, the tallest building in the United States To
lift herself to the top in 15.0 minutes, what must be her average
power output? Express your answer in watts, in kilowatts.
2. Anna of 50kg runs 14stairs each with 0.2m,it takes 10 seconds

upstairs and 3 seconds to return down stairs. Find personal power of
Anna to run upstairs and downstairs.
ENERGY
Definition:
ENERGY is ability to do work.
There are several forms of energy in our environment such as heat
energy, light energy, electric energy, nuclear energy, sound energy,
chemical energy stored in petrol, food and other materials,
mechanical energy in moving matter such as water, wind, falling
rocks, etc.
Scientists classify forms of energy into two major categories: Potential
energy and Kinetic energy.
POTENTIAL ENERGY
Definition
Potential energy is energy due to position of body.
FORMULA OF POTENTIAL ENERGY
𝑷𝑬 = 𝒎 × 𝒈 × 𝒉
Where 𝑷𝑬 is potential energy in JOULE(J)
𝒎 is mass of the body
𝒉 𝒊𝒔 𝒑𝒐𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒐𝒓 𝒉𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒄𝒉𝒆𝒅 𝒃𝒚 𝒃𝒐𝒅𝒚
𝑷𝑬
𝒉=
𝒎×𝒈
continued
NB:As height or position increase potential energy increase.
-S I Unit of potential energy is Joule.
EXAMPLE
1.A ball of mass 2kg is kept on the hill of height 3km. Calculate
the potential energy possessed by the ball.
2. The potential energy of a 5 kg mass is 100 J. Calculate how height the
mass is from the ground. Take g = 10 m/𝑠 2 .
KINETIC ENERGY
Definition:
KINETIC ENERGY is energy due to motion of body.
FORMULA OF KINETIC ENERGY
𝒎 × 𝑽𝟐
𝑲𝑬 =
𝟐
Where 𝑲𝑬 is kinetic energy in JOULE(J)
𝒎 Is mass of body in kg
𝑽 is velocity in m/s
continued
NB:-As velocity increases, kinetic energy increases.
-Unit of kinetic energy is JOULE(J)
EXAMPLE
1. A car of mass 100 kg moves at an average speed of 16 m/s.
i) Where does the energy to move the car come from?
Answer: FROM FUEL
ii) What is the Kinetic energy of the car?
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN WORK AND
KINETIC ENERGY
Remember that, 𝐖𝐎𝐑𝐊 𝑾 = 𝑭𝒙 𝒅
,𝑭𝑶𝑹𝑪𝑬 𝑭 = 𝒎 𝒙 𝒂 and time independent formula
𝑽𝟐 𝒇 −𝑽𝟐 𝒊
Shows that 𝒂 =
𝟐𝒅
Then 𝑾 = 𝒎 × 𝒂 × 𝒅
𝑻𝒉𝒆𝒏 𝒃𝒚 𝒓𝒆𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒄𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒂𝒄𝒄𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒃𝒚 𝒊𝒕𝒔 𝒗𝒂𝒍𝒖𝒆
We get 𝑾 = 𝒎 × ×𝒅
𝟐𝒅
By simplifying displacement we get 𝑾 = 𝒎 ×
𝟐
continued
𝒎𝑽𝟐 𝒇 𝒎𝑽𝟐 𝒊
𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑾 = −
𝟐 𝟐
𝒎𝑽𝟐 𝒇 𝒎𝑽𝟐 𝒊
Where 𝐾𝐸𝑓 = 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝐾𝐸𝑖 =
𝟐 𝟐
Implies that 𝑾 = 𝐾𝐸𝑓 − 𝐾𝐸𝑖
Or 𝑾 = ∆𝑲𝑬(change in kinetic energy)
Work is equal to change in kinetic energy.
continued
Where 𝑲𝑬𝒇 is final kinetic energy in Joule
𝑲𝑬𝒊 𝒊𝒔 𝒊𝒏𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒂𝒍 𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒕𝒊𝒄 𝒆𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚 𝒊𝒏 𝑱𝒐𝒖𝒍𝒆
𝑽𝒇 𝒊𝒔 𝒇𝒊𝒏𝒂𝒍 𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚 in m/s
𝑽𝒊 𝐢𝐬 𝐢𝐧𝐢𝐭𝐢𝐚𝐥 𝐯𝐞𝐥𝐨𝐜𝐢𝐭𝐲 𝐦/𝐬
𝒎 𝒊𝒔 𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 in kg
𝒂 𝒊𝒔 𝒂𝒄𝒄𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 in m/𝑠 2
NB: Work, power and all energies are scalar quantities they have only
magnitude.
-All energies have same unity which is Joule.
-Energy of human being comes from food.
-Energy to move a car,motocycle,air plane comes from fuels
continued
1. A 145g baseball is thrown with a speed of 25m/s.
(a) What is its kinetic energy?
(b) How much work was done on the ball to make it reach this speed,
If it started from rest?
2. How much work is required to accelerate a 1000kg car from 20 m/s to
30 m/s in 5seconds?
3. A 7.00kg bowling ball moves at 3.00m/s. How much kinetic energy
does the bowling ball have? How fast must a 2.45g table tennis ball
move in order to have the same energy as the bowling ball?
continued
4. Define (a) Energy, (b) Kinetic energy, (c) Potential energy and (d)
Power.
5. Starting from rest, you push your 1000kg car over a 5m distance, on
an horizontal ground, applying a horizontal 400N force.
a) What is the car kinetic energy change?
b) What is its final velocity at the end of the 5 meters displacement?
6.a) Define the term energy and state its standard unit.
b. Which is the source of energy in an engine of the moving car?
Unit9:Conservation of Mechanical
Energy in Isolated System
SYSTEM AND SURROUNDING AND UNIVERSE

