Mechanical

Measurements
Prof. Dr. Eng. Abdelhay M. Abdelhay
Mechanical Engineering Department,
Faculty of engineering, Helwan University

1
 Chapter : 6

Strain
Measurements
 Why Strain
Measurements ?
 To Define Load ;
or acting Load
( ,
Weight Tension,
Compression, Bending, Torsion
, … and so on )
 So What is the
relationship Between
acting Load
and Strain ?
Stress Formula
and
Hook’s Law
Stress Formula
and
Hook’s Law
Thus, the main Objective from measuring STRAIN
Is
To Defining or measuring
the Load
 But, HOW
Strain IS measured,?
 First what is
Strain :
Is the relative Change in Linear
Dimensions

( i.e. Length, width, thickness )

Watch
Strain ANIMAION
clips
ONE NEEDs
A Measuring
System !
Or
Building one
Measuring System
Elements
Thus, what we
NEED ?
Thus, ONE
NEEDs :
1) A sensor,
2) A signal Conditioning Element
 A Sensor;

either or/and

Primary / Secondary ??
A Primary Sensor
Such as … ?
 And
A Secondary Sensor
Such as … ?
•An Elastic member
(Bar, Rod, Membrane, …)
can Be Used
as Primary Sensor
•To Feel directly
the strain due to load or
to Get the Feeling
 a) Elastic Member
Under the action of External Load or Force
( +P or -P),
the member start to suffer Internal stress
which is exhibited OUTSIDE as STRAIN
•Once, the Elastic
element STRAINED
ONE needs to measure
such feeling or Stain …
HOW ?
• Such a feeling or Strain can be felt
by
A Secondary Sensor element, such
as:
Resistance, Inductance, capacitor, …

Say, By USING
An Electric Resistance
which is considered as:
A Secondary Sensor
Here Is How …
 Eclectic Resistance
Is a wire of Length L and Size d ,Having a
resistance of:

WHEN stretched or Compressed

the action of External Load or Force( +P or -P),
Makes the Resistance Changes with:

± ∆𝑹
 ± ∆𝑹
Such a change in the resistance of:

Where ρ is the electric resistivity

(Constantan (Advance Copper alloy = 49 x 10-8 Ω .m )
By using Taylor’s Theorem :

Dividing through by R :
But, under the action of Load F, Longitudinal(εl)
and Lateral STRAINS (εr ) in resistance wire are
related by Poisson’s Ratio (ν)

And the relative change in Resistance CS

Is

Substitute back,
it can be re-written as:

Where: is the relative resistivity

Experimentally, it is found that the following
relationship is true:

Where G is called “ Gage Factor”

If we neglect the relative change in resistivity

=0) The Gage Factor G > 1.66

 The Gage factor (G)

It depends on the material of the Strain gage and is

supplied by the Manufacturers.

Is considered the Piezo-resistivity of the stain gage,

and for most of Metallic Strain gages is G is around 2

But, for very small strain

Semi-conductors of silicon and germanium crystals can
be used, where G can reach
G=- 110 to 120
This idea led to the use of electric resistance in
measuring STRAIN, and the element is called
“ Strain Gage”

Which has the following Construction (capsulated):

Such strain gages has many forms an
constructions ( wire –Type & Foil-type)
[ Single or Rosetta] – [ wire or photo etched]
strain Gage Layout
(single or Rosetta )
Thus, by BONDING an
Electric Resistance
( or strain Gage) to the
elastic member it feels
in the same way the
deformation or strain
 Example
• Suppose a test specimen undergoes a
strain of 20 με ( or 20 x 10-6 mm/mm). If the strain gage is
having a resistance of 120 Ω, and a GF of G= 2 .
• What would be the change in resistance ?
• Since

• Thus, The change in electrical resistance = 0.0024 Ω.

