University of Tripoli

Electrical and Electronic Engineering Department

EE 304
Measurements and Instrumentation

Lecture 1

‫ أريج ناصر‬.‫أ‬
Text Books

• Electronic Instrumentation and Measurements by David Bell.

• Electronic Instrumentation and Measurement techniques by William D.
Copper.
Topics to be covered
Units and dimensions; Measurements and Errors; Electromechanical Instruments
(Galvanometer, DC Ammeter, Multirange Ammeters, DC Voltmeter, Multirange Voltmeter,
Voltmeter Loading effect, Rectifier voltmeter, Rectifier Ammeter, Series ohmmeter, Shunt
type ohmmeter); Transistor Voltmeter Circuits (Emitter-Follower Voltmeter, Practical
emitter-follower voltmeter, FET-Input voltmeter, Difference Amplifier Voltmeter, Op-Amp
voltage follower voltmeter, Op-Amp amplifier voltmeter, Voltage to current converter),
Ohmmeter Function in electronic instruments (series ohmmeter, shunt ohmmeter); DC
Bridges, Inductance and Capacitance measurements (AC bridges); Oscillators (Wein
bridge oscillator using Op-Amp, Phase shift oscillator), Cathode-Ray Oscilloscopes,
transducers.
SI Mechanical Units
Fundamental Units
There are three basic units in SI system which are:

▪ Unit of length : the meter (m)

▪ Unit of mass: the kilogram (kg)
▪ Unit of time: the second (s)
Derived Units
Which are derived from the fundamental units. For example the unit of area is meters
squared (𝒎𝟐 ), which is derived from meters.
Unit of Force

The SI unit of force is newton (N)

Force = mass× acceleration

F=m×a

Where the mass in kilograms and the acceleration in 𝒎Τ𝒔𝟐

Work

Work = force × distance

W= F × d
The SI unit for work is joule.

Energy

The SI unit for energy is joule.

Power

𝐰𝐨𝐫𝐤
power =
𝐭𝐢𝐦𝐞

𝐖
power =
𝐭

The SI unit for power is watt (W).

Energy

The SI unit for energy is joule.

Scientific Notation

Very large or very small numbers can be written as a number

multiplied by 10 raised to a power.

100 = 1× 𝟏𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎
= 1 × 𝟏𝟎𝟐
10 000 = 1 × 𝟏𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎

= 1 × 𝟏𝟎𝟒
𝟏 𝟏
0.001 = = 𝟑 = 1 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟑
𝟏𝟎×𝟏𝟎 ×𝟏𝟎 𝟏𝟎

1200= 1.2 × 𝟏𝟎𝟑

Metric Prefixes

They are utilized to simplify the writing of very large and very
small quantities.

For example 1000 Ω can be expressed as 1 kilohm or 1 kΩ.

Kilo is the prefix that represents 1000 and k is the symbol for kilo.
SI Electrical Units
Electrical current (I) can be defined in terms of the quantity of electricity that
passes a given point in a conductor during a time of 1s.

The unit of electrical charge is coulomb (C).

The unit of electric current is ampere (A).

𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑜𝑚𝑏𝑠
Amperes =
𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑠
SI Electrical Units
• The unit of electromotive force (emf) and potential difference is volt (V).

The volt (V) is defined as the potential difference between two points on a
conductor carrying a constant current of ampere when the power dissipated
between these points is 1 Watt.

• The unit of resistance is ohm, and the symbol used for ohm is Ω.

• The term conductance (G) is applied to the reciprocal of resistance. The siemens
(S) is the unit of conductance.
1
conductance =
𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
The weber (Wb) is the SI unit of magnetic flux.

The tesla (T) is the SI unit of magnetic flux density.

The henry (H) is the SI unit of inductance.
The farad (F) is the SI unit of capacitance.

The farad is the capacitance of the capacitor that contains a charge of 1 coulomb
when the potential difference between its terminals is 1 volt.
SI Temperature scales
There are two SI temperature scales, the Celsius scale and the Kelvin scale.
Example: The normal human body temperature is given as
98.6 ℉ . Determine the equivalent Celsius and Kelvin scale
temperatures.