Definition
SURROUNDINGS is everything around us.
SYSTEM is part of universe which we focus on to study.
UNIVERSE= SYSTEM +SURROUNDINGS
3 TYPES OF SYSTEM
1.OPEN SYSTEM is a system where there is exchange of both matter
and energy.
EXAMPLE: An open heated saucepan full of water, water(matter) will
evaporate and water will be boiled(energy change)
2.CLOSED SYSTEM is a system where there is exchange of energy
but matter remain the same.
Example: A closed bottle full of hot water ,water will be cold(exchange
of energy) but quantity of matter remain same.
3.ISOLATED SYSTEM:Is a system where there is no exchange of
both matter and energy.
EXAMPLE: There is no perfect isolated system, but thermos is taken
as example.
Kinetic and potential energy of a system
Kinetic energy is directly proportional to the mass of the object and to
the square of its velocity:
𝒎 × 𝑽𝟐
𝑲𝑬 =
𝟐
Calculate the kinetic energy in Joules possessed by each of the
following objects.
A. A 500g wooden block moving at 2m/s.
B. A 71kg man walking at 1.0m/s.
C. A 71kg man running at 5.0m/s.
D. A 1816kg car travelling at 26.8m/s
POTENTIAL ENERGY
Potential energy is the energy due to position of object.
PE=mgh
EXAMPLE
John has an object suspended in the air. It has a mass of 50 kilograms
and is 50 meters above the ground. How much work would the object
do if it was dropped? Show your work. Work is converted in potential
energy.(g=10N/kg)
Kinds of potential energy
a) Chemical potential energy
Petrol contains energy which makes these vehicles move. Food and
petrol contain energy called chemical potential energy. It is called
chemical energy because it is from the chemical bonds found in the food
or petrol
b) Elastic potential energy
Elastic potential energy Is energy caused by stretched string or spring.
𝑘𝑥 2
𝑃𝐸 =
2
where 𝑃𝐸 is elastic potential energy in JOULE
k is spring constant or spring stiffness in N/m
x is extension in meter
c) Gravitational potential energy
Energy caused by gravity.
PE=mgh
Example: A 10kg object falls from a height of 12m. Calculate the
potential.
Conversion of potential energy into kinetic
energy
MECHANICAL ENERGY
MECHANICAL ENERGY is the sum of potential energy and kinetic
energy.
If:
ME=PE+KE
when PE=0
ME=KE
And if KE=0
ME=PE
Law of conservation of energy
This law states that: “ energy is neither created nor destroyed, but it may
be converted from one form to another.”
TRANSFORMATION OF KINETIC
ENERGY INTO POTENTIAL ENERGY.
NB: -In upwards direction, height increases and velocity decreases,
KINETIC ENERGY is transformed into potential energy.
-In down ward direction, height decreases and velocity increases,
POTENTIAL ENERGY is transformed into kinetic energy
CONTINUED
When an avocado falls down, POTENTIAL ENERGY IS
TRANSFORMED INTO KINETIC ENERGY.
When a stone ,Avocado is raised upward, KINETIC ENERGY IS
TRANSFORMED INTO POTENTAIL ENERGY.
Applications of law of conservation of
mechanical energy
Mechanical energy is conserved or remains constant.
𝑀𝐸1 = 𝑀𝐸2
𝐾𝐸1 + 𝑃𝐸1 = 𝐾𝐸2 + 𝑃𝐸2
1 1
𝑚𝑔ℎ1 + 𝑚𝑉1 = 𝑚𝑔ℎ2 + 𝑚𝑉2 2
2
2 2
EXERCISES ON ENERGY TRANSFORMATION
1. a) Define the term energy and state its standard unit.
b) State the types of energy changes which occur when a torch (which
contains cells) is switched on.(Answer: Electrical energy become light
energy)
c) Which is the source of energy in an engine of the moving car?(answer:
fuel)
d) Name the unit that is the same as a watt. ans:J/s
e)Name unit that is same as Joule(ans: Nm)
f)Name unit same as Newton(ans: kgm/𝒔𝟐 )
2.a)What is energy transformed when a hammer is brought down. Ans
(potential→ 𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒕𝒊𝒄 𝒆𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚)
b)What is energy transformed when avocado fall down.
(ans:potential→ 𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒕𝒊𝒄 𝒆𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚)
Unit 10:Gas Laws’ Experiments
THERMODYNAMICS is The study of heat.
Atom is smallest particle that made that present properties of atom.
Mole is amount of substance.
One mole= 𝟔. 𝟎𝟐𝟑 × 𝟏𝟎𝟐𝟑 𝒑𝒂𝒓𝒕𝒊𝒄𝒍𝒆𝒔
one mole of air then occupies 22.4L (0.224𝑚3 ).
IDEAL GAS
Definition: IDEAL GAS as one which obeys Boyle’s law ,Charles law and Guy
lussac law exactly and whose internal energy is independent of its volume.
GENERAL FORMULA OF IDEAL GAS
There are two important formula of ideal gas that are:
1. 𝑷𝑽 = 𝒏𝑹𝑻
Where:𝑷 is pressure
𝑽 is volume in 𝒎𝟑 𝑶𝑹 𝑳𝒊𝒕𝒓𝒆
𝒏 𝒊𝒔 𝒏𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝒎𝒐𝒍𝒆𝒔
𝑹 𝒊𝒔 𝒊𝒅𝒆𝒂𝒍 𝒈𝒂𝒔 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕(𝑹 = 𝟖. 𝟑𝟏𝟑 𝑱/𝒎𝒐𝒍𝑲
or 𝑹 = 0.0821Latm/molK
T is temperature in kelvin.
continued
𝑷𝟏 𝑽𝟏 𝑷𝟐 𝑽𝟐
2. 𝑻𝟏
=
𝑻𝟐
Where:
𝑷𝟏 is initial pressure in Pascal(Pa) or atmosphere