•
Which is only 0.002 %. For its initial value gage.
• So, new R is : R’ =120.0024 Ω ?!
• Can One measure The change in
electrical resistance = 0.0024 Ω.
• NO way …
• All measuring Instruments can read this
value of 120.0024 Ω as 120.00 Ω

• So, we need a Signal Conditioning Element;

• To convert ∆ R into another more Suitable
Form ,
• SAY Voltage ! How ?
 Chapter : 7

Signal Conditioning Elements

Sometimes, the output from the sensing
element is not appropriate for
processing ?!

For Example:
when using Strain Gages, in measuring
loads (Force, torque or Bending Moment),
the resultant change in its Resistance is
very very small to be detected (∆ R =
0.002% ) !
Thus, how one can solve this Problem ?
The solution is FOUND in using

“ Wheatstone Bridge”

Which can transform

the change in resistance ∆ R
Into
A Change in Voltage ∆ E
Which can be amplified, and detected
 Wheatstone Bridge
(as Signal conditioning Element)
• It detects very small change in resistance
∆ R
• As any one knows, it consists of FOUR-
arms of resistances, and a Constant power
(Ei )Supply, and a measuring instrument of
voltage to measure the change in output
voltage (Eo) !
 We ALL know
• The bridge is Balanced
Eo ---> zero
• If

• We can reach that condition by using

• a Potentiometer
 Now, if a change is taking place in
the resistance,
• Then The bridge becomes Un-Balanced
Eo > Zero
• Or
∆Eo ≠ Zero
 Strain gage Bridge Circuit
• If all strain gages are Strained or ACTIVE
( Є1, Є1, Є3,, and Є4 ),then the overall
change in output voltage is given By:
 Strain gage Bridge Circuit (cont.)
• This Strain gage- Wheatstone bridge
circuit, Makes algabric Addition, where
opposite SG with the same sign, and
adjacent arms with opposite signs.
 1) General Notes

What would happen if :

Є1 = Є 1 = Є 3 = Є 4
 2) General Notes

How one can Increase the output

voltage E0 ?
 3) General Notes

Current flow in Strain Gages Can

cause can Resistance Change

( True or False ) ?
 General Notes

If it is True, How one can

Compensate
for Temp Changes ?
 General Notes

One can use Dummy Strain Gages

 4) General Notes

Be careful not to BURN strain

gages. Maximum allowed current
is 20 mA.
 5) General Notes

Not always one can use full bridge, due

to high cost of strain gages and their
mounting preparation.
But, One can us :

a) Quarter – bridge,
b) Half -bridge, and
c) A Full -Bridge.
 Strain Indicators
Is used to directly read the Strain; which has a
Built – in All the ELEMENTS of a measuring
System.
It can read Strain from a single Sensor- or is
Single -Chanel,
Or
It can be Multi- channel Strain Indicator
 Strain Indicators
All elements in ONE piece
 Problems
1. A rectangular bar is instrumented with strain gages and subjected to a state of
uniaxial tension. The bar has a cross-sectional area of 24 mm, and the bar is 28

mm long. The two strain gages are mounted such that one senses the axial

strain, while the other senses the lateral strain. For an axial load of 18 KN, the

axial strain is measured as 1500 µ Є , and the lateral gauge indicates a strain of

465 µ Є . Determine the modulus of elasticity and Poisson’s ratio for this

material.

2. A round member having a cross-sectional area of 300 mm2 experiences an axial

load of 10 kN. Two strain gauges are mounted on the member, one measuring an
 Problems ( Cont.)
3. Two strain gauges are mounted so that they sense axial strain on a steel member

in uniaxial tension. The 120 Ὠ gages form two legs of a Wheatstone bridge, and

are mounted on opposite arms. For a bridge excitation voltage of 4 V and a

bridge output voltage of 120 mV under load, estimate the strain in the member.

What is the resistance change experienced by each gauge?

The gauge factor for each of the strain gauges is 2 and E for this steel is 210
m

G Pa.