Solution:
℉−𝟑𝟐
Celsius temperature=
𝟏.𝟖

𝟗𝟖.𝟕−𝟑𝟐
=
𝟏.𝟖

= 37 ℃

℉−𝟑𝟐
Kelvin temperature= +273.15
𝟏.𝟖

= 310.15 K
Dimension

Area = length × length

Area = [L] × [L]

= [𝑳]𝟐

[𝐋𝐞𝐧𝐠𝐭𝐡] [𝐋]
[Velocity] = = = [L𝐓 −𝟏 ]
[𝐭𝐢𝐦𝐞] [𝐓]

[𝐯𝐞𝐥𝐨𝐜𝐢𝐭𝐲] [𝐋𝐓 −𝟏 ]
[acceleration] = = = [L𝐓 −𝟐 ]
[𝐭𝐢𝐦𝐞] [𝐓]

[force] = [mass] × [acceleration] = [M] [L𝐓 −𝟐 ]

= [ML𝐓 −𝟐 ]
[work]= [force] × [distance]
=[ML𝐓 −𝟐 ] × [L] =[M𝑳𝟐 𝐓 −𝟐 ]
Example

Determine the dimensions of voltage and resistance

Solution
From P=EI
𝑷 [M𝐋𝟐𝐓−𝟑 ]
Voltage, E= =
𝑰 [𝐈]

= [M 𝐋𝟐 𝐓 −𝟑 𝑰−𝟏 ]

𝑬 [M𝐋𝟐 𝐓−𝟑𝑰−𝟏 ]
Resistance, R= =
𝑰 [𝐈]

= [M 𝐋𝟐 𝐓 −𝟑 𝑰−𝟐 ]
Measurements involves using an instrument for determining a quantity or a variable.
Accuracy and Precision

Accuracy refers to the degree of closeness to the true value of the quantity
under measurement. Precision refers to the degree of agreement within a
group of measurements or instruments. Precision is the quality that
characterizes the capability of a measuring instrument of giving the same
reading when repetitively measuring the same quantity under the same
conditions. Precession implies an agreement between successive readings.
𝑋𝑛 − 𝑋ത𝑛
Precision= 1-
𝑋ത𝑛

where
𝑋𝑛 is the value of the nth measurements
𝑋ത𝑛 is the average of the set n measurements
Example
The following set of ten measurements was recorded in the laboratory. Calculate the precision of
the fourth measurements 98 V, 102 V ,101 V, 97 V, 100 V, 103 V ,98 V ,106 V ,107 V and 99 V.
𝟗𝟖𝑽 + 𝟏𝟎𝟐𝑽 + 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝑽 + 𝟗𝟕𝑽 + 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝑽 + 𝟏𝟎𝟑𝑽 + 𝟗𝟖𝑽 + 𝟏𝟎𝟔𝑽 + 𝟏𝟎𝟕𝑽 + 𝟗𝟗𝑽
𝑋ത𝑛 = = 𝟏𝟎𝟏. 𝟏𝑽
𝟏𝟎

𝟗𝟕−𝟏𝟎𝟏.𝟏
Precision= 1- = 𝟎. 𝟗𝟔
𝟏𝟎𝟏.𝟏

Significant Figures

An indication of the precision of the measurement is obtained from the number of significant figures.
Significant figures rules:
1. Any nonzero digit is significant. For example, 13.4 (three significant figures).
2. Any zeros between nonzero digits are significant. For example, 404.1 (four significant figures).
3. Leading zeroes (zeros to the left of the first nonzero digit) are not significant. For example,
0.000021 (two significant figures).
4. Zeros at the end of a number without a decimal point are not significant. For example, 4000 (1
significant figure).
5. Zeros at the end of a number with a decimal point are significant. For example, 4000.0 (5
significant figures).
Examples:

2.00 × 3.5 = 7.0

2 × 35 =70
1.69 × 2.09 = 3.5321 = 3.53

1.26+2.3 = 3.56 = 3.6

1.26+102.3 =103.56 =103.6

1.901+ 2.09 =3.991 =3.99

Example
A set of independent voltage measurements taken by four observers was recorded
as 117.02 V ,117.11 V, 117.08 V, and 117.03 V calculate
1) Average voltage
2) The range of errors
Solution :
𝟏𝟏𝟕.𝟎𝟐+𝟏𝟏𝟕.𝟏𝟏+𝟏𝟏𝟕.𝟎𝟖+𝟏𝟏𝟕.𝟎𝟑
1) 𝐄𝐚𝐯 = 𝟒
= 𝟏𝟏𝟕. 𝟎𝟔 𝐕
2) Range =𝐄𝐦𝐚𝐱 − 𝐄𝐚𝐯 = 𝟏𝟏𝟕. 𝟏𝟏 − 𝟏𝟏𝟕. 𝟎𝟔 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟓 𝑽

But 𝐄𝐚𝐯 − 𝐄𝐦𝐢𝐧 = 𝟏𝟏𝟕. 𝟎𝟔 − 𝟏𝟏𝟕. 𝟎𝟐 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟒 𝑽