𝑽𝟏 𝑖𝑠 𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝒊𝒏 𝒎𝟑 𝒐𝒓 𝑳𝑰𝑻𝑹𝑬(𝑳)
𝑻𝟏 𝑖𝑠 𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝒊𝒏 𝒌𝒆𝒍𝒗𝒊𝒏 𝑲
𝑷𝟐 is final pressure inPascal(Pa) or atmosphere
𝑽𝟐 is final volume 𝒊𝒏 𝒎𝟑 𝒐𝒓 𝑳𝑰𝑻𝑹𝑬(𝑳)
𝑻𝟐 is final temperature in 𝒌𝒆𝒍𝒗𝒊𝒏 𝑲
THREE IDEAL GAS LAWS
1. BOYLE’S LAW
State that:
“A constant temperature ,The volume of a gas is inversely proportional to
the pressure”
Definition:
ISOTHERMAL PROCESS OR TRANSFORMATION is a process that
occur at constant temperature.
NB:BOYLE’S LAW occur for isothermal process.
THE FORMULA USED FOR BOYLE’S LAW
𝑷𝟏 𝑽𝟏 = 𝑷𝟐 𝑽𝟐
𝑽𝟏 𝒊𝒔 𝒊𝒏𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒂𝒍 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 𝒊𝒏 𝒎𝟑 𝒐𝒓 𝑳𝑰𝑻𝑹𝑬(𝑳)
GRAPH OF ISOTHERMAL AND BOYLE’S LAW
2.Charles’ law
STATE THAT:
“At constant pressure ,The volume of a given amount of gas is directly
proportional to absolute temperature”
DEFINITION:
ISOBARIC PROCESS OR TRANSFORMATION: is process that
occur at constant pressure.
NB: Charles’ law occurs for isobaric process
THE FORMULA USED FOR CHARLES LAW AND
ISOBARIC PROCESS.
𝑉1 𝑉2
=
𝑇1 𝑇2
𝑽𝟏 𝒊𝒔 𝒊𝒏𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒂𝒍 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 𝒊𝒏 𝒎𝟑 𝒐𝒓 𝑳𝑰𝑻𝑹𝑬 𝑳
𝑻𝟏 𝒊𝒔 𝒊𝒏𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒂𝒍 𝒕𝒆𝒎𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒆 𝒊𝒏 𝒌𝒆𝒍𝒗𝒊𝒏 𝑲
GRAPH OF ISOBARIC AND CHARLES’ LAW
3: LUIS JOSEPH GAY-LUSSAC’S LAW
OR PRESSURE LAW
STATE THAT:
“At constant volume, the pressure of a gas is directly proportional to the
temperature”
DEFINITION:
ISOCHORIC PROCESS OR TRANSFORMATION: is a process that
occur at constant volume.
THE FORMULA USED FOR GUY LUSSAC LAW
𝑃1 𝑃2
=
𝑇1 𝑇2
𝑻𝟏 𝒊𝒔 𝒊𝒏𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒂𝒍 𝒕𝒆𝒎𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒆 𝒊𝒏 𝒌𝒆𝒍𝒗𝒊𝒏 𝑲
GRAPH OF ISOCHORIC AND GUY LUSSAC LAW
DENSITY OF GASES
𝑷𝑴𝒎
DENSITY OF GAS(d)=
𝑹𝑻
Where P is pressure
𝑀𝑚 is molar mass
𝑅 ideal gas constant
(𝑹 = 𝟖. 𝟑𝟏𝟒𝒋/𝒎𝒐𝒍𝑲).
DALTON’S LAW
STATE THAT “The total pressure exerted by a mixture of gases is
equal to the sum of the pressures exerted by the individual
components in the mixture”.
Example: For three gases with pressure 𝑷𝟏 , 𝑷𝟐 , 𝑷𝟑
THE TOTAL PRESSURE(P)=𝑷𝟏 + 𝑷𝟐 + 𝑷𝟑
𝒏
Partial pressure= × 𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆
𝒏𝒕
𝒏 is number of moles of each gas
𝒏𝒕 is total number of moles
REMARK:
𝑇𝐾 = 𝑇𝐶 + 273 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒
𝑇𝐾 𝑖𝑠 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝐾𝑒𝑙𝑣𝑖𝑛
𝑇𝐶 𝑇𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝐼𝑁 𝐶𝐸𝐿𝑆𝐼𝑈𝑆
𝟏𝑨𝒕𝒎 = 101325 Pa=760 Torr=760mmHg
EXAMPLE
1.
What is the density of carbon tetrachloride vapour at 714 torr
and 125°C?
EXERCISES
1. One atmosphere is equal to (Choose the correct answer):
a) 760 cm Hg
b) 760 mm Hg
c) 101325 mm Hg
d) 8.314 mm Hg
2. A gas occupies a volume of 25.8L at 17 °C and under 690mmHg. What
volume will it occupy at 345K and under 1.85atm?
3. Which of the following quantities is not necessary to describe a gas?
(Choose the correct answer)
a) Volume
b) Temperature
c) Amount
d) Pressure density
CONTINUED
4. 10g of nitrogen gas and 10g of helium gas are placed together
in a 10L container at 25°C. Calculate the partial pressure of each
gas and the total pressure of the gas mixture.
5.125𝑐𝑚3 of gas are collected at 15°C and 755 mm of mercury pressure.

Calculate the volume of the gas at s.t.p ( T= 297 K,
V= 22.4 L/mol, P= 1 atm).
continued
6. Dalton’s Law of Partial Pressures states that (Choose the correct

answer):
a) The total pressure exerted by a mixture of gases can be determined
using the Ideal Gas Constant.
b) The pressure of a gas is inversely proportional to both the
temperature and number of moles of the gas.
c) The total pressure exerted by a mixture of gases is equal to the sum of
the pressures exerted by the individual components in the mixture.
Unit11:Magnetisation and Demagnetisation
MAGNETISM
Magnetism is the study of magnet and its properties.
PROPERTIES OF MAGNET
-A magnet has two poles: NORTH AND SOUTH POLE
-Attractive property: Magnet can attract magnetic material or other
magnet.
TWO BASIC LAWS OF MAGNET
-like poles repel each other
- Unlike or opposite poles attract each other.
exercises
Given three magnets with poles
𝑨 → 𝑨′ , 𝐁 → 𝑩′ , 𝐂 → 𝑪′
a) Copy the table and complete what happens when respective poles
are brought together as shown.
b) If A is a south pole, identify other poles.

FERROMAGNETISM
Ferromagnetism are materials that are easily magnetized and keep its
magnetic property for a long time.
Example: Iron and nickel
A magnet keeper is a piece of ferromagnetic material, and is made up
of soft iron that keep property of magnet in long time.
MAGNETIC FIELD AND MAGNETIC
FIELD LINES
MAGNETIC FIELD is a space or region around a magnet where
force of magnet can act.
MAGNETIC FIELD LINES
NB:
-Magnetic field lines are directed from north pole into south pole.
-Magnetic poles have maximum number of magnetic field lines
-Magnetic field lines can not cross each other because they are always
parallel.
continued
NEUTRAL POINT
NEUTRAL POINT is point with zero magnetic field lines .
SHAPES OF MAGNET
MAGNETISATION AND DEMAGNETISATION
ELECTROMAGNET is material that attracts metals only when