Therefore the average range of error equals

𝟎. 𝟎𝟓 + 𝟎. 𝟎𝟒
= ±𝟎. 𝟎𝟒𝟓 = ±𝟎. 𝟎𝟓 𝑽
𝟐
Example:
Two resistors R1 and R2 are connected in series. Individual resistance measurements give R1=18.7
Ω and R2=3.624 Ω. Calculate the total resistance to the appropriate number of significant figures.
Solution:
give R1=18.7 Ω (three significant figures)
R2=3.624 Ω (four significant figures)
𝑅𝑇 = 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 = 22.324 Ω (five significant figures) = 22.3 Ω
Example:
In calculating voltage drop, a current of 3.18 A is recorded in a resistance of 35.68 Ω. Calculate the
voltage drop across the resistors to the appropriate number of significant figures.
Solution:
E=IR
= (35.68)(3.18)=113.4624= 113 V
The answer can be written only to a maximum of three significant figures.
Error: the deviation of a reading from the expected value of the measured variable.
Types of errors:
Gross Error:
Gross errors are essentially humans errors that are result of carelessness and are owing to
such things as incorrect reading of instruments, incorrect recording of experimental data or
incorrect use of instruments.
Systematic Error:
Systematic errors are due to problem with instruments and environmental effects.
Instrument errors may be due to the mechanical structure of the instruments or improper
calibration. Instrument error can be reduced by proper maintenance and handling of
instruments. Environmental errors are owing to conditions external to the measuring device.
Subjecting instruments to harsh environments such as high temperature, pressure and
humidity.
Random Error:
These errors are due to unknown causes and occur even when all systematic errors have been
accounted for.
Example
A voltmeter, having a sensitivity of 1,000 Ω/V, reads 100 V on its 150-V scale when connected across
an unknown resistor in series with a milliammeter.
When the milliammeter reads 5 mA, calculate
1. Apparent resistance of the unknown resistor.
2. Actual resistance of the unknown resistor.
3. Error due to the loading effect of the voltmeter.

Solution
1. The total circuit resistance equals
𝑉𝑇 100 𝑉
𝑅𝑇 = = = 20 𝑘𝛺
𝐼𝑇 5 𝑚𝐴

Neglecting the resistance of the milliammeter, the value of the unknown resistor is 𝑅𝑋 = 20kΩ
2. The voltmeter resistance equals

𝛺
𝑅𝑉 = 1000 × 150𝑉 = 150 𝑘𝛺
𝑉
Since the voltmeter is in parallel with the unknown resistance, we can write

𝑅𝑇 𝑅𝑉 20 ×150
𝑅𝑥 = = = 23.05 𝑘𝛺
𝑅𝑉 − 𝑅𝑇 130

actual − apparent 𝟐𝟑.𝟎𝟓−𝟐𝟎

% error = = × 100% = 13.23%
𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒖𝒂𝒍 𝟐𝟑.𝟎𝟓

Example
Repeat the previous example if the milliammeter reads 800 mA and the voltmeter reads 40 V on its 150-V
scale.
Solution
The total circuit resistance equals
𝑉𝑇 40 𝑉
𝑅𝑇 = = = 50 𝛺
𝐼𝑇 0.8 𝐴

The voltmeter resistance equals

𝛺
𝑅𝑉 = 1000 𝑉 × 150𝑉 = 150𝑘𝛺
Since the voltmeter is in parallel with the unknown resistance, we can write

𝑅𝑇 𝑅𝑉 50 ×150
𝑅𝑥 = = = 50.1 𝛺
𝑅𝑉 − 𝑅𝑇 149.95
actual − apparent 𝟓𝟎.𝟏−𝟓𝟎
% error = = × 100% = 0.2%
𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒖𝒂𝒍 𝟓𝟎.𝟏
Absolute error:
The difference between measurement result of the variable and the true
value of the variable is called absolute error.
Absolute error= True value – measured value
e = 𝑋𝑡 − 𝑋𝑚
Relative error:
The relative error is defined as the quotient between the absolute error and
the true value for the measured quantity.
𝑎𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 𝑋𝑡 −𝑋𝑚
Relative error = =
𝑡𝑟𝑢𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑋𝑡
𝑋𝑡 −𝑋𝑚
Percent error= × 100%
𝑋𝑡

The relative accuracy is given by

𝑋𝑡 − 𝑋𝑚
𝐴=1−
𝑋𝑡
Accuracy expressed as percent accuracy, a is
a= 100% - Percent error = 𝐴 × 100
Example:
the expected value of the voltage across a resistor is 50 V , however measurement yields
a value of 49 V. Calculate the following
1) The absolute error
2) The percent of error
3) The relative accuracy
4) The percent of accuracy
Solution:
1) e =𝑋𝑡 − 𝑋𝑚 = 50 − 49 = 1𝑉