electricity is activated or
An electromagnet is a type of magnet in which the magnetic field is
produced by an electric current.
NB: The magnetic field disappears when the current is turned off.
Example :a coil
continued
-Electromagnets are widely used as components of other electrical
devices, such as motors, generators, relays, loudspeakers, hard disks,
MRI machines, scientific instruments, and magnetic separation
equipment.
MAGNETIZATION
Magnetization is The process of making a substance temporarily or
permanently magnet.
1.single or double touch or “single stroke” and “double stroke".
continued
2. Magnetization by induction
When a piece of un-magnetized steel is placed either near to or in
contact with a pole of a magnet and then removed it is found to be
magnetized i.e. it becomes a magnet itself.
3. By Electric Current
By Electric Current is another method of magnetization is by passing
a current in a coil of insulated copper wound round a piece of soft iron.
DEMAGNETIZATION
DEMAGNETIZATION is The method of removing of the magnetic
properties of a magnet.
METHODS OF DEMAGNETIZATION:
1. Hitting a magnet heavily by hammer.
2. Heating a magnet at high temperature.
3. Placing two magnets with same poles facing each other.
USES OF MAGNET
The following uses of magnet are:
(i) Magnet is used to prepare mariner’s compass.
(ii) Electric bell and air pumps used in aquarium, are prepared with
electromagnet.
(iii) Magnet is the main component of all types of speakers, telephone
receivers, head phones etc.
(iv) Magnet is used to fix the door of a refrigerator.
(v) In factories heavy iron articles are lifted by very strong
electromagnets
(vi) Specially designed electromagnets are used to remove iron fillings
from the eyes
MAGNETIC KEEPERS
A magnet keeper, also known historically as an armature, is a bar made
from soft iron or steel, which is placed across the poles of a permanent
magnet to help preserve the strength of the magnet.
WHY REPULSION IS THE SUREST WAY
TO TEST POLES OF MAGNET?
Repulsion and not attraction is a sure test of magnetism. Repulsion is
the surest test because any substance made of iron, nickel, cobalt will
also have attraction but won't have repulsion.
POSITION OF POLES OF MAGNET AND
EARTH
-the geographical south pole shall get attracted by a North magnetic pole
-The geographical north pole is attracted by south pole of magnet.
EXERCISES CLOSING UNIT
1. Copy the bar magnets below and show the magnetic field lines of
force around them. Label the neutral point.
continued
2 .a) Copy the diagram and draw two more magnetic field lines
b) Which of the poles A or B is:

i. a North pole?
ii. a South poles?
continued
3. The diagrams below show repelling bar magnets.
a) Identify magnetic pole A.

b) Copy the diagrams in your answer booklet and draw magnetic field
lines of force around the magnets.
c) Label the neutral point, N.
q
1. (a) State the law of magnet poles.
(b) How would you test that a material is a magnet?
(c) State one property of magnets.
2. a) Name any two methods of making a magnet.
b) Explain why heating a magnet demagnetizes it.
UNIT12:APPLICATIONS OF ELECTROSTATIC
ELECTROSTATICS is a branch of physics that deals with the
phenomena and properties of stationary electric charges.
REVIEU ON CHARGES
NB:Atom is made by two charged particles: ELECTRON and
PROTON
-ELECTRON has NEGATIVE CHARGE
-PROTON has POSITIVE CHARGE
S I Unit of charge is coulomb “C” , micro-coulomb “𝝁𝑪" ,
Nano-coulomb “𝒏𝑪”
𝟏𝝁𝑪 = 𝟏𝟎−𝟔 𝑪
𝟏𝒏𝑪 = 𝟏𝟎−𝟗 𝑪
TWO BASIC OR FUNDAMENTAL LAWS
OF CHARGE
1.LIKE OR SAME CHARGE REPEL EACH OTHER
2.UNLIKE OR OPPOSITE CHARGE ATTRACT EACH OTHER

COULOMB’S LAW (ELECTROSTATIC FORCE)
Coulomb’s law state that :
The force between two charges separated by distance(d) is:
𝒒𝟏 𝒒𝟐
𝑭=𝑲 𝟐
𝒅
Where 𝐹 electrostatic force
𝐾 is coulomb’s constant (𝑲 = 𝟗 × 𝟏𝟎𝟗 𝑵𝒎𝟐 /𝒄𝟐 )
𝑑 is distance between two charges.
𝑞1, 𝑞2 are electric charge in coulomb “C”.
Unit of electrostatic force is Newton(N)
ELECTRIC FIELD
ELECTRIC FIELD is electric force per unit charge.
𝑭
𝑬 = where 𝑭 is electrostatic force in newton :N
𝒒
𝒒 is charge in coulomb :C
𝑬 is electric field in N/C
NB: Other formula of electric field can be
𝒒
𝐄= 𝑲 𝟐
𝒅
NB:Both electric field and force are vectors they have
magnitude and direction.
ELECTRIC FIELD LINES
NB:Electric field lines are directed from positive charge towards
negative charge always.
-Electric field lines can’t touch or cross each other because they
repel each other.
-The number of lines leaving the positive charge equals the number
entering the negative charge.
Positive
charge Negative charge
continued
exercises
1. At what distance from a negative charge of 5.536nC would the
electric field strength be 1.90× 105 N/C?
2. A particle has a charge of –8.00nC. Find the magnitude and
direction of the electric field due to this particle at a point 0.5m
directly above it.
3.Two small spheres spaced 35.0cm apart have equal charge. How
many excess electrons must be present on each sphere if the
magnitude of the force of repulsion between them is 2.20×10−21 N?
ELECTRIC POTENTIAL(V)
Electric potential electric work per unit charge.
𝑾
𝑽= where 𝑾 is electrical work in J
𝒒
𝒒 is electrical charge in coulomb “C”
𝑽 is electric potential in 1J/C= 𝟏 volt (V)
NB: One volt is defined as energy consumption of one joule per
electric charge of one coulomb.
𝒒𝟏 𝒒𝟐
𝑬𝑳𝑬𝑪𝑻𝑹𝑰𝑪 𝑾𝑶𝑹𝑲 𝑾 = 𝑲
𝒅
exercises
1.If it takes 88.3J of work to move 0.721C of charge from a positive
plate to a negative plate, what is the potential difference (voltage)
between the plates?
Relationship between electric field (E) and
electric potential (V)
𝑽
𝑬=
𝒅
where 𝑬 is electric field in N/C or V/m
V :electric potential
d:distance in metre(m)
example
2.Two parallel oppositely charged plates are 5.1cm apart. The potential
difference, in volts, between the plates is 44.6V. Find the electric field
strength between them.
Gauss’s Law
State that “The total of the electric flux out of a closed surface is equal
to the charge enclosed divided by the permittivity ( 𝜀𝑜 ).
𝒒
𝜱=
𝜺𝒐
Where : 𝜀𝑜 permittivity of free space. 𝜀𝑜 = 8.85𝑥10−12 𝑐 2 /𝑁𝑚2
NB:Distribution of Charge over the Surface of a sharp point:
charges are distributed on a small area.
APPLICATION OF ELECTROSTATICS
1.LIGHTENING ARRESTORS
A Lightning Arrester, Surge arrester or Line arrester is a device used
on electrical power systems and telecommunications systems to protect
the damaging effects of lightning.
2. Laser printing is an electrostatic digital printing process.
UNIT13:ARRANGEMENT OF
RESISTORS IN AN ELECTRIC CIRCUIT
REVIEW ON ELECTRIC CURRENT(I)
ELECTRIC CURRENT(I) is the flow of charge per unit time.
𝒒
𝑰=
𝒕
where :𝒒 is charge in coulomb(C)
𝒕 is time in second
𝑰 is current in C/s or Ampere(A)
1A=1C/S
OHM’S LAW
OHM’S LAW state that “Electric potential :
V= 𝑹𝑰
𝑽 𝑽
OR 𝐑= and I=
𝑰 𝑹
WHERE :V is electric potential in volt(V)
𝐑 is resistance in ohm(Ω)
I is current in ampere(A)
GRAPH OF VOLTAGE RERSUS
RESISTANCE
NB:ON THEFOLLOWING of graph The slope represent Resistance
If
Voltage(V) is on y-axis and current(I) on x-axis
-The slope of graph represent Resistance
ARRANGEMENT OF RESISTORS
Resistance is the opposition to the flow of electrical current through
a conductor.
Resistance can be arranged in series or parallel
The symbols of resistance:
a)RESISTANCE IN SRIES
The following circuits are in series
TOTAL RESISTANCE(𝑅𝑡 ) or equivalent resistance

𝑹𝒆𝒒 = 𝑹𝟏 + 𝑹𝟐 + 𝑹𝟑 + 𝑹𝟒
NB: The same current flows through each resistor in series.
continued
Example:
1.Find the equivalent resistance in the circuit below:
b)RESISTANCE IN PARALLEL
The following circuit show resistance in parallel.
The total or equivalent resistance is given by:

1 1 1 1
= + + + ⋯…………….
𝑅𝑒𝑞 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3
ADVANTAGE OF RESISTANCE IN
PARALLEL OVER SERIES
-In a series circuit, resistance increases , meaning the electric current
decreases.
- In a parallel circuit, Resistance decrease and current increases.
- Voltage is same at every point.
- For lamp, voltage is same. For instance, all bulbs in a string
of lights have the same brightness.
- In parallel, The circuit will still work if one bulb gets fused.
example
1.Find equivalent resistor of this circuit and the currents in the circuit.
Circuits with series and parallel components
(In mixture)
-We find firstly resistance in parallel and then we solve for series.
EXERCISES
1.(a) Find the equivalent resistance between points a and b in the figure
below.
(b) A potential difference of 34.0V is applied between points a and b.
Calculate the current in each resistor.
CALCULATION OF ELECTRICAL WORK,POWER IN TERMS
CURRENT(I),RESISTANCE(R) AND VOLTAGE(V)
a)ELECTRICAL WORK
ELECTRICAL WORK(W)= potential difference(voltage) x current
x time
𝑾=𝑽×𝑰×𝒕
Or 𝑾 = 𝑰𝟐 × 𝑹 × 𝒕
𝑽𝟐
𝒘= ×𝒕
𝑹
W:work
R:resistance
V:voltage
t:time
B)ELECTRICAL POWER
𝐸𝐿𝐸𝐶𝑇𝑅𝐼𝐶𝐴𝐿 𝑊𝑂𝑅𝐾
ELECTRICAL POWER(P)=
𝑇𝐼𝑀𝐸
Then 𝑷 = 𝑽 × 𝑰
Or 𝑃 = 𝑰𝟐 × 𝑹
𝑽𝟐
And P =
𝑹
example
1.Using Ohms Law, calculate the equivalent series resistance, the series
current, voltage drop and power for each resistor in the following
resistors in series circuit
TWO EFFECT OF CURRENT
1. The Heating effect of electricity
2.The Chemical effect of the electric current
ELEMENT OF SIMPLE ELECTRIC CIRCUIT
-ELECTRICAL WIRE
-BATTERY
-ELECTRICAL LAMP OR BULB
Unit14:Basic Electronic Components
SOME ELECTRIC DEVICES AND THEIR USE
1.AMMETER: measure current
2.VOLTMETER:measure voltage or potential difference
3.OHMMETER :measure resistance
SOME DEFINITIONS
1.Electronics is the branch of science that deals with the study of flow
and control of electrons
2. semiconductors
are solid substances that are between non metal and metals that conduct
after addition of an impurities.
Example of basic electronic components
-Mobile phone
-Radio
-Computer
-TV
-TORCH
-SPEAKER
-AIR CONDITIONNER
UNIT15:REFLECTION OF LIGHT IN
CURVED MIRRORS
SOME DEFINITION:
MIRRORS is all reflecting surface.
TYPES OF MIRRORS
-plane mirror
-curved mirror
LAW OF REFLECTION
State that:
1-Angle of incident is equal to angle of reflection. θ1 = θ2
2-The incident ray, the normal to the surface and the reflected ray
all lay on the same plane called the plane of incidence.
LAWS OF REFRACTION
Laws of refraction state that:
1.The incident ray, reflected ray and the normal, to the interface of any
two given mediums; all lie in the same plane.
2.The ratio of the sine of the angle of incidence and sine of the angle of
refraction is constant.𝑛1 sin 𝜃1 = 𝑛2 sin 𝜃2
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN REFRACTION
AND REFLECTION OF LIGHT
REFLECTION OF LIGHT is deviation of light ray by mirror
REFRACTION OF LIGHT is penetration of light from one medium
to another.
FORMATION OF AN IMAGE ON A
PLANE MIRROR
Properties of image formed by mirror:

-(I). The size of the image is same as the object.
(II). The distance of the image is the same as the distance of the object from
the mirror.
(III). The image is virtual.
(IV). The image form will be upright.
CURVED MIRRORS
Curved mirrors are: CONCAVE and CONVEX mirror
TERMS AND DEFINITIONS
1.Centre of curvature (C) is the point in the centre of the sphere from
which the mirror was sliced.
2. Vertex is the point on the mirror surface where the principal axis
meets the mirror.
3. Focal point (F) is the point midway between the vertex and centre of
curvature.
4. Radius of curvature(R) is the distance between the centre of the
curvature and the vertex.
5. Focal length (f) is the distance from the mirror to the focal point.
continued
𝑹
𝒇=
𝟐
Where 𝑓:is focal length
𝑅 is radius of curvature
IMAGE FORMED BY CONCAVE MIRROR
CHARACTERISTIC OF IMAGE FORMED
-Image is real
-inverted
-smaller than object
-image is in same side as object.
THE OBJECT (O) IS LOCATED BEYOND
THE CENTRE OF CURVATURE
PROPERTIES
-Image is real
-image is inverted
-image is smaller than object.
-image is in same side as object.
THE OBJECT (O) IS LOCATED AT THE
CENTRE OF CURVATURE
PROPERTIES OF IMAGE
-Image is real
-image is inverted
-image has same size as object.
-Image is in same location as object.
THE OBJECT (O) IS LOCATED
BETWEEN C AND F.
PROPERTIES OF IMAGE
-image is real
-bigger than object
-image is inverted
-image is in same side with object.
IMAGE CHARACTERISTICS FOR
CONVEX MIRRORS
The image (I) for the convex mirror has always the following
properties:
-image is virtual,
Image is upright
Image is diminished. Or smaller than object.
continued
USES OF SPHERICAL MIRRORS
-Concave mirrors are used as reflectors in car headlamps and search
lights and in telescopes.
- Convex mirrors are used as car wing mirrors because they give a wider
field of view than a plane mirror.
THE MIRROR AND MAGNIFICATION
EQUATIONS
a)The mirror equation expresses the quantitative relationship between
object
distance (do), image distance (di), and the focal length (f).The mirror
equation is:
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
= +
𝒇 𝒅𝒐 𝒅𝒊
MAGNIFICATION EQUATION
The magnification equation relates the ratio of image distance to
object distance and the ratio of image height to object height.
𝒅𝒊 𝒉𝒊
𝑴=− =
𝒅𝒐 𝒉𝒐
Where:
M: is magnification without unit
𝑑𝑖 :image distance
𝑑𝑜 :object distance
ℎ𝑖 : 𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑒 ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡
ℎ𝑜 :object height
continued
Notes:
(i) A real image is on the same side of the mirror as the object.
(ii) A virtual image is on the opposite side of the mirror from object.
iii)Focal length is positive for concave mirror and negative for convex
mirror.
iv)Magnification is positive for upright image and negative for inverted
image.
exercises
1. A concave spherical mirror has a focal length of 10.0cm. Locate
the image of a pencil that is placed upright 30.0cm from the mirror.
a) Find the magnification of the image.
b) Draw a ray diagram to confirm your answer.
2. An upright pencil is placed 10.0cm from a convex spherical mirror
with a focal length of 8.00cm. Find the position and the magnification
of the image.
continued
3. A convex mirror of focal length 18cm produces an image on its axis,
6cm away from the mirror. Calculate the position of the object.
4. A concave mirror produces a real image 1cm tall of an object
2.5mm tall placed 5cm from the mirror. Find the position of the image
and the focal length of the mirror.
5.A 1.5cm high diamond ring is placed 20.0cm from a concave
mirror whose radius of curvature is 30.0cm. Determine The position of
the image, and its size.
continued
6.An object of height h = 4cm is placed a distance p = 15cm in front of a
concave mirror of focal length f = 20cm.
a) What is the height, location, and nature of the image?
b) Suppose that the object is moved to a new position a distance p= 25cm in
front of the mirror. What now is the height, location, and nature of the image?
7. A dental technician uses a small mirror that gives a magnification
of 4.0 when it is held 0.60cm from a tooth. What is the radius of the curvature
of the mirror?
END OF YEAR
PROGRAMM
REVISIONAL EXERCISES
1. a) State the differences between density and relative density of substance?
b) A tall person is more likely to fall down than a short person if the two
persons are climbing the same hill. Why?
2. The figure below shows forces E and F acting on a falling drop of water to
the ground.
a) Name force
i. E
ii. F
b) State what causes force E
c) What would happen to the drop of water if forces E and F are equal?
continued
3.Given a driving glass, a piece of paper and some water, draw well labelled
diagrams to show that the air of the atmosphere exerts pressure in all
directions. Give a brief explanation.
4. a) Define the term pressure.
b) What effect does lower air pressure have on boiling point of water?
c) The mass of the rectangular block below is 16 kg.
i. Calculate the pressure exerted on the ground by each of the surfaces A and
B. Take g = 10 N/kg.
continued
ii)What conclusion can you make from your answers about the area in contact
with the surface and the pressure exerted?
5. a) what is the difference between potential energy and kinetic energy?
6. a) State Archimedes‟ principle.
b) A ship of mass 1030 tons floats in sea-water. What volume of sea-water
does the ship displace? Density of sea-water is 1030 kg/m3.