𝑋𝑡 −𝑋𝑚 50−49
2) Percent error = × 100 = × 100% = 2%
𝑋𝑡 50
 𝟓𝟎𝑽−𝟒𝟗𝑽
3) 𝑨 = 𝟏 − = 𝟎. 𝟗𝟖
𝟓𝟎𝑽
4) a=100% - Percent error=100% -2%=98%
or a =A × 𝟏𝟎𝟎 = 𝟎. 𝟗𝟖 × 𝟏𝟎𝟎 = 𝟗𝟖%
Measurement Error Combinations
Sum of quantities
When a quantity is determined as the sum of two measurements, the total error is the
sum of the absolute errors in each measurement. As illustrated in Figure

E = (𝑽𝟏 ± ∆𝑽𝟏 )+(𝑽𝟐 ± ∆𝑽𝟐 )

E= (𝑽𝟏 + 𝑽𝟐 ) ±(∆𝑽𝟏 + ∆𝑽𝟐 )

Example
Calculate the maximum percentage error in the sum of two voltage measurements
when 𝑽𝟏 = 100V ±1% and 𝑽𝟐 = 80V ±5% .

Solution

𝑽𝟏 = 100V ±1%
= 100V ± 1V
𝑽𝟐 = 80V ±𝟓%
= 80V ± 4V
E= 𝑽𝟏 + 𝑽𝟐
= (100V ± 1V) + (80V ± 4V)
= 180 V ± (1V+ 4V)
= 180 V ± 5V
= 180 V ± 2.8%.
Note that the percentage error in the final quantity cannot be calculated directly from the percentage
errors in the two measured quantities.
Where two or more measured quantities are summed to determine a final quantity, the absolute values
of errors must be summed to find the total possible error.

Difference of quantities
E = 𝑽𝟏 - 𝑽𝟐 = (𝑽𝟏 ± ∆𝑽𝟏 ) - (𝑽𝟐 ± ∆𝑽𝟐 )
= (𝑽𝟏 - 𝑽𝟐 ) ±(∆𝑽𝟏 + ∆𝑽𝟐 )

Example
Calculate the maximum percentage error in the difference of two measured voltages when 𝑽𝟏 = 100V
±1% and 𝑽𝟐 = 80V ±5% .

Solution

𝑽𝟏 = 100V ± 1V
𝑽𝟐 = 80V ± 4V

E= (100V ± 1V) - (80V ± 4V)

= 20 V ± 5V
= 20 V ± 25%
Product of quantities
P=EI

=(𝑬 ± ∆𝑬) (𝑰 ± ∆𝑰)

% error in P = (% error in I) + (% error in E)

Thus, when a voltage is measured with an accuracy of ±1% , and a current is measured
with an accuracy of ±2%, the calculated power has an accuracy of ±3%.
Quotient of quantities

% 𝒆𝒓𝒓𝒐𝒓 𝒊𝒏 𝑬/𝑰 = (% 𝒆𝒓𝒓𝒐𝒓 𝒊𝒏 𝑬)+(% 𝒆𝒓𝒓𝒐𝒓 𝒊𝒏 𝑰)

Quantity raised to a power

% 𝒆𝒓𝒓𝒐𝒓 in 𝑨𝑩 = B (% 𝒆𝒓𝒓𝒐𝒓 𝒊𝒏 𝑨)

For a current I with an accuracy of ±3%, the error in I 2 is 2(±3%) = ±6%

Example:
An 820 Ω resistance with an accuracy of ±𝟏𝟎% carries a current of
10 mA. The current was measured by an analog ammeter on a 25
mA range with an accuracy of ±𝟐% of full scale. Calculate the
power dissipated in the resistor, and determine the accuracy of the
result.

Solution:
P=𝑰𝟐 R
= (𝟏𝟎 𝒎𝑨)𝟐 × 𝟖𝟐𝟎 Ω
= 82 mW
Error in R = ±𝟏𝟎%
Error in I = ±𝟐% of 25 mA
= ± 0.5 mA

± 0.5 mA
= × 𝟏𝟎𝟎 %
𝟏𝟎 𝒎𝑨
= ± 5%
% error in 𝑰𝟐 = 2(±𝟓% )
= ±𝟏𝟎%

% error in P = (% error in 𝑰𝟐 )+((% error in 𝑹)

= ±(𝟏𝟎%+ 𝟏𝟎%)
= ±𝟐𝟎%