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GS RUSHARA

Luminous intensity(Candela) [cd]

Question :Although the number of physical quantities which we measure is

Density 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑚 𝑘𝑔 [𝑀]

To analyse errors we should define the following terms:

-Uncertainty is that which you don’t know for certain.

Calculation of Absolute and relative

Find distance and displacement covered.

DISTANCE is scalar DISPLACEMENT is a

DISTANCE is bigger than DISPLACEMENT is

Velocity is displacement divide by time.

SPEED IS distance divide by Velocity is displacement

SPEED is a Scalar quantity. Velocity is vector quantity.

𝑦1 …………. The gradient or slope represent speed

What is slope or Gradient of your slope or gradient.

a)Plot the graph of distance against time.

a)Plot the graph of distance against time.

-Uniform Accelerated Rectilinear Motion(UARM) is a motion where

a)Plot the graph of velocity against time.

Do not confuse acceleration and velocity. Acceleration tells us how fast

a) Plot a graph of mass (Y-axis) against volume (X-axis).

4.Why high heeled shoes damage surface of a wooden floor?

We measure Atmospheric pressure by using MERCURY BAROMETER.

Water remain inside because pressure due to water is less than

c)State Pascal's principle.

You probably noticed that all of the methods

𝑾𝑶𝑹𝑲 𝑫𝑶𝑵𝑬 𝑩𝒀 𝑷𝑬𝑶𝑷𝑳𝑬 = 𝒎 × 𝒈 × 𝒉

2. Anna of 50kg runs 14stairs each with 0.2m,it takes 10 seconds

SYSTEM AND SURROUNDING AND UNIVERSE

𝑷𝟏 is initial pressure in Pascal(Pa) or atmosphere

5.125𝑐𝑚3 of gas are collected at 15°C and 755 mm of mercury pressure.

6. Dalton’s Law of Partial Pressures states that (Choose the correct

b) If A is a south pole, identify other poles.

ELECTROMAGNET is material that attracts metals only when

b) Which of the poles A or B is:

a) Identify magnetic pole A.

2.UNLIKE OR OPPOSITE CHARGE ATTRACT EACH OTHER

TOTAL RESISTANCE(𝑅𝑡 ) or equivalent resistance

The total or equivalent resistance is given by:

Properties of image formed by mirror:

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